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 LIBRARY 
 
 UN;V:IR; 'TY OF 
 CAvlFCtMIA 
 
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 </'p 3. 
 
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 HISTORY OF GERMANY, 
 
 FROM ITS INVASION BY MARIUS 
 TO THE YEAR 1850. 
 
 ON THE PLAN OP 
 
 MRS. MARKHAM'S HISTORIES. 
 
 FOR THE USE OF YOUNG PERSONS. 
 
 NEW EDITION. 
 
 LONDON: 
 JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. 
 
 1862. 
 
Uniform with ' Markiiam's History of Germany.' 
 
 IJl STORY OF ENGLAND, from tlie First Invasion by 
 
 the Romans to the Fourteenth Year of Queen Victoria's Reign. 
 
 By Mrs. Markham. 136th Thousand, With "Woodcuts. 12mo. 6s. 
 
 TTISTOEY OF FRANCE, from the Conquest of Gaul by 
 Julius Ca3sar to the Reign of Louis-PiiiLirPE. By Mrs. 
 Markiiam. 50th Thousand. With Woodcuts. 12mo. 7s. 6d. 
 
 EDUC- 
 
 PSYCH. 
 LIBRAE 
 
 GI^^ 
 

 ADVERTISEMENT. 
 
 In the present edition of ' Mrs. Markham's History of 
 Germany/ considerable alterations have been made in the 
 arrangement of the Work : some parts of it have been 
 re-written, and the whole revised and corrected. The 
 accounts of Luther and the Reformation, of the heroes of 
 the Thirty Years' "War, and of the struggles of Germany 
 with the French Republic and Empire, have in particular 
 been considerably enlarged ; whilst, at the same time, by 
 the abridgment or omission of several unimportant articles, 
 cai'e has been taken not to add inconveniently to the bulk 
 of the Work. The narrative, which in the former edition 
 terminated with the Peace of Paris in 1815, has now been 
 continued to the year 1850 ; thus including a period which, 
 though not marked by events so extraordinary as those 
 that characterized the preceding five-and-thirty years, is 
 nevertheless one of great importance as regards the internal 
 condition of Germany. 
 
 T. H. D 
 
 Alurch ^Ist, 1S53. 
 
 044 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAP. P^CE 
 
 I. Invasion of Gennany by Marius— Julius Cirsar, Tiberius, and 
 
 Drusus— Armiuius delivers Germany from the Romans . 1 
 
 II. State of Germany at the Close of the Fourth Century— In- 
 vasion of the Huns— Rome taken by Alaric— The Vandals— 
 Attila— Odoacer— Fall of the Roman Empire in the West . 
 
 III. Odoacer deprived of the Roman Crown by Theodoric — Con- 
 
 quests and Death of Theodoric— Chlodwig or Clovis, first 
 King of the Franks— Destruction of the Gothic Empire in 
 Italy— Belisarius — Vitigis — Totila— Narses— Kingdom of 
 the Lombards established in Italy 21 
 
 IV. Mayors of the Palace— Pepin of Landon— Pepin of Heristal— 
 
 Charles Martel— Pepin the Short elected King of France . 30 
 
 V. Charlemagne— The First Germanic-Roman Emperor . .37 
 
 VI. Charlemagne 43 
 
 VII. Lewis the Pious— Treaty of Verdun— Partition of the Empire 55 
 
 VIII. Lewis the German— Charles the Fat — Arnulph — Lewis the 
 Child— Conrad I. . 
 
 , surnamed the Prodigy 
 
 IX. Henry I., surnamed the Fowler . 
 
 X. Otho I 
 
 XI. Otho II., surnamed the Red— Otho III., 
 — Henry II., surnamed the Saint 
 
 XII. Conrad II.— Henry III., surnamed the Black 
 
 XIII. Henry IV 
 
 XIV. Henry IV 
 
 XV. Henry V.— Lothario— Conrad III. (of Hohcnstaufen) 
 
 XVI. Fredi-rick I., surnamed Barba-rossa 
 
 58 
 62 
 66 
 
 75 
 80 
 84 
 98 
 111 
 117 
 
vi COInTEXTS. 
 
 CHAP. TAGE 
 
 XVII. Frederick I.— The Third Crusade . . . .124 
 
 XVIII. Henry VI . 128 
 
 XIX. Philip of Hohenstaufen— Otho IV 133 
 
 XX. Frederick II .138 
 
 XXI. Frederick II. . . 142 
 
 XXII. Frederick II 140 
 
 XXIII. Conrad IV.— William of Holland— Richard of Corn'vall 
 
 and Alfonso of Castille — The Interregnum . .150 
 
 XXIV. Rudolph of Habsbnrg ICG 
 
 XXV. Adolphus of Nassau— Albert of Austria . . .171 
 
 XXVI. Henry VII., of Luxembourg 179 
 
 XXVII. Lewis of Bavaria and Frederick of Austria, Joint Em- 
 perors 183 
 
 XXVIII. Charles IV 188 
 
 XXIX. V/enceslaus— Rupert— Jodocus—Sigisraund . . . 19G 
 
 XXX. Sigismund— The Martyrdom of John Huss and Jerome of 
 
 Prague 201 
 
 XXXI. Sigismund— The Hussite War 209 
 
 XXXII. Albert IL— Frederick III 216 
 
 XXXIII. Maximilian I .223 
 
 XXXIV. The Reformation— Condition of the Church at the begin- 
 
 ning of the Sixteenth Century— Early Life of ]\Iartin 
 
 Luther 22S 
 
 XXXV. Immediate Causes of the Reformation . . . .237 
 XXXVI. Charles V.— Diet of Worms . . - . .245 
 
 XXXVII. Progress of the Reformation 25-i 
 
 XXXVin. The Diet of Augsburg 267 
 
 XXXIX. League of Schmalkalden — Council of Trent . .272 
 
 XL. Death and Funeral of Martin Luther . . . .275 
 
 XLI. Schmalkaldian War— Battle of Miihlberg— The Protestant 
 
 party broken np . . . . . . .283 
 
 XLII. Thelnterim— Peace of Augsburg —Abdication of Charles V. 28^ 
 
 XLIIL Ferdinand 1 295 
 
 XLIV. ^laximiliau II.— Rudolph II 298 
 
 XLV. Matthias.— Ferdinand II 302 
 
 XL VI. Walleustein, Commander in Chief of the Imperial Forces 310 
 XLVIl. Gustavus Adolphus— Battle of Leipsic . . . .315 
 
CONTENTS. vii 
 
 CH/Vr. I'AGE 
 
 XLVIII. Death of Tilly— Battle of Lutzcii— Death of Gustavus 
 
 Adolphus ......... 325 
 
 XLIX. Death of Wallonsteiu 333 
 
 L. Death of Ferdiuand II. and of Bernard of Saxe Weimar — 
 
 End of the Thirty Years' War 338 
 
 LI. Ferdinand III.— Leopold I. — Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle — 
 
 Peace of Nimeguen 347 
 
 LII. The Keunion Chambers — Death of the Great Elector — 
 
 Peace of Ryswick 351 
 
 LIII. War of the Spanish Succession— Joseph I.— Charles VI. — 
 
 Peace of Utrecht 357 
 
 LIV. Rise of the Kingdom of Prussia — Frederick I. — Frederick 
 
 William 1 363 
 
 LV. The Pragmatic Sanction— Death of Charles VI. . . 370 
 
 LVI. Charles VII.— Francis I.— Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle . . 376 
 
 LVII. The Seven Years' War — Peace of Paris and Hubertsburg . 379 
 
 LVIII. Joseph II.— Leopold II. 396 
 
 LIX. Leopold II.— Francis II.— Frederick William II. . . 402 
 
 LX. Prussia declares War against France — Peace of Tilsit . 415 
 
 LXI. War with France. — Peace of Vienna .... 421 
 
 LXII. Prussia from 1806 to 1812— Reforms— Revival of the Pa- 
 triotic Spirit 428 
 
 LXIII. Liberation of Germany 432 
 
 LXIV. Invasion of France by the Allies— Abdication of Napoleon — 
 
 Battle of Waterloo — Second Peace of Paris . . . 448 
 
 LXV. Germany from the Peace to the Year 1850 » . . 460 
 
HISTORY OF GERMANY. 
 
 CHAPTEK I. 
 
 INVASION OF GERMANY BY MARIUS — JULIUS C^SAR, TIBERIUS, AND 
 DRUSUS — ARMINIUS DELIVERS GERMANY FROM THE ROMANS. 
 
 From B.C. 113 to A.D. 21. 
 
 Statue of Drusus, erected by his Army on the Rhine.— Destroyed by the French, 16S8. 
 
 The limits of ancient Germany were probably not very different 
 from tbose of the country which still bears that name. On the 
 west it was bounded by the Rhine ; but a few tribes had from 
 time to time crossed over to the left bank of the river, and 
 founded colonies, which at a very early period fell into the hands 
 of the Romans. On the south the Alps separated it from Italy, 
 and on the north it was bounded by the Baltic and Northern 
 Seas. The eastern limits were less distinctly defined, varying as 
 Gy. b 
 
2 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. I. 
 
 the Germanic tribes pushed their conquests to the Very shores of 
 the Black Sea, or were driven back to the Vistula. 
 
 The Roman writers who describe Germany as it was two 
 thousand years ago, speak with horror of its cold and inhospitable 
 climate, its heaths and swamps ; and above all of a wild tract of 
 woodland, called the Hercynian Forest, which extended, as they 
 were told, more than sixty days' journey in length, and nine in 
 breadth. The inhabitants of this desolate region were men of 
 gigantic stature, with fair complexions, long yellow hair, and 
 large well-opened blue eyes. The clothing of both sexes was 
 simple ; being nothing more than a v/oollen tunic without sleeves, 
 which covered only the body, leaving the arms, legs, and thighs 
 entirely unprotected. In some parts of the country the men 
 wore skins of wild beasts, arranged in such a manner that the fur 
 of the animal's head formed a hood, out of which a pair of blue 
 eyes might be seen glaring fiercely beneath the grinning tusks of 
 a boar, or the horns of a wild bull. 
 
 The earliest accurate accounts which we have of the Germans 
 as a nation begin with the year 113 before Christ. In that year 
 there appeared on the north-eastern frontier of Italy a warlike 
 people named Cimbri, who probably came from the countries 
 which are now Sleswick and Jutland. They do not seem at first 
 to have had any design on the capital itself, but directed their 
 attacks against Noricum, a province of Rome. Papirius Carbo, 
 the consul, having marched into that country, addressed an angry 
 remonstrance to the invaders, who endeavoured to pacify him by 
 declaring (what was probably the truth) that until that moment 
 they had never heard of any alliance between the people of 
 Noricum and the Romans. As this explanation was graciously 
 received, the Cimbri were astonished at finding their position 
 attacked the next day by the whole Roman force: but they 
 defended themselves with their accustomed bravery, and after an 
 obstinate engagement cut the army of Carbo to pieces. 
 
 The Cimbri, joined by the Teutones, instead of invading Italy, 
 as was feared, marched into Helvetia, where their force was still 
 further augmented by the Ambrones, Tigurini, and other tribes. 
 Their progress was marked by a succession of the most decisive 
 victories. In the year B.C. 109, they defeated the consul M. 
 Junius Silanus, in Transalpine Gaul. Two years afterwards 
 they cut to pieces near the lake of Geneva the army of Marius* 
 colleague, Cassius, who was himself slain in the engagement. 
 
B.C. 9. INVASION OF GERMANY BY THE ROMANS. 3 
 
 But their most remarkable victory was won in n.c. 105, when 
 they totally destroyed in Gallia Narbonensis two consular armies 
 consisting- of eig-hty thousand men. 
 
 The Romans now found that decisive measures were necessary, 
 and sent Marius into Gaul with a numerous army. The Cimbri 
 had already marched southwards with the intention of stormijig 
 Rome, whilst their allies, the Teutones, remained in Gaul to 
 meet Marius. In the year 102 before Christ a bloody engage- 
 ment was fought at Aix in Provence, in which the Romans were 
 completely victorious, slaying, it is said, a hundred thousand of 
 their enemies, and making ninety thousand prisoners. Mean- 
 while the Cimbri had crossed the Alps, and were preparmg to 
 attack a Roman position, when Marius appeared at the head of a 
 considerable- force, and called on the invaders to surrender ; but 
 the Cimbri, ignorant as yet of the disaster which had befallen 
 their allies, on whose co-operation they had confidently reckoned, 
 not only treated the summons with contempt, but demanded, as 
 the only condition on wliich they would grant peace to the 
 Romans, that lands should be given to themselves and their 
 brethren the Teutones. Marius replied that "with regard to 
 their brethren, they had already a place which they were not 
 likely soon to quit," exhibiting at the same time Teutobach and 
 his fellow-captives loaded with chains in front of the Roman line. 
 Rage now filled the hearts of the Cimbri, who attacked Marius 
 so fiercely that the issue v>^as long doubtful : but Roman discipline 
 at last prevailed, and the army of the barbarians, after a brave 
 struggle, was utterly routed. 
 
 After this, we hear little of the Germans until the year So 
 before Christ, when Julius Caesar, who had already been many 
 years in Gaul, where he had vanquished a renowned German 
 chieftain named Ariovistus (a Roman corruption, perhaps, of 
 Heer, a host, and Fiirst, a prince), crossed the Rhine, probably 
 near Cologne, by a bridge of boats, and continued eighteen days 
 in Germany, ravaging the country with fire and sword : but 
 being recalled to oppose Pompey, his conquests were necessarily 
 abandoned, and the Germans remained unmolested until the reign 
 of Augustus, when their country was again invaded by Drusus 
 and Tiberius. In the year 9 before Christ, Drusus, after a suc- 
 cession of victories, which had placed the greater part of northern 
 Germany at his disposal, was preparing to cross the Elbe, when 
 a woman of gigantic stature and stern aspect suddenly appeared 
 
 B 2 
 
4 HISTORY OF GERMANY, CilAP. I. 
 
 in front of the troops, and addressed him in these words : " Thou, 
 insatiable robber ! Whither wouldst thou go ? Depart ! The end 
 of thy misdeeds and of thy life is at hand." Dismayed at this 
 apparition, Drusus immediately retreated, and within thirty days 
 died in consequence of a fall from his horse. But Germany, 
 although delivered from one invader, still trembled before the 
 victorious arms of Tiberius ; and province after province fell, 
 until the Romans, with comparatively little expenditure of blood 
 or treasure, had made themselves masters of all the territory 
 lying between the Rhine and the Elbe. 
 
 The northern district had been committed to the government ot 
 QuintiliusVarus, a leader of considerable reputation and experience, 
 who entered Germany with an immense army, and proceeded to 
 treat all the countries iDetween the Rhine and the Elbe as conquered 
 })rovinces, making military roads, repairing the castles built by 
 Drusus, and establishing courts, in which justice was administered 
 by judges brought from Rome. But a fearful reverse was at hand. 
 
 There happened to be at that time among the Cherusci a 
 warrior named Arminius, or Hermann, who had served, like many 
 of his countrymen, in the armies of Rome, where he had acquired 
 the art of war, and learnt to detest the haughty conquerors of 
 his native land. Of noble birth, sagacious beyond the wont of 
 his countrymen, and possessing that rude and fiery eloquence 
 which most readily finds its way to the hearts of barbarians, 
 Arminius soon gained unbounded influence over the youth of 
 G ermany, whom he assembled at midnight in the deep recesses of 
 their forests, and caused to swear by the gods, with many strange 
 and mystic ceremonies, that they would not rest until they had 
 utterly destroyed the Roman army of occupation. 
 
 An opportunity soon presented itself. In the year of our Lord 
 9, Varus received intelligence that some distant tribes were in 
 a state of revolt, and immediately announced his intention of 
 marching against the rebels with three legions. All the German 
 princes promised to follow him, with the exception of a faithful 
 ally named Segestes, who warned the Romans of treachery, and 
 proposed that both himself and Arminius should be placed under 
 arrest, until the truth or falsehood of his intelligenoe could be 
 ascertained : but Varus, perhaps ilistrusting the good faith of his 
 informant, refused to delay the march for a single hour, or even 
 to enforce the watchful discipline usually observed in the Roman 
 armies during their progress through a suspected country. As 
 
A.D. 14. DESTUUCTIOX OF THE LEGIONS UNDER VARUS. 5 
 
 he advanced, he found the roads blockaded with trunks of trees, 
 whilst javelins were hurled at him by invisible enemies from the 
 midst of the thick covert : a heavy autumnal rain increased his 
 embarrassment, the roads becaoie slippery, and the soldiers, ac- 
 customed to the sunny climate of Italy, were benumbed with 
 cold. To relieve them, Varus ordered all the superfluous baggage 
 to be burnt, and after three days of suffering the army reached 
 an open space in the Teutoburgian forest. Here the great 
 struggle began. The rain, which fell in torrents, the entangled 
 forest, and the swampy ground, all favoured the hardy and light- 
 armed Germans. The Komans, it is true, fought with their usual 
 courage, but they were soon separated, their eagle taken, and 
 infantry as well as cavalry cut to pieces. Varus, seeing the day 
 irretrievably lost, threw himself on his own sword. Of the few 
 prisoners, some were offered up as sacrifices to the gods of 
 Germany, and the others sold into slavery. The spot on which 
 this engagement took place is not precisely known ; but it cannot 
 be ver}'^ far distant from Detmold on the Lippe. 
 
 The panic, which the intelligence of this disaster occasioned at 
 Rome, extended to all ranks. Augustus, now an aged man, 
 wandered for many days through the apartments of his palace, 
 dashing his head against the walls, and calling wildly on Varus 
 to give him back his legions ; whilst the people, thoroughly dis- 
 heartened, refused to serve any more against those terrible bar- 
 barians : nor was it until many of them were punished with death 
 for their disobedience that another army was raised, and placed 
 under the command of Tiberius, the Emperor's step-son. About 
 the same time (a.d. 14) Germanicus, the son of Drusus, crossed 
 the Rhine with a Roman army, and marched at once to the spot 
 where the unfortunate Varus had fallen. The bones of the dead, 
 which still lay whitening on the ground, were collected by order 
 of the general, and burnt on a funeral pile, while Germanicus, 
 in a fierce harangue, called on his men to avenge the dishonour 
 which those accursed barbarians had inflicted on the Roman name. 
 He then charged the German centre, which gave way ; but the 
 two wings came to the assistance of their comrades, and at the 
 same moment some troops, starting from an ambuscade, attacked 
 the enemy in flank, so fiercely, that the whole army of Germanicus 
 would have been destroyed, had not some legions been in reserve 
 to cover his retreat, which was the less interrupted, as the 
 Germans were now engaged in pillaging the Roman camp. 
 
6 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. I. 
 
 The follo^ving year Germanicus twice attacked and vanquished 
 the Germans, somewhere in the neighbourhood of Minden ; but 
 the courageous barbarians rallied, and compelled the Romans to 
 take refuge on board their ships, most of which were soon after- 
 wards driven ashore in a heavy gale of wind. Tiberius (who 
 had succeeded Augustus on the Imperial throne) now wrote to 
 Germanicus, commanding his immediate return. " There had 
 been enough," he said, " of victories and conquests. The 
 Germans might now be safely left to their own feuds, which in 
 the end would destroy them more effectually than Roman swords." 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER I. 
 Manners and Customs of the Ancient Germans. — The ancient 
 Germans, when not engaged in war or the chase, generally 
 stretched themselves at full-length on their bear-skins, and slept 
 or caroused away the hours until more stirring times or more 
 favourable weather called them again into the field. At the 
 banquet, which always followed their return from battle or 
 hunting, they were wont to pledge each other in mighty draughts 
 of beer and mead (a liquor made from fermented honey) until 
 the feast became a scene of riot and often of bloodshed. On 
 these occasions the most important public affairs were discussed : 
 but it was generally deemed prudent to refer the final decision 
 of any question to a second assembly, of which the members 
 were tolerably sober. Like other barbarians, they were imnio- 
 aerately addicted to gaming ; and sometimes, after staking arms, 
 house, wife, children, and slaves, would play away their own 
 freedom, and reduce themselves voluntarily to the condition of 
 serfs. But amidst all this gross debauchery they were remarkable 
 for the respect which they showed towards their women ; a trait 
 which has descended into modern manners, and which being 
 heightened by the chivalry of the middle ages, has produced that 
 contrast which appears in the condition of females in the present 
 times when compared with their state in Greek and Roman 
 antiquity. The Germans believed women to be endowed with 
 more sanctity and wisdom than falls to the share of men. They 
 even thought them capable of foreseeing the future, and invariably 
 consulted them before engaging in any enterprise of importance. 
 The women accompanied their sons and husbands to the field : 
 where, by their reproaches and exhortations, they often restored 
 
Sup. Chap. I. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 7 
 
 tlie fortune of a battle, or, wnen it was irretrievably lost, escaped 
 from the insults of the victor by a voluntary death. TJie old 
 Germans had no towns, properly so called ; but wherever a 
 freeman found a desirable plot of ground, there he erected a hut, 
 in which he dwelt with his wife, children, and household servants. 
 The rest of his serfs lived in smaller huts, cultivating little patches 
 of ground, which they held under the freeman, subject to the 
 condition of giving him a certain portion of the produce, and of 
 defending him against his enemies. The serfs were, for the 
 most part, captives taken in war, who were generally treated 
 with a paternal kindness, which rendered their slavery little more 
 than a name. Every freeman was absolute lord within his 
 territory, and judged, punished, and rewarded according to his 
 own discretion. Several of these little settlements formed a 
 mark or hamlet, which generally had a portion of common field 
 attached to it, where the heads of families assembled once a 
 fortnight, on the new and full moons, to settle disputes, under 
 the presidence of a graf or count, who had t]ie title of mark- 
 graf {margrave). A number of marks composed a larger circle 
 called a zent, the president of which was called zent-graf. 
 Several zents formed a gau or district, which was governed by a 
 gau-graf, who was afterwards called a land-graf (landgrave). 
 The inhabitants of several gaus composed a people, governed by 
 a kuning or king, who derived his title from the old German 
 word ka)d, family, as being the head of the great national 
 household. The king, in those days, possessed none of the 
 authority which belongs to the office in modern times, nor any 
 revenues, except those w/ ich he derived, like any other pro- 
 prietor, from his own possessions. His business was to assemble 
 the heads of families, and propose to them such measures as 
 he considered necessary for the defence or improvement of the 
 country. If his proposition was acceptable, the people signified 
 their approbation by clashing their arms ; if, on the contrary 
 they were inclined to reject it, a general murmur was raised, 
 bv which they indicated their dissent The people frequently 
 brought the king presents of cattle or other property as marks 
 of their respect. He was distinguished by a numerous suite 
 of freemen as well as of slaves, had longer and more flowing 
 hair than his subjects, and wore on his head a circlet of gold, 
 which in later times became a crown. Everj'^ freeman was, of 
 course, a warrior, and was expected always to have his arms in 
 
8 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. i. 
 
 good condition. Most of them served on foot ; but they had also 
 cavalry, mounted on small but swift and hardy horses. Their 
 weapons were the spear and the long two-handed sword ; and 
 for defence they carried on the left arm a buckler of painted 
 wood or osier, four or five feet long, and two in breadth. 
 Helmets and coats of mail were unknown among them until they 
 conquered the Romans, and clothed themselves in their spoils. 
 In some tribes every horseman had a foot soldier attached to him, 
 who, holding by the mane, kept pace with the horse, and if the 
 rider fell, instantly vaulted into his seat. When an expedition 
 was decided on, the king, if competent, took the command of the 
 whole army ; otherwise a leader was chosen from the chief men 
 (furisten, now modernized into Fiirsten, priiices), who was called 
 Herotoga, dux or leader (whence the title herzog, duke). When 
 they found themselves in presence of the enemy, it was usual 
 to raise a sort of wild chant, which they accompanied with the 
 music of rude trumpets and drums, and the clashing of spears and 
 shields ; and from the strength or weakness of this sound, they 
 augured the success or failure of the attack. The whole force 
 generally charged in the form of a wedge, with such weight and 
 such obstinate courage, that even the disciplined legionaries of 
 Rome were often obliged to give way. 
 
 Religion. — Concerning the religion of the ancient Germans, 
 little IS known. Their only temples were the dark recesses of 
 the woods. Julius Caesar tells us that they worshipped the sun, 
 the moon, and fire, and had no distinct order of priesthood like 
 their neighbours the Gauls. Other writers speak of a hero or 
 demi-god named Thuisco, who was worshipped as the founder of 
 the German race. From him they were known among themselves 
 by the general appellation of Teutsche or Deutsche, which is still 
 retained in the German language ; but by the Romans they were 
 either designated according to their tribes, or comprehended 
 under the general name of Germani, the Gaulish pronunciation 
 probably of a German word signifying warriors. We read also 
 of a goddess named Hertha, or the earth, who dwelt in an island 
 of the ocean (probably Riigen, in the Baltic), in a sacred grove 
 on the borders of a lake. At certain seasons this goddess ap- 
 peared for the purpose of converting mankind, and was conducted 
 in a magnificent chariot drawn by white heifers to the shores of 
 the lake, wliere her chariot and her own person were washed by 
 the attendant priests, assisted by slaves, who were put to death 
 
Chap. If. 
 
 RELIGIOJT. 
 
 9 
 
 as soon as the ceremony was concluded. Their other gods were 
 Woden, the all-good ; Thor, the god of war ; and Fria, the 
 goddess of marriage. These three deities gave names to the days 
 of the week, — Wednesday, Thiu-sday, and Friday. It was also 
 believed, that after death the departed hero entered a place called 
 Walhalla, or the hall of the dead, where he passed the day in 
 battle and the chase, and at night banqueted to the sound of 
 celestial horns, those who had fallen in the combat of the day 
 rising fresh and un wounded to join in the revehy. 
 
 CHAPTEE II. 
 
 STATE OF GERMANY AT THE CLOSE OF THE FOURTH CENTURY — 
 
 INVASION OF THE HUNS ROME TAKEN BY ALARIC THE VANDALS 
 
 ATTILA — ODOACER FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE WEST. 
 
 A.D. 37G to 476. 
 
 - :^-v^i^<a_ 
 
 '/: I' 
 
 Roman Basilica at Treves, Inside. 
 
 rRo:M the death of Ai'minius until the year 376, we find but 
 few important facts respecting the condition of Germany. The 
 
10 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. II. 
 
 emperor M. Aurelius Antoninus distinguished himself by his 
 victories over the Germans, especially by that gained over the 
 Quadi in a.d. 174. On this occasion the Romans were assisted 
 by a sudden and violent storm ; a circumstance which gave rise 
 to the celebrated legend of the miracle of the Thundering Legion. 
 The emperor Probus, after delivering Gaul from a large body of 
 German invaders, crossed the Rhine (a.d. 277) and penetrated 
 as far as the Elbe. Such was the success which attended his 
 arms, that he at one time contemplated reducing Germany to the 
 state of a Roman province. But this project was abandoned, 
 and Probus, in order to check the incursions of the barbarians, 
 contented himself with erecting an enormous stone wall, which, 
 from the banks of the Danube in the neighbourhood of Ratisbon, 
 crossed the Neckar and extended to the Rhine. The emperor 
 Julian likewise distinguished himself (a.d. 355 and following 
 years) by his victories over the Germans, who early in his reigJi 
 had invaded Gaul in great numbers, and burnt or destroyed 
 forty-five flourishing cities. 
 
 Hitherto the movements of the Germans had consisted only 
 of transient inroads into the Roman provinces, or changes of 
 locality among their own tribes, who were constantly shifting their 
 seats. But towards the end of the fourth centur}^, the growing 
 weakness of the Roman empire first encouraged them to begin 
 those successful invasions which resulted in their forming settle- 
 ments in the conquered countries, and in the organization of new 
 kingdoms, which laid the foundations of the present political state 
 of Europe. At that time the Germans had formed themselves 
 into the following principal tribes or nations : — 
 
 1. The Saxons, a piratical race seated near the mouth of the 
 Elbe in the modern Holstein, but who afterwards spread them- 
 selves over a considerable part of northern Germany. It was 
 this people whom the British king Vortigern called in to assist 
 him against the Picts and Scots, who had taken advantage of the 
 withdrawal of the Roman troops to invade the southern parts 
 of Britain. In the year 449, a body of Saxons under Hengist 
 and Horsa landed in Britain, where they established them- 
 selves after driving out the Picts. The island subsequently 
 obtained the name of England from the Angles, one of the 
 Saxon tribes. 
 
 2. South and west of the Saxons, between the Weser and the 
 Lower Rhine, dv/elt the Franks, or Fr€e-7n€n^ a powerful and 
 
4L.D. 376. STATE AT THE END OF THE FOURTH CENTURY. 11 
 
 warlike race, who subsequently gave their name to the kingdom 
 of France, still called by the Germans Frankreich, or Kingdom 
 of the Franks. 
 
 3. In central Germany, in the tract comprised between the 
 Rhine, the Main, and the Danube, were seated the Alemanni, 
 a confederate nation organized at the beginning of the third 
 century by the Suevi, one of the most warlike races of ancient 
 Germany, who had allied themselves with other tribes for the 
 purpose of mutual defence, as well as of plunder and invasion. 
 From this mixture they derived their name of Alemanni, from 
 the German alle Manner {all men), and w^hich is still preserved 
 in the French name for the whole of Germany {AUemagne). 
 
 4. Eastwards of these nations lay the Goths and Vandals. The 
 Goths are first mentioned in history in the reign of the Emperor 
 Decius, A.D. 250, wdien they crossed the Danube and invaded 
 the Roman provinces. They came originally from Scandinavia, 
 and were probably the parent stock of the various Teutonic 
 tribes. They were divided into Ostrogoths, Visigoths, and 
 G epidge. The terms astro and visi (east and west) denoted theii 
 relative position in their Scandinavian fatherland; and these 
 appellations were retained through all their subsequent migra- 
 tions. They had crossed the Baltic and established tliemselves 
 near the mouth of the Vistula at least as early as the Christian 
 era. Westward of the Goths, the Vandals or Wends were spread 
 along the banks of the Oder, and the coast of Pomerania and 
 Mecklenburg. The Goths and Vandals were originally one 
 people. The latter were divided into various tribes, of which the 
 Burgundians, the Langobardi or Lombards, and the Heruli are 
 the most noted. The Burgundians, being driven from their 
 ancient seats by the Gepidee, migrated farther south, and settled 
 themselves, about tlie middle of the fourth century, on both 
 sides of the Elbe, in the countries which afterwards became 
 Thuringia and Lusatia. Hence they subsequently penetrated into 
 Gaul and founded the kingdom of Burgundy. At the time of 
 which we are speaking the Lombards still dwelt in the modern 
 Brandenburg. They afterwards migrated southwards, and, to- 
 wards the close of the sixth century, crossed the Alps and founded 
 the kingdom of Lombardy. 
 
 Such was the state of Germany about the end of the fourtrv 
 century. All that part of modern Germany which had fallen 
 under tlie Roman dominion, was bounded by the Rhine and 
 
12 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. II. 
 
 Danube, and by the wall with which Probus haa connected those 
 two rivers. The right bank of the Danube was divided into 
 four Roman provinces :—l. Rhaetia, the capital of which was 
 Augusta Vindelicorum, now Augsburg. 2. Noricum lay to the 
 eastward of Rheetia. Its principal city was Juvavia (Salzburg). 
 3. Pannonia, with its capital Juliobona (Vienna) ; and, 4. Moesia. 
 The left bank of the Rhine was also divided into four provinces :-- 
 I. Helvetia, now Switzerland. 2. Germanica Prima, with its 
 two cities, Morgantia (Mentz or Mayence) and Argentoratum 
 (Strasburg). 3. Germanica Secunda, with its cities of Colonia 
 Agrippina3 (Coin or Cologne), Confluentes (Coblentz), Bonna 
 (Bonn), and Aquae (Aachen, or Aix-la-Chapelle). 4. Belgica, 
 with its capital Augusta Trevirorum (Trier or Treves). 
 
 The origin of those successful attacks of the German races 
 upon the Roman territory, which resulted in the overthrow of the 
 Western Empire, may be traced to an invasion of Germany itself 
 by a tribe still more barbarous than its inhabitants. The Goths, 
 who by the beginning of the third century had spread themselves 
 along the eastern boundaries of Germany as far south as the 
 Euxine, and to whom in the year 272 the Emperor Aurelian had 
 ceded the whole province of Dacia, were themselves attacked, in 
 the year 376, by a barbarous people called Huns. The Goths 
 were at this time ruled by their great king, Hermanric, whose 
 conquests had consolidated their empire, and whose dominions 
 extended from the Baltic to the Danube. The Huns are described 
 by contemporary historians as men of low stature, thick-set, 
 with broad shoulders, flat noses, small eyes, yellow complexion, 
 short thick necks, and prominent cheek-bones. In their ancient 
 country, on the Steppes, or boundless plains, which lie between 
 Russia and China, they led a wandering life, dwelling in tents, 
 and changing their situation as often as fresh pasture was required 
 for their cattle. Their hideous ugliness (for an ancient writer 
 compares them to wild beasts on two legs, or the rudely carved 
 posts or termini of a bridge), their countless numbers, and the 
 skill with which they managed their horses, and threw the javelin, 
 rendered them more formidable to the Germans than even the 
 disciplined, but less ferocious, legionaries of Rome. The Goths, 
 after twice beating back the invaders, were defeated in a third 
 battle and almost annihilated. Of the warriors who escaped, 
 some took refuge in the mountains, and others threw themselves 
 on the protection of the Emperor Valens, imploring him to give 
 
A.D. 400. ROME TAKEN BY ALARIC. 13 
 
 them lands on the other side of the Danube, where they might be 
 safe from their terrible enemy. 
 
 Valens granted their request, on condition of their laying 
 down their arms and engaging to pay honestly for all the pro- 
 visions which they might consume. Unfortunately, however, the 
 commissioners appointed to see this contract duly performed, not 
 content with stripping the exiles of their property, treated their 
 wives and children with such revolting cruelty, that the Goths, 
 unable to restrain their fury at the sight of these enormities, 
 resolved to resist at all hazards. During the first confusion a 
 great number of them had crossed the river armed ; the rest 
 soon resumed their weapons, and the united army of the eastern 
 and western Goths marched through the country to the city of 
 Adrianople, whence they were repulsed without much difficulty ; 
 but in the year 378 they joined their ancient enemies the Huns, 
 and overthrew the Romans in a bloody engagement, during 
 which the unfortunate Emperor was burnt to death in a cottage, 
 where he had taken refuge, after receiving a severe wound. 
 
 A few years later, we find the Visigoths, who had quarrelled 
 with the Ostrogoths and Huns, forming a close alliance with the 
 Romans, serving in their armies, but subject to their own leaders 
 and their own laws. In the year of our Lord 395, the Roman 
 empire was divided between the two sons of the Emperor Theo- 
 dosius, the one reigning in Italy, the other at Constantinople. 
 
 Among the Goths at the court of the eastern Emperor was a 
 young warrior, named Alaric (German Al-ric, i. e. " Allrich"), 
 whom his countrymen had elected to be the general of their 
 forces. In the year 409 Alaric, who at the close of the preceding 
 century had been compelled to abandon his conquests in Pelo- 
 ponnesus by a Vandal chief, named Stilicho, commander of the 
 imperial forces at Constantinople, and who had subsequently 
 been foiled by the same general in an attempt on the territories 
 of the western empire, entered Italy, for the second time, at the 
 head of a numerous army, and without troubling himself about 
 the western Emperor Honorius, who was shut up in the strong 
 fortress of Ravenna, marched at once to Rome, and summoned 
 tne city to surrender. The Romans sued for peace : but Alaric 
 replied that the only conditions on which he could spare the city 
 were, that he should receive 5000 pounds weight of gold, 30.000 
 pounds of silver, and a proportionate quantity of the various 
 articles of value with which Rome was filled. The Romans 
 
14 HISTORY OF GERMAXY. Chap. II. 
 
 remonstrated — " Such a sacrifice would beggar us," they said : 
 '' what should we have left?" " Your lives," retorted the Goth. 
 " We are still numerous," said they in a threatening tone. 
 " Come out then," was the stern reply ; "the thicker the grass, 
 the more easily it is mown." Finding remonstrance and threats 
 equally fruitless, the Romans at length consented to pay the 
 required sum ; and Alaric, true to his promise, having withdrawn 
 his troops without committing any act of violence, proceeded 
 at once to Ravenna ; but finding that city impregnable, he soon 
 raised the siege, and a second time appeared before the walls of 
 Rome. 
 
 There is a story of his having sent three hundred Germans 
 in the garb of slaves as presents to the principal Romans ; and 
 that these men opened the gates of the city to their countrymen. 
 Be this as it may, it is certain that in the night of the 23rd of 
 A-ugust, 409, Rome for the first time since the days of Brennus 
 'B.C. 390) saw barbarians within her walls, not in the character 
 of prisoners dragged in chains to feast wild beasts in the amphi- 
 theatre^ or slaughter one another in the bloody sports of the 
 arena, but as conquerors, burning to avenge on Rome the injuries 
 which they had suffered at her hands. Yet the Goths behaved 
 with greater moderation than could have been reasonably ex- 
 pected, for the lives of those who were unable to defend themselves 
 were spared ; and, contrary to the anticipations of the Romans, 
 their city was not set on fire. 
 
 From Rome Alaric marched into southern Italy, where he 
 embarked for Africa. But his fleet was wrecked at Messina 
 during a violent storm, and he himself soon afterwards died 
 suddenly in the thirty-fourth year of his age. He was buried in 
 the channel of the river Bassano ; and as soon as the body was 
 lowered into the grave, the stream, which had been previously 
 diverted from its course, rushed back into its ancient bed ; and 
 at the same moment the prisoners who had been employed in 
 the work were put to deatli, that no record might remain of the 
 burial-place of Alaric. 
 
 The Visigoths soon found a new leader in Alaric's brother-in- 
 law Ataulf, or Adolphus, who, having married the Emperor's 
 sister, wdthdrew his troops from Italy, and passing into Gaul 
 founded a new kingdom (of which Thoulouse was the capital) in 
 that country and Spain. 
 
 In t.ie mean time another German nation, the Vandals, taking 
 
A.D. 450. GENSERIC — ATTILA. 15 
 
 advantage of the imperial forces being- withdrawn from Spain 
 for the protection of Italy, had been establishing- settlements, in 
 conjunction with other tribes, on the banks of the Ebro, and in 
 the south-western portion of the Peninsula. In the year 429 
 these Vandals, under the command of their prince Geiseric, or 
 Genseric, being- invited into Africa by the treacherous Roman 
 governor, easily made themselves masters of that province, and 
 established the seat of government at Carthage, whence they 
 despatched fleets to ravage the coasts both of Italy and Spain. 
 In the year 455 Genseric landed in Italy and took Rome : but, 
 instead of destroying the city, he contented himself with sending 
 off all its treasures to adorn his new capital,* and soon afterwards 
 returned to Africa, where he died in extreme old age, a.d. 478. 
 
 About the middle of the fifth century, Attila or Etzel, a 
 renowned warrior, who had drawn to his standard not only the 
 whole of the Huns, but a considerable portion of the eastern 
 Germanic tribes, declared war against the Ostrogoths, and de- 
 feated them (a.d. 449) in a series of battles of which we have 
 but imperfect accounts. The following year he attacked Constan- 
 tinople, and the city was only saved by the prudence of the 
 Emperor's mother, who bribed him with a large sum to withdraw 
 his army. Then the Huns marched into Gaul, where they were 
 routed with great slaughter by the united forces of the Goths 
 and Romans under Theodoric and ^tius : but the following 
 year they crossed the Alps, and took the town of Aquileia, the 
 inhabitants of which fled to the swampy islands at the mouth of 
 the Brenta, and founded the city of Venice. 
 
 After these conquests, Attila (" the scourge of God," as he 
 was named by the affrighted Romans) was preparing to march 
 upon Rome, but was diverted from that purpose partly by his 
 superstitious fears, and partly, perhaps, by the diseases that 
 wasted his army. As he lay encamped on the banks of the 
 Mincius, near the spot where it enters lake Benacus (Lago di 
 Garda), he was visited by an embassy from Rome, headed by 
 Leo, surnamed the Great ^ the bishop of that city. Preceded by 
 the emblem of our redemption, and followed by a long train of 
 priests clothed in their sacerdotal robes, and chanting the peni- 
 tential psalms, Leo entered the tent of Attila, and pleaded the 
 
 * Very little of this booty reached the African shore, most of the ships, 
 laden with the noblest works of Greek and Roman art, having foundered 
 
16 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. 11. 
 
 cause of Eome so eloquently, that the barbarian monarch not 
 only consented to spare Rome, but to evacuate Italy. An eccle- 
 siastical legend accounts for the prodigy by stating that whilst 
 the bishop spoke the forms of the apostles, St. Peter and St. 
 Paul, appeared in glory behind him, and threatened Attila with 
 instant death if he refused to listen to the prayers of their suc- 
 cessor. 
 
 Soon after this event Attila died, and was buried with great 
 pomp, his body being enclosed in a golden coffin, which was 
 placed in one of silver, and that again in a large chest of iron. 
 His whole army followed the corpse of their leader ; but when 
 they came near to the place of burial, the body, like that of 
 Alaric, was consigned to slaves, who were put to death as soon as 
 they had interred it. 
 
 Meanwhile the western throne of the Caesars was tottering to 
 its fall. Goths and Vandals had stormed and sacked the imperial 
 city. Germans had set up and deposed her emperors at their 
 pleasure. She had had nine rulers in twenty-one years. The 
 people, therefore, broken in spirit, and long accustomed to sub- 
 mission, made little resistance, when in the year 476 the sceptre 
 was wrested from the feeble hands of Romulus Augustulus by a 
 soldier of fortune, named Odoacer, who commanded the German 
 mercenaries in the imperial service. Like the body of one worn 
 out by age, the empire of* the west sank into the grave almost 
 without a struggle. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER II. 
 
 Conversion of the Goths. Bishop Ulphilas. — In their Scan- 
 dinavian fatherland the religion of the Goths resembled that of 
 the other Teutonic races. Their three principal divinities were 
 Odin (Woden), the god of war ; Frigga, or Freya, his wife, the 
 Yenus of the north ; and Thor, who resembled the Roman 
 Jupiter in his functions of presiding over the elements and 
 seasons. At Upsal, in Sweden, a vast temple consecrated to 
 these divinities contained their characteristic symbols. Odin 
 delighted in human blood, and near Upsal was a wood filled with 
 the bodies of men and animals that had fallen in his sacrifices. 
 The temple at Upsal was in existence till the end of the eleventh 
 century, when it was destroyed by Ingo, king of Sweden. The 
 
Sup. Chap. 11. ULPHILAS— ATTILA. IV 
 
 conquests of the Goths in the third century, by bringing them in 
 contact with the Christians in the eastern provinces of Rome, 
 were the means of their conversion. They were the first of the 
 Teutonic races to embrace Christianity, which they had adopted 
 at least as early as, if not before, the conversion of Constantine, 
 for Gothic bishops attended the Council of Nice (a.d. 325). 
 Ulphilas, who has been called the bishop and apostle of the 
 Goths, extended and consolidated the Christian faith amongst 
 them by his translation of the Scriptures into the Moeso-Gothic 
 tongue, about a.d. 360. This version, the oldest specimen of 
 any Teutonic dialect, is still preserved in the Codex Argenteus, 
 or Silver Manuscript, now in the University library at Upsal, 
 whither it was brought from Prague by General Konigsmark. 
 in the year 1648. It is written in silver letters on a purple 
 ground. In order to accomplish this translation, Ulphilas was 
 obliged to compose an alphabet, and to invent four new letters 
 to express those sounds of the Gothic tongue for which there 
 was no equivalent in the Greek and Roman alphabets. The 
 appearance of the Gospel was, however, the signal for persecution. 
 The chief Athanaric caused a waggon, containing an image of 
 Thor or Woden, to be conducted through the Gothic villages 
 and encampments, and they who refused to fall down and worship 
 were burnt in their tents together with their wives and children. 
 Nevertheless, Christianity continued to spread among the Gothic 
 and Vandalic tribes, and was soon adopted by all the German 
 nations, with the exception of the Franks and Saxons. Un- 
 fortunately, however, Ulphilas had imbibed the heresy of Arius, 
 who taught that Christ being begotten was not in all respects 
 equal to the Father. 
 
 Personal Appearance a?id Character of Attila. — If we may 
 believe the historians of that day, the conqueror of Rome was 
 scarcely less ugly than the generality of his countrymen ; the 
 large-headed, flat-nosed, small-eyed, broad-shouldered savages, 
 whom Ammianus Marcellinus compared to beasts walking on 
 two legs, or the grinning heads carved on the posts of bridges. 
 But the consciousness of his power imparted even to this uncouth 
 form a dignified bearing, before which men quailed whenever he 
 rolled his wild eyes fiercely around, as if he delighted in witnessing 
 the terror which his looks inspired. The rude people among 
 whom he dwelt had for ages been accustomed to worship tne 
 god of war, under the symbolic form of a sword : and one day 
 
18 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap, II. 
 
 an old rusty scimitar liaving been brought him by a herdsman, 
 whose cow had been wounded by its point, as it lay concealed in 
 the long grass, Attila, with ready tact, placed the weapon on a 
 lofty altar, and, summoning the people, proclaimed himself 
 Dossessor of the sword of Mars, and sovereign lord of the whole 
 earth. So great was the influence which he acquired over his 
 countrymen, by thus investing himself with a sacred character, 
 that the boldest of them were unable to gaze steadily on his 
 countenance ; and the wild hordes followed him to the field with 
 the confidence of men who believed that they were led to battle 
 by the earthly representative of their god. He was accustomed 
 to boast that where his horse trod the grass never grew. His 
 end was fearful. He had retired to rest at a late hour, flushed 
 with wine, according to the custom of the Huns ; and on the 
 following day was found by his attendants struggling in the 
 agonies of death, an artery having burst, which sent forth streams 
 of blood from his nostrils and mouth. The body was exhibited 
 to the people lying in state under a canopy of silk ; whilst the 
 soldiers of the guard marched solemnly round the bier, chanting 
 a funeral hymn to the memory of their leader, and gashing their 
 faces with knives. No sooner, however, was his corpse laid in 
 tlie earth, than their mourning was followed by a scene of gross 
 and riotous intemperance. 
 
 Antiquities of Treves. — TJie Roman Basilica. — These ruins 
 possess a peculiar interest, as being, according to the German 
 architect Schmidt, the only remains of a Roman basilica which 
 nave not either been deprived in a great measure of their original 
 architectural character by the changes necessary for their adap- 
 tation to purposes of Christian worship, or suffered so grievously 
 from the ravages of time and violence as to be incapable of re- 
 storation. Before the recognition of Christianity by the Emperor 
 Constantine, these buildings, which were originally attached to 
 the Palaces of the Roman Emperors, were not only used as com- 
 mercial halls, where merchants met to transact business, but also 
 as courts of justice ; and for both these purposes were divided 
 into two parts, the common hall where the people congregated, 
 and the tribunal, a semicircle or apse, at the extremity of which 
 was placed the judge's throne. In churches constructed after 
 the pattern of the basilica, the altar stands in the apse, on the 
 spot occupied by the judge's throne in days of heathenism. As 
 far as we can conjecture from a comparison of the ruins that 
 
Sup. Chap. IT. ROMAN BASILICA AT TREVES. 
 
 10 
 
 remain, with the architectural treatise of Vitruvius, they seem to 
 have consisted sometimes of a single nave, but more frequently 
 of a nave and two side-aisles, with galleries above them supporting 
 a second row of pillars, which reached to the roof of the building. 
 The basilica of Treves, with the exception of its foundation, 
 which is of limestone, is built of bricks firmly cemented together 
 with a very durable mortar composed of lime and sand, in which 
 are embedded fragments of tile. The form of the building is 
 oblong, with a large tribunal or recess for the judge's throne at 
 one end, and at the other an entrance sufficiently wide to admit 
 four persons abreast. There seem also to have been side doors 
 
 
 Roman Basilica at Treves, Exterior. 
 
 near the tribunal, for the accommodation of the judges and ad- 
 vocates. From fragments of wall which are still standing it has 
 been conjectured that the principal entrance was protected from 
 the weather by a portico. The building contained two rows of 
 large windows on each side, and appears, from the number of 
 tiles dug up in the immediate neighboui'hood, to have been roofed 
 with that material. The floor of the entire nave stands on pillars 
 of brick about two feet high and eight inches in thickness ; the 
 space between the pavement and the ground being occupied by a 
 hypocaust, or flue constructed of large blocks of stone. The 
 pavement was composed of strong cement, ornamented with mosaic 
 
20 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. II. 
 
 work of blue, yellow, and white marble. Whether the building 
 contained any side-aisles or not cannot be ascertained until a 
 larger portion of it is disinterred. The entire length of it is 230 
 (German) feet 10 inches, its breadth 88 feet 2 inches, and its 
 height from the floor to the roof about 98 feet. The arch of 
 brickwork which crosses the interior between the nave and the 
 tribunal has a span of 59 feet 3 inches. In each of the corners 
 near the tribunal is a narrow stair leading from without to the 
 roof of the building. 
 
 The Prussian government has lately decided that this basilica, 
 which had been built into a palace of the Archbishops of Treves, 
 and more recently converted into a barrack, shall be restored to 
 its original condition, and used as a church by the Evangelical 
 (or reformed Lutheran) congregation of Treves. 
 
 The Porta Martis, or Porta Nigra {Black Gate).— This build- 
 ing, which seems to have been anciently, as it is at present, one 
 of the city gates, was also, we may suppose, used in time of war 
 as a station for archers, who would be enabled to command a 
 considerable portion of the wall on either side from the windows 
 with which it is pierced. The exact date of its erection is not 
 known, but it seems probable that, like the basilica, it was built 
 by Constantine at the beginning of the fourth century. The front 
 of the building is ornamented with rows of Tuscan columns. The 
 flanks consisted of four stories, as may be seen in that which still 
 remains complete. The lowest story seems to have been used as 
 a prison, and the second, which is very imperfectly lighted, as a 
 storehouse and arsenal — the quarters of the soldiers were in the 
 third and fourth. The building is 115 English feet long and 67 
 feet wide in the flanks ; its greatest height is 92 feet. It is con- 
 structed of huge blocks of sandstone, joined together by clamps 
 without any cement. Each of the gateways is 14 feet wide. 
 The grooved doorposts on each side of the arches show that they 
 were provided with portcullises which might be lowered or drawn 
 up at pleasure ; and, if necessary, the defences might be fur- 
 ther strengthened by large beams of wood inserted in tlie grooves 
 behind the portcullises. At the beginning of the eleventh cen- 
 tury, Simeon, a Greek monk, who had accompanied Poppo, 
 Archbishop of Treves, on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, esta- 
 blished himself in one of the side towers of the Porta Nigra, 
 where he led a life of sanctity and rigid self-denial for seven 
 years. After his death and canonization by Pope Benedict IX., 
 
Chap. ITT. TNYASrON OF ITALY BY THEODORIC. 21 
 
 tLc building, in which his remains were deposited, was conse- 
 crated by Archbishop Poppo, and dedicated to St. Simeon. 
 A semicircular apse was added at one end of the Roman edifice, 
 and three churches constructed in it, one above the other, the 
 entrance being by a flight of steps outside. In the year 1817 
 the rubbish, which had obstructed the entrance for nearly eight 
 hundred years, was removed by command of the Prussian govern- 
 ment, and the building, being divested of its ecclesiastical charac- 
 ter, was restored, as far as possible, to its original condition. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 ODOACER DEPRIVED OF THE ROMAN CROWN BY THEODORIC — CONQUESTS 
 AND DEATH OF THEODORIC — CHLODWIG OR CLOVIS, FIRST KING OF 
 
 THE FRANKS DESTRUCTION OF THE GOTHIC EMPIRE IN ITALY 
 
 BELISARIUS— VITIGIS TOTILA NARSES KINGDOM OF THE LOMBARDS 
 
 ESTABLISHED IN ITALY. 
 
 From A.D. 482 to 625. 
 
 The Black Gate at Treves. (See page 20.) 
 
 The new Roman dynasty had continued twelve years, when 
 Theodoric, King of the Ostrogoths (surnamed the Great), invaded 
 Italy (a.d. 488) ; and having conquered Odoaccr at Aquileia and 
 
22 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. III. 
 
 Verona, erected in 493 a mighty sovereignty, called the empire 
 of the Ostrogoths, which, besides including Italy and Sicily, ex- 
 tended northwards as far as the Rhine and Danube, and eastwards 
 to tlie borders of Macedonia and Dacia. But for one foul act, 
 the murder of Odoacer, as they sat together at table, Theodoric 
 would not be altogether unworthy of the praises bestowed on him 
 by the chroniclers of his reign ; for, during a peace of thirty years, 
 he promoted agriculture and trade, and even began the herculean 
 task of draining the Pontine Marshes — a work which he personally 
 inspected from a high tower in the neighbourhood of Terracina. 
 Cassiodorus and Boethius, the last two writers who can pretend 
 to a place in the literature of ancient Rome, were among his 
 ministers. In the year 526 Theodoric died — of horror, it is said, 
 at the sight of a fish's head, which recalled to his mind the cruel 
 execution of one of liis counsellors. The Italian legends represent 
 his soul as dwelling in the fires of Mount Etna. 
 
 Meanwhile, in western Germany the nation of the Franks was 
 rapidly rising into power and importance. The tribes of this 
 wirtely-extended people had been governed, each by its own petty 
 sovereign or chief, until the year 420, when all the minor clans 
 were merged into the two great divisions of Salii and Ripuarii. 
 The former were governed by the Salique law, and among them 
 the succession to the throne was limited to males : though not, 
 as is commonly supposed, by any express provision of that code. 
 From Merowig or Meroveus, the reputed descendant of a perhaps 
 fabulous monarch named Pharamond, the royal family were 
 called Merovingians. Towards the end of the fifth centuiy, a 
 descendant of this monarch named Chlodwig or Clovis, a man 
 natm'ally ambitious, and not very scrupulous as to the means 
 which he employed for attaining his objects, having conceived 
 the design of subjugating the whole of Germany, commenced his 
 operations by expelling the Romans from Soissons, where a 
 remnant of their former empire still lingered under the govern- 
 ment of a pro-consul. Then he compelled the Thuringians to 
 pay tribute ; and overthrew the Alemanni at Ziilpich after a 
 fierce struggle (a.d. 496), in the midst of which Clovis, who 
 was yet a heathen, made a vow that he would renounce idolatry 
 if the God of the Christians could prove himself mightier than 
 Odin, who fought on the side of the Alemanni. In fulfilment 
 of this vow the Prankish monarch soon afterwards received the 
 sacrament of baptism from the hands of Remigius, Bishop of 
 
A.D. 511. CLOVIS. 23 
 
 Ivheims, who addressed him in these words, "Bow doun thy 
 neck, Sicanibrian, and pray to that which thou didst burn, 
 and burn that to which thou didst formerly pray." But the 
 religion which Clovis now professed, so far from restraining his 
 ambition, seemed rather to furnish him with an excuse for fresh 
 acts of violence. Under the cloak of zeal for the orthodox faith, 
 he invaded the country of the Visigoths, whose adherence to the 
 heresy of Arius had rendered them odious to the Bishops of the 
 Catholic church ; and after an obstinate engagement in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Poitiers, compelled them to acknowledge him as their 
 sovereign. Burgundy, which he could not entirely subdue, was 
 rendered tributary to the Franks ; his old ally, Siegebert of 
 Cologne, treacnerously murdered, and another prince degraded 
 to the condition of a subject by being shorn of the long locks 
 which in those days were the indispensable ornament of royal 
 heads. By these and similar unscrupulous means, Clovis became 
 in a short time sole monarch of the Frankish nation, which, in- 
 creased as it was by his former conquests, now embraced the 
 whole of Gaul and a considerable portion of Germany. He died 
 in the year 511, leaving four sons, among whom he divided his 
 empire by will ; the eldest, Thierry, receiving the largest portion, 
 v/hich was named Austrasia, and the remaining three parts, com- 
 prehended under the name of Neustria, being assigned to the 
 three younger sons, who established their respective seats of 
 empire at Orleans, Paris, and Soissons. 
 
 The Ostrogothic king, Theodoric, had endeavoured to conciliate 
 the German tribes by the matrimonial alliances which he formed 
 with them. He had himself married the sister of Clovis ; his 
 two daughters were united to the kings of the Yisigotlis and the 
 Burgundians ; his sister he gave in marriage to the king of the 
 Yandals ; his niece to Hermanfried, the last king of the Thurm- 
 gians. The death of Theodoric dissolved these bonds of union ; 
 a circumstance of which the Greek emperor Justinian was not 
 slow to take advantage. Under pretence of avenging the murder 
 of Theodoric's daughter Amalasontha, whom Theodotus, the 
 Gothic Emperor, had caused to be smothered in a bath, Justinian 
 sent into Italy an army commanded by Belisarius, a general who 
 had already signalized himself by the conquest of the Vandals in 
 Africa. As soon as he appeared in Southern Italy, the timid 
 Theodotus resigned his crown. The Goths then held a solemn 
 assembly, at which Vitigis was elected to the vacant throne, and 
 
24 HISTORY OF C^ERMAXY. Chap. III. 
 
 elevated on a shield, according to the old German custom. In 
 the mean time the Romans had opened their gates to Belisarius. 
 Suddenly Vitigis appeared with his whole force before the city, 
 and summoned it to surrender, endeavouring at the same time to 
 scale the walk by means of wooden towers which he had prepared 
 for the purpose ; but Belisarius baffled all his attempts, showering 
 on the heads of the assailants a storm of missiles, among which 
 were hundreds of the most beautiful statues. Both besiegers and 
 besieged fought with such fury, that in one sally of Belisarius 
 30,000 Goths are reported to have fallen. Meanwliile the lieu- 
 tenant of Belisarius, who had received orders to assail the Goths 
 in the rear, marched to the attack of Ravenna, the Gothic capital, 
 having on his way taken Rimini, and placed a garrison in Milan. 
 On receiving intelligence of these movements, Vitigis set fire to 
 his camp, and proceeded by forced marches to Rimini, which was 
 now occupied by the lieutenant of Belisarius ; but failing in all 
 liis attempts to draw the enemy out of his stronghold, the Gothic 
 general marched to Milan, put to death the inhabitants of that 
 place to the number of 300,000, because they had admitted a 
 Greek garrison, and divided their spoil among his Burgundian 
 auxiliaries. 
 
 But the appearance of Belisarius once more changed the aspect 
 of affairs. Worn out by the protracted war, and hopeless of 
 success against a general whose victories had hitherto been un- 
 interrupted, the Goths themselves proposed that Belisarius should 
 reign over them : an offer of which he was too faithful a subject 
 to avail himself further than to obtain the deposition of Vitigis, 
 and the surrender of Ravenna. The wives of the men who had 
 thus betrayed their country spat in the faces of their husbands 
 through sheer disgust at this cowardly surrender. Happily for 
 the remnant of the Goths, Belisarius was at this crisis recalled, 
 and Totila, a brave and successful leader, being elected to the 
 imperial throne, proceeded at once to Southern Italy and stormed 
 Naples. Belisarius had in the mean time returned with a fresh 
 arn\y from Greece, and taken possession of Rome ; but the in- 
 trigues of his enemies at the court of the Eastern Emperor forced 
 him again to retire to Constantinople, leaving all Italy at the 
 mercy of Totila, who now took Rome by storm, and having over- 
 thrown the united forces of the Greeks and Romans near Ravenna, 
 made himself master of all the Italian towns except Ancona. 
 
 Justinian now sent a fresh army into Italy under the command 
 
A.D. 625. NARSES. 25 
 
 of the eunuch Narses, who completely routed the Gauls in an 
 engag-ement which lasted two days in the neighbourhood of 
 Rimini. Totila, pierced by a lance, rode more than ten miles, 
 and then fell dead from his horse. The Goths now elected 
 Totila's general Teias to be their king. He proved their last. 
 After various combats, in which the Gotlis fought with all the 
 courage of despair, and in which they were assisted by some large 
 bodies of Franks and Alemanni, they were so nearly exterminated 
 tiiat only about 7000 remained, who submitted and were incor- 
 porated into the imperial body guard. 
 
 The dominion of the Eastern Emperor in Italy seemed now 
 fully restored. He was represented there by the exarchs of 
 Ravenna, of whom Narses was the first and the most powerful : 
 but the pride and folly of a woman were destined to throw all 
 again into confusion. The reign of Narses was oppressive and 
 unpopular. He was recalled ; but in the mandate for that purpose 
 the Empress Sophia thought proper to insult him. In derision of 
 his little feeble figure she told him that he had better exchange the 
 sword for the distaff. " If I do," replied the spirited commander, 
 " I will spin your Majesty a thread of which you will not 
 easily fi^id the end." In the first transport of indignation at 
 this unseemly insult, Narses despatched a messenger to Alboin, 
 King of the Lombards, inviting him into Italy ; a proposal which 
 was readily accepted, and in a very short time an enormous 
 army was concentrated on the banks of the Po. With a severity 
 very opposite to the moderation of the Goths, Alboin deprived 
 the Romans of all their lands, and reduced them to the lowest 
 state of vassalage, so that, as an historian remarks, they who had 
 refused to be the brethren of the Goths, were now fain to content 
 themselves with being slaves of the Lombards. But the tyrant's 
 career was speedily terminated. He had slain Cunimund, King 
 of the Gepidae, and made a cup of his skull, out of which he 
 compelled his wife Rosamond, a daughter of the murdered man, 
 to drink a large draught of wine. For this outrage the Queen 
 vowed deadly vengeance; and the same night, whilst Alboin 
 lay in the deep sleep of intoxication, an armed man approached 
 his bed and made a thrust at him with a dagger. The unfortunate 
 monarch instantly started up and sought for his sword, but it 
 haxl been removed by the Queen, and after a desperate struggle 
 he fell dead beneath the repeated blows of his murderer. His 
 wife and her accomplice now fled together to Ravenna, where she 
 Gy. c 
 
26 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. III. 
 
 administered poison to the miserable instrmnent of htir revenge ; 
 but the man, discovering her intention after he had swallowed a 
 portion of the draught, compelled her to drink the rest, and they 
 died together. Alboin was succeeded on the throne by Antharis, 
 and he by his widow Theodolinda, a lady of great merit, who 
 died in 625. The new kingdom of Lombardy has been called 
 the leg in the boot of Italy, extending as it did the whole length 
 of the land from South Tyrol and Savoy to Benevento, — and 
 comprising all the cities ; except Ravenna, Rome, and Naples, 
 which remained in the hands of the Greeks under the name of 
 an exarchate. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER III. 
 Review of the Co7idition of Germany during the first six 
 centuries after the birth of Christ. — Since the first great move- 
 ment of the Huns in 376 the Germans had been gradually 
 extending themselves over other parts of Europe, and even along 
 the coasts of Africa. Besides Italy, France, Spain, England, 
 and the shores of Barbary had all received Germans as colonists 
 or conquerors, had adopted in a great measure their manners and 
 institutions, and engrafted on the Latin tongue (which, more or 
 less corrupt, was the language of most of the provinces of Rome) 
 a mixed dialect, the foundation of the modern French, Spanish, 
 and Italian languages. About the year 500 the kingdom of 
 Thuringia was a powerful independent sovereignty, which was 
 afterwards overthrown by the sons of Clovis ; but the Saxons and 
 Frieses (who by these changes had been enabled to spread them- 
 selves farther south, and occupy the country between the mouth of 
 the Rhine and that of the Elbe) retained their independence many 
 centuries longer. In southern Germany, the Suevi had united 
 with the Alemanni under the name of Swabians, and penetrated 
 into Helvetia and Rheetia, where they were afterwards called 
 Swiss. The Boii had settled in Bavaria (German, Bayern). 
 The Sclavonians (known to the ancients under the name of 
 Sarmatae) occupied many districts of eastern Germany, — their 
 language and religion separating them from the Germans, with 
 whom to the present hour they have never been thoroughly 
 incorporated. In the sixth and seventh centuries they were in 
 possession of Mecklenburg, Pomerania, Brandenburg, Meissen, 
 Silesia, Bohemia, Moravia, Styria, Carinthia, and two or three 
 other districts : in all which countries a few of their descendants 
 
Sup. Chap. HI. CONDITION OF GERMANY. 27 
 
 remain to this day. In those districts on the Rhine and Danube 
 which belonged to tlie Romans there had sprung up a number of 
 free cities, in which Roman luxury, the Roman tongue, and 
 Roman laws, reigned without a rival. 
 
 Whenever the Germans conquered a fresh territory, the whole, 
 or more generally a portion of it, was divided by lot between the 
 King and his followers ; of whom the more powerful received the 
 larger share : but as the influence of the chiefs not unfrequenth 
 ended ^vith the campaign, they devised a means of retaining their 
 authority by presenting their followers with small portions of 
 land, which they were permitted to retain as long as they re- 
 mained faithful vassals and servants of their lord. This practice, 
 introduced by the more powerful chiefs, was imitated by others 
 on a smaller scale : so that at length the country was split into a 
 multitude of little independent sovereignties. But the bad effects 
 of this feudal system were overlooked for the sake of the military 
 spirit which it fostered. The ministers or household servants of 
 the king were the Mareschalk, or groom, the Truchsetz, sewer 
 or dish-setter, the Kammerer, or chamberlain, the Hausmeier, 
 major-domo, or steward, &c. These were at first menial servants, 
 and really performed the offices which their names import. In 
 process of time, however, as wealth and luxury increased, these 
 servants became high and dignified officers, although they con- 
 tinued to bear their original titles. Thus at the coronation of 
 Otho T., in the tenth century, two dukes officiated as grand sewer 
 and grand marshal, or master of the horse. 
 
 Great improvements had taken place during the period which 
 we have mentioned, in the mode of legislation. In the earlier 
 times the German tribes knew no laws but those of usage : by 
 degrees, however, written codes were introduced, composed in 
 Latin or German. The Salian code, as published by Clovis, was 
 in Gennan ; but it is now extant only in Latin. The relations 
 between freemen and serfs, Germans and Romans, were distinctly 
 defined. Every injury, from an insulting word to murder itself, 
 had its suitable penalty : thus he who stole a pig was fined fifteen 
 shillings, and the murderer of a serf thirty-five : but the slaughter 
 of a freeman could not be expiated for a less sum than three 
 hundred shillings. The use of scurrilous language subjected him 
 who employed it to penalties varying from three to six shillings. 
 The solidus, or shilling, was the price of a cow, but it is of 
 course impossible to ascertain its actual value in English money. 
 
 c 2 
 
28 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. III. 
 
 The Saliaii Frauks divided it into forty denarii, or pence, and 
 the Ripuarii into twelve. If a criminal was unable to pay the 
 fine, he swore that he did not possess sufficient property either 0}i 
 the earth or under the earth, and made over his estate and debt 
 to his relations by taking a handful of dust from each of the four 
 corners, and throwing- It on them. He then stripped himself to 
 his under garment, and with a staff in his hand went to the limits 
 of his property. After this ceremony, the relations became 
 responsible for payment of the fine : but if they also were unable 
 to discharge it, the culprit was put to death. Among the Ripu- 
 arian Franks the transfer of lands or houses was accompanied by 
 a curious ceremony, which has been observed in our own country* 
 within the memory of man. The purchaser, attended by three, 
 six, or twelve witnesses, according to the value of the property, 
 and the same number of boys, proceeded to the ground, and 
 having paid down the stipulated sum in presence of his witnesses, 
 administered a cuff to each of the youths, and pulled his ears, as 
 the best mode of impressing the transaction on his memory. 
 All trials were conducted publicly before a jury of persons of 
 like degree with the accused. Cases, however, might sometimes 
 occur, in which, although strong suspicion rested on an individual, 
 it was impossible to prove his guilt by evidence. Under such 
 circumstances the suspected person was required to purify himself 
 by oath, in which he was often joined by his friends, who were 
 styled consacramentales ; or by the ordeal, in which the gods 
 were supposed to declare the guilt or innocence of the accused. 
 He who could handle red-hot iron without injury, or withdraw 
 his hand unscalded from a cauldron of boiling water, or conquer 
 his accuser in single combat, was declared innocent of the crime 
 imputed to him. Other tests, such as the partaking of the con- 
 secrated wafer, which a guilty man, it was believed, could not 
 swallow without bursting, were introduced after the conversion 
 of the people to Christianity. 
 
 In all the German kingdoms, general assemblies of the people 
 were held under different names. Thus, among the Anglo- 
 Saxons, they were termed Wittenangemots (councils of the wise), 
 and among the Franks, Marzfelder (fields of March), because 
 they were held in the open fields in that month. At these 
 
 * Persons now, or very lately, alive in Bex^ksliii-e have told me that they 
 well remembered the ear-pvillings inflicted on them by their father-s when 
 they made a jDurchase of land. 
 
Sur. CuAP. III. LITERATURE. 29 
 
 meetings questions of war and peace were debated ; and in llie 
 event of the former being voted, the Heerbann or general militia 
 of the kingdom was called out by the king, every male being 
 required to appear at an appointed place armed and equipped for 
 the campaign. In the field, the inhabitants of each duciiy and 
 county were marshalled under the banner of their duke or 
 count, the whole being under the command of the king. These 
 expeditions were called by the Anglo-Saxons " Land-fyrd," and 
 naval armaments " Scyp-fyrd." 
 
 Literature. — The ancient Germans, especially the Gothic and 
 Scandinavian tribes, possessed a kind of writing called Runes. 
 These characters were engraved on stone or wood, particularly 
 that of the box-tree, called in German Buch; — a name still 
 preserved in that language, as well as in its English derivative, 
 to signify a hook. Runes were used in divination, and hence 
 came to be regarded by the vulgar as connected with witchcraft. 
 This mode of writing was superseded by the alphabet of Ulphilas 
 already mentioned. It was long, however, before ^vriting came 
 into general use, and hence, like other nations, the Germans 
 possessed in early times no other literature than songs and poems, 
 which were employed in celebrating the gods and recording the 
 deeds of heroes. The rugged and savage tribes of the north had 
 a great sensibility for the charms of poetry and music. It is 
 related that a famous bard once came to the court of a northern 
 king, and sang in his hall a song which caused the \vhole company 
 to dance and caper with merriment. A second song threw them 
 all into tears. But a more striking, though dreadful triumph was 
 reserved for the last effort of the bard. His third song threw them 
 all into a frenzy, so that they fell upon and murdered one another. 
 
 In these songs alliteration and rhyme supplied the place of the 
 rhythm, or syllabic quantity, of classical poetry; whilst they 
 were further distinguished from prose by the short and striking 
 form of the sentences, and by the bold expressions and metaphors 
 with which they were filled. In the absence of writing, allitera- 
 tion, besides its use as an ornament, served to assist the memory. 
 Thus the German laws, which, as we have said, at first were 
 preserved only by tradition, abounded with it. Many of these 
 alliterations are still observable in certain inseparable combina- 
 tions of words which have been handed down in the German 
 language, and even in a slighter degree in English ; as, Dick 
 vnd Dunn, thick and tlun, Franl und Frei, frank and free, 
 
 c 3 
 
30 
 
 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 
 
 Chap. IV. 
 
 Gut und Bluf, goods and blood, Herz mid Hand, heart and hand, 
 Iiath und That, counsel and deed, Stock und Blocl; stock and 
 block, &c. 
 
 Whilst literature remained in so rude a state, history was 
 necessarily imperfect. For our knowledge of German affairs 
 during the first five centuries we are indebted to the Byzantine 
 historians ; but they lived too far from the scene of action, and 
 were too deeply imbued with the old contempt for barbarians, 
 to be faithful chroniclers. Towards the close of the sixth century, 
 however, flourished Gregory, archbishop of Tours, by birth a 
 Frank ; whose history of the Western Church, brought down to 
 the year 591, in spite of many inaccuracies and absui"d legends, 
 is, for those days, a work of no small merit. 
 
 CHAPTEE IV. 
 
 MAYORS OF THE PALACE PEPIN OF LANDON PEPIN OF HERISTAL- 
 
 CHARLES MARTEL — PEPIN THE SHORT ELECTED KING OF FRANCE. 
 
 From A.D. 622 to 768. 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 rLi.\.i.-i.t.i.XLttvtir^v\.L'L'.'Lt:i\.'LU.vv..iAi:ml 
 
 Vestibule of the Church oi' Lorscb, near Darmstadt, dedicated in the presence of 
 Charlemagne. 
 
 After the death of Chlotaire (the foui-th son of Clovis, who 
 survived all his brothers and became sole monarch of France) the 
 
A.D. Go2, MAYORS OF THE PALACE. 81 
 
 kingdom was portioned out among his four sons. And now 
 began a series of horrors in the Merovingian family too revolting 
 for description. The two youngest had married m omen of the 
 most ambitious and unscrupulous character ; and for many years 
 the struggle between these princesses, whose names were Brune- 
 hild and Fredegund, deluged the royal houses with blood. Fire 
 and sword, dagger and poison, were employed so actively, that 
 tlie two families were nearly annihilated. A pious historian of 
 tlie period thouglit he saw in this rising up of brother against 
 brother, and sister against sister, the fulfilment of that prophecy 
 of our Lord which declares that such shall be the signs imme- 
 diately before the coming of the last day ; and a more modern 
 Avi'iter asserts that it would be difficult to point out any period or 
 any country in which there was more vice or less virtue than there 
 was in France towards the end of the sixth century. At length, 
 in her seventieth year, Brunehild received the reward of her 
 crimes, which was as fearful as her former cruelties. Being 
 abandoned by her people, she fell into the hands of Chlotaire II., 
 w ho, after parading her on the back of a camel through his camp, 
 tied the miserable woman to the tail of a wild horse, which 
 dragged her over the rough ground until life was extinct. Tne 
 mother of Chlotaire (Fredegund) escaped punishment in this 
 world, and lived to see the kingdom of France reunited under 
 her son. 
 
 The weakness and incapacity of the Frankish kings had given 
 to certain officers of their household almost unlimited power in 
 peace as well as in war ; and this power was the more firmly 
 maintained, as they contented themselves with the substantial 
 authority, without laying claim to the splendour of the kingly 
 office. 
 
 The sovereigns, indeed, were generally too happy to entrust 
 the cares of state to an able minister, whilst they themselves did 
 little else (according to old Gregory of Tours) but gormandize 
 like brute beasts, except now and then signing a state paper, and 
 exhibiting themselves in their royal robes on days of ceremony. 
 By degrees these Mayors of the Palace (majores domus, as they 
 are called by historians) became in France what the commanders 
 of the Praetorian guard had been in the latter days of the Roman 
 empire. Being generally men of talent and enterprise, and sup- 
 ported by the nobles, they continued to exercise sovereign auth.j- 
 rity without ihe name : for it was only by slow degrees, and after 
 
32 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Ceap. IV. 
 
 the office had been a long time hereditary in one family, that the 
 mayors of the palace possessed themselves of the title and dignity 
 of king. 
 
 In the year 622 Chlotaire II. appointed his son Dagobert 
 King of Austrasia, and assigned him, as his major domus, Pepin 
 of Landon, who had abeady distinguished himself in the struggle 
 against Brunehild. An attempt was made by Grimoald, the son 
 of this Pepin, to place his own son on the tlirone ; but, although 
 he succeeded in deposing the king, and banishing him to a con- 
 vent in Ireland, he himself v/ith his unfortunate son was shortly 
 afterwards murdered, and Clovis II. was elected by the clergy 
 and vassals King of all France. 
 
 At his death, in 656, the kingdom was again divided, and 
 many years of anarchy and bloodshed succeeded ; until in 687 
 Pepin of Heristal, a great grandson of the first Pepin, having 
 rained a complete victory in the battle of Testri, compelled 
 Thierry III. to recognize him as general and governor of all 
 France. This dignity he bequeathed to his son Charles, known 
 in history by the surname of Martel or the Hammer. The con- 
 dition of France at the accession of this renowned chief in 714 
 was likely to furnish full employment for all that energy both of 
 mind and body, which he possessed in no ordinary degree. A 
 few years before this period there had landed in Spain (by the 
 Nnvitation of Count Julian, whose daughter had been seduced by 
 Roderic the Gothic king) a horde of Saracens or Arabians from 
 the northern coast of Africa. These foreigners had completely 
 overthrown the Visigoths in a bloody battle at Xeres de la Fron- 
 tera, and founded an independent kingdom in the south of Spain. 
 In the year 732 there dwelt on the frontiers of France and 
 Spain a chieftain named Duke Eudo of Acquitania, who had 
 long cherished hopes of becoming an independent sovereign. The 
 Neustrians and Austrasians being at this time at variance, Eudo 
 conceived the idea of calling in the Moors to assist him in the 
 conquest of France ; and as a pledge of his sincerity, gave his 
 daughter to one of their princes named Munoz : but as soon as 
 Abder-haman, the Moorish commander-in-chief, saw her, he over- 
 whelmed her father with reproaches for having given so fair a 
 maiden to a subject, instead of reserving her for the harem of 
 the Caliph ; ordered the right hand of Muhoz to be cut oft, as 
 unworthy to touch her, and sent the lady under an escort to 
 Damascus. The outraged father took the field with pn army, 
 
A.P. 741. CHAllLKS MARTEL. 3'o 
 
 but being defeated on the banks of the river Garonne, no choice 
 remained to him but to seek the protection of Charles Martel. 
 The cause was that of Cliristendom, for the followers of jMohani- 
 med openly declared that the object of all their campaij^ns was 
 to plant the crescent, at whatever cost of blood and suffering-, on 
 the ruins of the cross of Christ. Austrasians, Netherlanders, 
 the dwellers on the Rhine, Thuringians, Swabians, Bavarians, 
 and even Lombards from beyond the Alps, flocked to the standard 
 of Charles. 
 
 In the year 732 the two armies met between Tours and 
 Poitiers, and a fierce engagement began. The Frankish warriors, 
 particularly those of the north, nobly sustained the old German 
 reputation. In vain did squadi'on after squadron of the fierce 
 Moors, mounted on the fleet horses of Barbary, and shrieking 
 their war-cry of " Allah and Mohammed I" rush to the charge, 
 reckless of death, as those who believed that eternal happiness 
 would be the lot of all who should die in battle against the 
 Christians. The Franks, better armed and more thoroughly dis- 
 ciplined, mowed them down like grass. The Moorish general 
 Abder-haman fell ; and it is said that 375,000 Saracens were left 
 with him dead on the field. Christendom was saved, and the 
 barbarians retreated hastily across the Pyrenees. It was in this 
 battle that Charles obtained his surname of Martel from the fury 
 with which his heavy iron mace hammered down the Saracens. 
 Six years later the Moors again entered France by sea, but were 
 totally defeated in the battle of Narbonne, and never again at- 
 tempted to cross the frontier. 
 
 Charles Martel died in 741, leaving two sons, Pepin the Short 
 and Carloman, the latter of whom soon afterwards retired into a 
 convent ; when Pepin became sole major domus of France. The 
 royal family of that country had long since dwindled into little 
 more than a name ; but the throne was still filled by the feeble 
 Childeric, the last representative of the line. Pepin, who had 
 distinguished himself in a war with the Saxons, and whose sagacity 
 as a statesman was by no means inferior to his military experience, 
 saw that the time had now arrived for executing the plan, which 
 his ancestor had attempted unsuccessfully, of supplanting the 
 Merovingians, and placing his own family on the throne. In 
 pursuance of this design, the nobility were gained over by grants 
 of land, and the co-operation of the clergy having also been 
 secured by promises of immunities and endowments, Pepin boldly 
 
34 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. IV. 
 
 proposed the following question to Pope Zacharias : " Whether 
 of the two is worthy of the title and dignity of king ; he who sits 
 idly at home, or he who bears the burden and cares of govern- 
 ment ?" The Pope of course pronounced in favour of Pepin, 
 who had rescued Rome from the Lombards, and soon afterwards 
 he was elected King of France in an assembly of the people, held 
 at Soissons, where Clovis 266 years before had laid the foundation 
 of this powerful monarchy in his victory over the Suessones. 
 Thus was the family of the Merovingians supplanted by a new 
 power, which, from Charles Martel, the father of Pepin, has been 
 named the dynasty of the Carlovingians. The reign of Pepin 
 the vShort was signalized by the conquest of Lombardy by his son 
 Charles. As a reward for his services, Pepin was nominated 
 Patrician of Pome and exarch of Ravenna, with the title of Pro- 
 tector of the Holy City : and thus in the alliance of the temporal 
 and spiritual powers was laid the foundation of that grievous 
 tyranny under which Germany afterwards groaned for so many 
 centuries. Pepin died of dropsy on the 24th September, 768, 
 leaving behind him two sons — Carloman, who received Neustria 
 as his portion, and Charles (afterwards known in history as 
 Charlemagne, or Charles the Great), who inherited Austrasia. 
 This kingdom, besides the eastern provinces of France, compre- 
 hended a great part of the Netherlands, together with Swabia and 
 Bavaria . 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER IV, 
 
 Boniface, the Aposlle of Germany, horn A.D. 685, died 
 755. — In the eighth century, missionaries from the churches of 
 England, vScotland, and Ireland left their own shores to j^reach 
 the Gospel of Christ in the forests of their ancient fatherland. 
 Through their labours the images of Woden gave place to the 
 crucifix, and abbeys and convents rose on every side. Among 
 these zealous champions of the truth, the most distinguished was 
 an Anglo-Saxon monk, named Winfried, who, according to the 
 practice of those days, was known by the monastic title of 
 Bonifacius. On his arrival in France, he found the aifairs of the 
 cliurch in a state of deplorable confusion. The Franks had, in- 
 deed, been long partially converted ; but heathenish ceremonies 
 were every where intermingled with the rites of Christian worship ; 
 the priests were so ignorant, that, far from being able to explain 
 
Sup. Chap. iV. BONIFACE, THP: APOSTLE OF GERMANY. 35 
 
 t'le doctrines of Ohristianity, few of them could even read ; and 
 the bishops, who should have sustained the discipline of the church, 
 were more inclined to play the part of temporal princes in the 
 field of battle and at the banquet than to sustain the character of 
 overseers over the souls of men. Having speedily ascertained 
 that the co-operation of some higher power would be requisite, 
 in order to enforce discipline amongst the corrupt clergj' of the 
 Frankish church, Boniface earnestly solicited the sanction of the 
 Pope, to whom he took the following oath of obedience : " I, 
 Bonifacius, by the grace of God bishop, do promise unto thee, 
 St. Peter, Prince of the Apostles, and to thy Vicar, St. Gregory 
 the Pope, and his successors, by the Father, Son, and Holy 
 Ghost, the indivisible Trinity, and by thine own sacred body, that 
 I will be faithful and bear true allegiance unto thee, thy Vicar 
 aforesaid, and his successors. Signed by me, Bonifacius, with 
 mine own hand, and laid on the most sacred body of the blessed 
 Peter ; God being my witness unto this mine oath, which I 
 promise to observe and keep." That such a step was in his 
 judgment unavoidable, appears from his letters, in which he 
 describes himself as being " in the situation of a mastiff, which 
 sees the thieves and murderers breaking into his master's house ; 
 but having none to help him, can do little more than groan and 
 growl." In an epistle to the English bishop, Daniel, he speaks 
 also of the necessity of conciliating, not only the Pope, but the 
 Frankish King Pepin. " Without aid from the Prince of the 
 Franks, I can neither rule the people, nor protect the priests and 
 deacons, monks and nuns, whom I have brought hither with me 
 from England ; nor can I without his commands, and penalties 
 to enforce obedience unto the same, hope to put an end to their 
 heathenish practices and sacrifices to idols." The great measure 
 of church reform in France having been at length completed, 
 Boniface found himself at leisure to undertake the conversion of 
 the heathen ; a work which he carried on with his accustomed 
 energy, preaching with preat zeal and effect, and stationing 
 missionaries in all parts of Germany. Fearless of danger, he 
 would scatter with his own hands the stones of altars, around 
 which multitudes of howling savages were assembled to offer 
 sacrifices to their idols ; or, snatching an axe from the ministering 
 priests, hew down some ancient tree, the dwelling, as they believed, 
 of AVoden, or Thor, or some other deity of their dark and blood) 
 mythology. During this operation the people would gaze in stupid 
 
36 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. IV. 
 
 astonishment on the sacrilegious stranger, expecting, as stroke 
 after stroke fell on the trunk, that its terrible inhabitant would 
 rush forth in a flame of fire and consume Boniface and his com- 
 panions ; but when the tree at length fell, without any sign of 
 their god's displeasure, they generally lost all confidence in his 
 power, and listened patiently to the exhortations of the mis- 
 sionaries. 
 
 In the seventieth year of his age Boniface, being then Arch- 
 bishop of Mentz and primate of the German church, went to 
 preach the Gospel in Friesland, where he fell a victim to the 
 ferocity of the people, in the year of our Lord 755. *' Truly 
 (says old Schmidt) Germany hath great cause to be thankful unto 
 Bonifacius : for he it was who gave her instructors, not only in 
 religion, but in the sciences ; persuaded her inhabitants to eat no 
 more horse-flesh, laid the foundation of letters among them, and 
 shunned not to shed his blood for their sakes." Yet, together 
 with King Pepin, Boniface must be regarded as one of the great 
 founders of the Papal power, and of the blind superstition by 
 which it is supported. His favourite scheme was the union of all 
 nations in one Christian fold, of which the bishop of Rome was 
 to be the shepherd. The Latin language was to be exclusively 
 used in divine service. When the enlightened Yirgilius, bishop 
 of Salzburg — whom, on account of his knowledge of astronomy, 
 both the Pope and Boniface wanted to condemn as a magician — 
 asked the latter whether the formula of baptism pronounced by 
 a German priest in bad Latin like the following — " Baptizo te in 
 nomine Patria et Filia et Spiritus Sancti " — would be valid, Boni- 
 face replied in the affirmative ; for he held that the essence of 
 faith lay in blind and unreasoning obedience. 
 
A D. 771. 
 
 CHARLEMAGNE. 
 
 37 
 
 CHAPTEE V. 
 
 CHARLEMAGNE — THE FIRST GERMANTC-ROMAN EMPEROR. 
 
 From A.D. 771 to 811. 
 
 Statue of Charlemagne 
 
 An accident having deprived Carloman of life in the year 771, 
 his brother became King of all the Franks, and commenced a 
 career of success to which history presents few parallels. To a 
 restless activity of body, which made every hour appear tedious 
 unless employed in combating his enemies, or in the organization 
 of his empire at home, Charlemagne united a creative spirit, which 
 during the forty-three years of his reign changed the condition 
 not only of France, but of all Europe. With him closes the his- 
 tory of ancient Germany. All the old free states and kingdoms 
 were incorporated into one mighty empire, and with the new 
 name the people adopted new views and a new character. Scarcely 
 ''^had Charlemagne become sole sovereign, when an attempt on the 
 part of Desiderius, King of the Lombards, to extort from the 
 Pope the recognition of Carloman 's sons, whom their uncle had 
 deprived of Neustria, furnished him with an excuse for entering 
 Italy by the pass of Mont Cenis, whilst his uncle Bernard at 
 tempted to cross the Alps at the spot which was then Mons Jovis, 
 Gy d 
 
38 HISTORY OF GERMANY. <^HAP. Y. 
 
 but which has since been called after his name the Great St 
 Bernard. As the Frankish army advanced, the people fled for 
 refuge into their fortified cities, whilst Desiderius, shut up in liis 
 capital of Pa via, awaited the coming of that renowned hero, thg 
 bare mention of whose name had spread such dismay among his 
 subjects. At length Charlemagne appeared before the gates of 
 Pavia ; and old chroniclers relate that as Desiderius reconnoitered 
 the Frankish army from a liigh tower, and saw the gigantic form 
 of his enemy cased in bright armour, and mounted on a charger 
 which seemed, like its master, to be an animated statue of iron, 
 his heart sank ^nthin him, and he exclaimed in a melancholy tone 
 to liis attendants—" Let us descend and liide ourselves in the earth 
 from the angry face of so terrible a foe." After several months' 
 siege, want of food having compelled the garrison to surrender at 
 discretion, Charlemagne sent the king, as one who had proved him- 
 self unwortliy of a throne, to end his days in the monastery of 
 Corvey, and placed on his own head the ancient iron crown of the 
 kingdo7ii of Lombardy. The same year (April 2nd, 774) he 
 visited Rome, and dismounting at the distance of a thousand paces 
 from the walls, walked in procession to the church of St. Peter on 
 the Vatican hill, kissing the steps in succession as he ascended, in 
 honour of tlie saints by whose feet they had been trodden. In the 
 vestibule of the church he was received by the Pope, who embraced 
 him with great affection, the choir chanting the psalm " Blessed is 
 he who cometh in the name of the Lord." Then they descended 
 into the vaults, and oflfered up their prayers together at the shrine 
 of St. Peter. Meanwhile the Lombards, far from submitting 
 patiently to the yoke of a foreign master, had placed Adalgisius, 
 the son of Desiderius, on his father's throne. But might again 
 prevailed over justice, and the unhappy prince was compelled to 
 save his life by going into exile ; M'hilst of all the Lombard cities, 
 Venice alone bade defiance to the conqueror, beat back his armies 
 from her walls, and retained her freedom. 
 
 While success thus attended the arms of Charlemagne in Italy, 
 his power was withstood on the other side of the Alps by the 
 Saxons ; a brave, but savage race, who for centuries had been 
 engaged at intervals in sanguinary struggles with the Frankish 
 sovereigns. Attempts had often been made to convert them to 
 Christianity ; but they adhered with greater obstinacy to heathen- 
 ism, because conversion presented to their minds the idea of 
 enslavement ; and repeated endeavours to christianize them by 
 
A.D. 772. CHARLEMAGNE. 39 
 
 force had stained the fields of Germany with blood during the 
 dynasty of the Merovingians. It was in the month of May 772 
 tliat Charlemagne held a council of his kingdom at Worms, at 
 which war with the Saxons was unanimously voted. Religion was 
 the pretext for this act of tyrannical injustice. Tlie Franks 
 liad sent a missionary to preach to the Saxons at their great feast 
 at Marklo, and since kindness and persuasion had failed to convert 
 these obstinate unbelievers, they were willing, like their fathers of 
 old, to tiy tlie effect of fire and sword ; a feeling which Charle 
 magne encouraged with the view of rendering the war popular, 
 as being the cause of God and his church. With the king at their 
 head the Prankish army crossed the Rhine and drove all before 
 them as far a§ the Weser, but Charlemagne being soon afterwards 
 called off to suppress an insurrection in Lombardy, the Saxons 
 rose as one man, and were again defeated with great slaughter. 
 And thus for more than thirty years, under the command of 
 Wittekind, Duke of Westphalia, they made head against their 
 oppressors, rallying after every murderous defeat, and meeting in 
 the dc^pths of gloomy forests, where they swore irreconcilable 
 enmity to the Franks on the altars of their ancient gods. It was 
 not until their forces were completely exhausted by two bloody 
 engagements, that their leaders Wittekind and Alboin came to 
 Attigny in France, and voluntarily received the sacrament of 
 baptism. The vulgar, as they are wont in sucli cases, ascribed 
 the conversion of the former to a miracle. " Wittekind," says 
 the legend, " visited Wolmirstadt in the disguise of a beggar, and, 
 happening to enter the church, saw in the midst of the consecrated 
 wafer the figure of a child clothed in wliite raiment ; and so he at 
 once acknowledged the truth of tliat religion which he had before 
 rejected." In the year 803 a treaty of peace was signed at Selz 
 on the Saale. Paganism, which had formerly been forbidden on 
 pain of death, was again prohibited, but in other respects the 
 ancient constitution of the Saxons remained unaltered, it being 
 expressly stipulated that the two nations should be considered in 
 all respects equal. Five years later, however, Wittekind having 
 fallen by the hand of an assassin, his dukedom was divided by 
 Charlemagne into eight bishoprics, which mark the extent of 
 ancient Saxony on either side of the Weser. They were Munster, 
 Osnaburg, Paderborn, Minden, Bremen, Verden, Ilildesheim, and 
 Halberstadt. Christianity was established and maintained by laws 
 of tile greatest crueltv ; and a relapse into paganism, or the mort 
 
 D 2 
 
40 HISTOEY OF GERMANY. Chap. V. 
 
 venial offence of eating flesh in Lent was equally punishable with 
 death. 
 
 We must now take a short review of the other conquests of 
 Charlemagne during the tliirty-two years which w^ere principally 
 occupied by this struggle with the Saxons. In 778 he entered 
 Spain on the invitation of Ibn-al-Arabi, emir or lord of Saragossa, 
 and wrested from the Moors the whole of the country east of the 
 Ebro, erecting Catalonia into a Frankish dukedom, and rein- 
 stating Ibn-al-Arabi in the government of Saragossa, from which 
 he had been deposed by the dominant Moorish party. The 
 principal general in this expedition was Roland, the hero of 
 Frankish song, who fell in a skirmish while threading the defile of 
 Roncesvalles. The next year Charlemagne took Majorca and 
 Minorca from the IMoors, and would probably have driven them 
 out of Europe altogether, could he have spared a sufficient force 
 from the Saxon wars for that purpose. In 787 the Duke of Bene- 
 vento, whose territories extended from Naples to Brindisi, acknow- 
 ledged him as his liege lord, and took the oath of fealty at Salerno ; 
 and a few years later the Avars, Poles, and Bohemians were 
 subdued and made tributary to the Frankish crown. The princes 
 or chains of the Avars had erected in Hungary fortress.es of a 
 peculiar construction, composed of circles of walls, one within 
 another, wliich they believed to be impregnable. After a desperate 
 struggle, these ring-forts, as they were called, were carried by 
 storm, and the rich booty which they contained sent to Charle- 
 magne, who immediately presented half of it to the Pope. At 
 the taking of them a Swabian knight, named Count Ceroid, dis- 
 tinguished himself by such acts of intrepid bravery, that the 
 king granted to the Swabians the privilege of leading the attack 
 in all future campaigns ; and another warrior of the same nation 
 impaled, as popular tales relate, seven of the Avars at once on his 
 long spear, an exploit which procured for him among the soldiers 
 tne surname of Einheer, a hero whom the ancient legends of the 
 North represent as dwelling with Odin in the halls of Walhalla. 
 
 These victories of Charlemagne changed the political consti- 
 tution of a large portion of Europe. From the Ebro to the 
 Raab and Theiss, and from Benevento to the Eyder, all the 
 German tribes, with the exception of the Anglo-Saxons, and the 
 Scandinavians who occupied Norway, Denmark, and Sweden, 
 were, for the first time, united under one head. With these were 
 joined the Romans of the Western empire, and a considerable 
 
Sup. Chap. V. CUAliLEMAGNP]. 41 
 
 portion of the Sclavonians and Avars ; so tliat the dominions of 
 Charlemagne were more extensive than those of the Roman em- 
 perors had ever been. The whole of this mighty kingdom had 
 one religion, which formed a wall of separation from the Moham- 
 medans in Spain, Africa, and Asia on the one side, and the 
 heathenish Normans, Sclavonians, and Avars on the other. Italians 
 and Germans, forgetting their former hatred of each other, were 
 now united to defend their church against the attacks of all enemies, 
 whether Mohammedan, pagan, or heretical, like the inhabitants of 
 the Eastern empire. The descendants of the ancient Romans, 
 however, although thus incorporated with the Germans, still re- 
 membered the days when Rome was mistress of the world. What 
 could be more natural than that Charlemagne who now governed 
 the land whence the emperors had once sent out their decrees to 
 the uttermost parts of the earth, and whose dominions might vie 
 with those which they possessed in the most palmy days of Rome, 
 should conceive the idea of re-establishing the imperial throne ? 
 
 It was during a visit of the Pope to Charlemagne at Paderborn, 
 in the year 799, that this plan seems to have been first discussed. 
 The next year the King of the Franks went to Rome, and received 
 from the hands of Pope Leo III. the crown which was destined 
 for one thousand and six years to be the symbol of German unity, 
 whilst the assembled people shouted " Long life and victory to 
 Carolus Augustus, the great and peace-bringing Roman emperor, 
 whom God hath crowned ! " 
 
 But Charlemagne had still higher views. In the hope of placing 
 on his head the crown of the East as well as that of the West, he 
 sent ambassadors to Constantinople to demand the hand of the 
 widowed empress Irene ; but on their arrival they found that her 
 throne had been usurped by Nicephorus, who was so little pleased 
 at such a proposal that he treated the envoys with indignity ; in 
 return for which (as we are told by a gossiping old chronicler, the 
 Monk of St. Gall) his own ambassadors were sorely mocked and 
 misused by the emperor three years later. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER V. 
 
 Visit of Pope Leo III. to Charlemagne, at Paderborn. — 
 Shortly before the conclusion of peace with the Saxons in the 
 year 799, Charlemagne held a splendid court at Paderborn, which 
 was attended by all the nobles and ladie.s of his kingdom, in- 
 
42 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. V. 
 
 eluding his own beautiful daughters, who delighted the people by 
 the skill with which they managed their horses, as they rode 
 daily to the chase. The renowned Harun al Raschid, Caliph of 
 Bagdad, sent him a costly tent, an elephant named Abulabaz 
 {the ravager), and a water-clock of curious workmanship, con- 
 taining twelve little brazen balls, one of which fell at the end of 
 every hour into a basin of the same metal placed underneath, 
 whilst at the same time a window opened, and figures of knights, 
 from one to twelve in number, according to the time of the day, 
 started out and performed various evolutions in frojit of the 
 machine. These presents were intended as a testimonial of the 
 eastern monarch's regard for a prince who, like himself, was an 
 enemy of the rebellious Moorish usurpers in Spain. But the 
 sight most gratifying to the Franks was the arrival of the Pope, 
 who came from Rome to implore the aid of Charlemagne against 
 the anti-Frankish party, from whom he had received personal ill- 
 treatment. Meeting in the neighbourhood of an ancient fountain 
 which in pagan times had been consecrated to some god of the forest 
 or the stream, the spiritual and temporal sovereigns embraced, 
 in presence of the disgusted Saxons, many of whom, being still 
 heathens, were not unnaturally disposed to regard this interview a.s 
 another public insult to the religion of their country. It was here 
 that the question was debated, as we have already mentioned, of 
 re-establisliing the imperial dignity in the person of Charlemagne. 
 
 Embassy sent by Nicephorus to Aix~la- Chapelle.—^' Chstrles 
 avenged the cold and discourteous entertainment which his envoys 
 had received at Constantinople by providing the Greek ambas- 
 sadors with guides through the Alps, who were directed to conduct 
 them through the wildest passes and along the most tedious routes. 
 The Greeks accordingly reached Germany with their persons, 
 dress, and equipage, in the sorriest plight imaginable. On their 
 arrival, Charles is said to have had them introduced to four of Ids 
 chief officers in succession, each arrayed in such splendid apparel 
 as to induce the bewildered envoys to render four times over to 
 his servants a homage Avhich they could not pay, except to his 
 own imperial person, without a great loss of dignity ; until at 
 length they stood in the presence of the most illustrious of kings, 
 glittering with gold and jewels, and leaning on the ami of the very 
 man whom their master had presumed to treat with disrespect. 
 
 '•'It happened to be the festival of the circumcision, and the 
 Greeks had brought with them a musical instrument, which, by 
 
ro. 
 
 ;iIARLEMAGNK. 
 
 43 
 
 means of brazen tubes and bellows of ox-hides, produced sounds 
 alternately as solemn as the thunder or as gentle as the lyre. 
 Singing in their own language the psalms appropriated to tiiat 
 holy season, they were overheard by Charles ; who, enraptured 
 by the sacred harmonies, connnanded his chaplains to eat no bread 
 till they had laid before him a Latin version of those beautiful 
 antliems. He had mortified the effendnacy and retaliated the 
 rudeness of his Greek allies ; but he enthusiastically felt and 
 acknowledged the charms of their superior civilization." * 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 CHARLEMAGNE. 
 
 Tcfmb of Witteldnd In the Church of Engcrn, Westphalia.— Eleventh Century. 
 
 On assuming the imperial crown, Charlemagne had declared that 
 he bore the temporal sword only ; the spiritual was intrusted to 
 
 * Sir J. Stephen's Lectures on the History cf France, i. S7. 
 
44 HISTOKi' OF GERMANY. Chap. VI. 
 
 the Pope, as tne representative of St. Peter, to whom the Saviour 
 had given the keys of his kingdom : the empire, therefore, being 
 in tliis sense sul)ject to the head of the church, was called " holy," 
 and the words Germanic-Roman were added to express the parts 
 of which it was composed. The whole fabric of Charlemagne's 
 dominion was founded on the feudal or vassalage system, which 
 had been partially introduced by Clovis, whose policy it had been 
 to diminish as much as possible the number of those who held 
 independent freeholds by offeiing them every inducement to 
 become vassals of the crown. The power of these proprietors was 
 m consequence so weakened that Charlemagne found no difficulty 
 in reducing them at one stroke to the condition of vassalage, by 
 causing all male persons without distinction, wdio had attained 
 the age of twelve years, to swear that " they would in future obey 
 the emperor in the same manner as a vassal is bound to obey 
 his lord." Thus Charlemagne became feudal lord of the whole 
 empire; all liis subjects, of whatever rank, being his vassals. 
 The Emperor liimself was the central point from which all the 
 acts of his government issued. The more important letters were 
 written by his own hand, and sealed with a seal which was set in 
 the hilt of his sword. He Mould then place the letter in the 
 liands of the proper officer, saying, " There is my order, and here 
 (pointing to his sword) is that wliich will enforce obedience to 
 it." The encouragement which he gave to agriculture, and his 
 efforts to promote its improvement, deserve our warmest com- 
 mendation. His own estates were patterns of neatness, and were 
 managed according to a written code of instructions drawn up by 
 himself; the cultivation of the vine, as w^ell as of othei' fruit- 
 trees, and the rearing of cattle, being carried on with a success 
 which greatly improved the revenues of the crown. Charlemagne 
 also directed his attention to the advancement of trade and 
 manufactures, bringing, with that view, a considerable number 
 of artisans out of Italy (where commerce still flourished), and 
 encouraging by every means in his power their intercourse with 
 his people. Bridges were thrown over tne rivers, markets were 
 established, the most burdensome imposts removed, and no fresh 
 taxes levied except such as were supposed to be actually beneficial 
 to trade by protecting it against foreign competition. 
 
 In those unsettled times, when war was the chief business and 
 the liighest glory of man, we can hardly expect to find that the 
 fine arts, tne offspring of peace and tranquillity, were cultivated 
 
A.u. 779, CHARLEMAGNE. 45 
 
 to any great extent : architecture nevertlieless was indebted to the 
 encouragement and exertions of Charlemagne for considerable 
 improvements. At Frankfort, at Ingelheim on the Rhine, his 
 favourite residence, and at Aix-la-Chapelle, buildings of no ordi- 
 nary splendour were erected by his command. The legend relates, 
 that as Charlemagne was riding one day through a wood, his 
 liorse suddenly started, as in pain. On seeking for the cause, it 
 appeared that the animal had plunged its foot into the waters of a 
 hot fountain, and thus accidentally disclosed the existence of those 
 ^^■onderful boiling springs which Charlemagne ever afterwards 
 used, and which from his time to the present day have rendered 
 Aachen, or Aix-la-Chapelle, the resort of invalids from all the 
 countries of Europe. A fair city rose on the spot, and became the 
 favourite residence of the Emperor, who built there a magnificent 
 palace, and the noble cathedral, for the construction of which 
 skilful workmen were summoned from all the civilized parts of 
 the world. Marble was brought for the work from Ravenna and 
 Rome, and the best artists of that day were employed in casting 
 bronze gates for the entrance, wliilst gold, silver, and precious 
 stones were employed unsparingly witliin. Like a true patriot, 
 Charlemagne exerted himself unweariedly to bring his mother- 
 tongue to perfection, and even attempted to compose a German 
 grammar ; but the work, being probably too difficult for one whose 
 attention was perpetually distracted by other matters, was soon 
 abandoned. He made, however, a collection of the popular songs 
 of the various Germanic tribes, hoping thus to foster in the people 
 at once a love for poetry and for their fatherland ; but the blind 
 fanaticism of his son rendered this plan abortive by destroying 
 all those precious reliques, which would have been invaluable in 
 after times to the student of German antiquity. Charlemagne 
 also gave German names to the months, and embraced every other 
 occasion of forming for his people a language which should 
 supersede that of the former masters of the world, and unite all 
 who spoke it by tne strongest bond of brotherhood, a common 
 tongue. But the object which he had most at heart was the 
 support and propagation of Christianity. Wherever the doctrines 
 of the Gospel had already taken root, the old bishoprics and 
 churches were settled on firmer grounds than before, and new 
 establishments formed in countries of which the inhabitants were 
 yet unconverted. The church was governed by four archbishops 
 and twenty-seven bishops, all of whom were elected by the 
 
46 HISTORY OF GERMANY, Chap. VI. 
 
 Christian community and clergy, and confirmed in their office by 
 the Emperor. In order to insure the regular education of the 
 clergy, all bisnops were required to entertain a certain number of 
 spiritual persons who dwelt in one house near the church, and were 
 called from the Greek word Kanon^ a rule, Canonici or Canons. 
 These establishments, as well as the schools afterwards founded 
 by Charlemagne, were under the immediate superintendence of 
 tta bishop himself, who was expected to instruct and exhort his 
 clergy as occasion might require. In order to improve the mode 
 of celebrating divine service, Charlemagne introduced organs into 
 his churches, and encouraged his people to cultivate instrumental 
 music, which they did with such success that organists were sent 
 out of Germany to Rome itself. In the study of vocal melody 
 their progress seems to have been less satisfactory, for a contem- 
 porary writer says, that their rough voices seemed rather to craunch 
 the notes in their throats than to utter them, and compares their 
 treble to the screaming of seamews, whilst their bass quavers 
 were like nothing so much as the rumbling and jolting of a cart 
 along an ill-paved causeway. It was the earnest desire of the 
 Emperor that the clergy should lead pure and holy lives : he 
 therefore put in force the old laws against their keeping hounds, 
 hawks, or jesters, and exerted himself to revive in them that 
 simple and world-denying spirit which had animated the first 
 teachers of Clnistianity. How anxiously he had this ol^ject in 
 view may be collected from one of his ordinances. '' The bishops 
 and abbots," says this document, " should provide rather that the 
 priests and monks lead good and holy lives, than that they sing 
 and read well : for good singing and correct reading are, without 
 doubt, praiseworthy ; yet a bad voice seemeth to me more tolerable 
 than a bad life. Also it is expedient that the fabric of the 
 church be comely ; but far more lovely is the adornment of good 
 manners." Amidst the many vexatious hindrances which he 
 experienced during his long reign from the obstinacy of ignorant 
 men, Charlemagne was naturally led to the conclusion, that the 
 only feasible mode of improving the moral condition of his people 
 was to implant the seeds of better principles in tlie minds of the 
 rising generation. In one of his circulars to the abbots of the 
 empire, he complains that he " often receiveth very ill-written 
 letters from convents; it is therefore greatly to be feared that 
 monks who express themselves so indiflferently will prove but 
 sorry expounders of God's word." The IMonk of St. Gall (whom 
 
A.D. 813 CHARLEMAGNE. 47 
 
 wc have already quoted) relates the following story, which may 
 serve as an illustration of tiie interest felt l^y Cliarlemagne in the 
 progress of his youthful subjects : — " Charlemagne had established 
 schools in different p^rts of his dominions, to which all his 
 subjects, rich no less than poor, were compelled to send their 
 children, that they might receive instruction from those who were 
 appointed to that duty. Now it happened on a certain day, when 
 he was visiting one of these schools, that the children of the 
 nobles exhibited much ignorance, whilst those of the poor gave 
 such answers as fully contented the Emperor. Placing the poor 
 cliildren on his right and the rich on his left, he first addressed 
 the former : ' I thank you, my sons, that you have obeyed my 
 commands. Continue to strive after perfection, and I will give 
 you bishoprics and abbeys, and ye shall have favour in my sight.' 
 Then turning with an angry countenance to those on his left, lie 
 said, ' Ye high-born sons of my most illustrious nobles ! Ye asses 
 and coxcombs ! In the pride of your birth and your possessions 
 you despise my commands, and give yourselves up to idleness, 
 riot, and disorder; but' — and here he raised his hand with a 
 threatening gesture — ' by the King of heaven, if you do not 
 straightway make up by diligence for your former neglect, you 
 have little good to expect at the hands of Charles.' " 
 
 Old age at length, with its attendant infirmities, warned the 
 Emperor to set his house in order, by making such a testamentary 
 disposition of his property as would preclude all disputes after 
 his decease. Two-thirds of his valuables were bequeathed to the 
 bishops of the empire. A silver table, on which was engraven a 
 plan of the city of Constantinople, was given to the church of 
 St. Peter at Rome ; a similar one, with an engraving of Rome, to 
 the Bishop of Ravenna ; and a third, which had a map of the 
 world, was left to his children. His books were to be sold for 
 the benefit of the poor. 
 
 In the year 813 the Emperor, on returning from his usual 
 hunting party in the forest of Ardennes, was attacked by an illness 
 so violent as to threaten immediate dissolution. Rallying a little, 
 he assembled the Diet of the Empire at Aix-la-Chapelle in the 
 autumn of the same year ; and addressing his son Lewis who stood 
 with him before the high altar of the cathedral, he exhorted hun 
 to fear God and to love him — to defend the church — to be kind to 
 his relations — to honour the priests — and love his peoi)le as his 
 cliildren — to choose none but men of irreproachable character for 
 
48 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chaf. 71. 
 
 Ins miiiisiers — and to keep a conscience void of offence both to- 
 wards God and towards man. After tliis exhortation he added, 
 " Wilt thou, my son, fulfil all this ? *' To which the Prince replied, 
 " By God's help I will." Then the Emperor commanded him to 
 take the crown from off* the altar and place it on liis own head 
 The following year his disease became more violent, and wast(:d 
 his strength so rapidly, that on the fifth day he received the Holy 
 Communion ; and having commended his soul to God, folded his 
 hands, and in a few minutes ceased to breathe (Jan. 28, 814), 
 Many prodigies had given warning (as men believed) of the ap- 
 proaching event. For seven successive days black spots were 
 observed on the sun's disc. The portico, which Charlemagne had 
 constructed as a means of communication between his palace and 
 the cathedral of Aix, fell down with a terrible crash. The wooden 
 bridge over the Rhine, at Mentz, which had been ten years in 
 building, was utterly destroyed by fire in three hours. Repeated 
 shocks of earthquakes were felt at Aix. The cathedral was struck 
 by lightning, and the words *' Carolus Imperator" obliterated 
 from an inscription which had been placed there in honour of its 
 founder. Charlemagne was buried at Aix-la-Chapelle, in the 
 cathedral of the Blessed Virgin, which he himself had founded. 
 After being embalmed in the usual manner, the body, instead ot 
 being laid in a coffin, was placed in a sitting posture on a golden 
 throne, girt with a golden sword, the book of the Gospels in its 
 hand, the imperial robe on the shoulders, and the face covered witli 
 a cere-cloth spread underneath the diadem. Over Ms tomb a 
 gilded arch was erected, with a statue and this inscription — " In 
 this sepulchre rests the body of Charles, the great and orthodox 
 Emperor, who nobly enlarged the kingdom of the Franks, and 
 reigned happily during 47 years. He died in his seventieth year, 
 on the 28th day of January, 814." 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Laws of Charlemagne. — It was the practice of Charlemagne 
 to collect the old codes of such German nations as possessed written 
 laws ; or, where none could be found, to employ commissioners, 
 whose business it w as to wTite down from the mouths of the people 
 the traditionary or unwritten laws which they had been accustomed 
 to obey. These were then laid before a diet, or assemblage of 
 the notables of the empire, which was held in autumn. At thi:^ 
 
Sup. Chap. VL LAWS OF CHARLEMAGNE. 49 
 
 meeting- the generals, governors of provinces, archbishops, bishops, 
 and abbots were invited by the emperor to deliver their opinions ; 
 and when all had been heard, such amendments as seemed neces- 
 sary were adopted, and presented to the people at a general diet in 
 the month of JMay. The laws of Charlemagne (termed the Capi- 
 tulqries) and those of his son Lewis were collected and arranged 
 in the year 827. Tlieir extreme severity shows the roughness of 
 the times for which they were framed. 
 
 Those against theft are singularly cruel. For the first offence 
 the robber was condemned to lose an eye, for the second his nose 
 was cut off, and for the third he forfeited his life. Perjurers were 
 punished by the loss of the right hand. The water-cure, so re- 
 nowned in Germany in the present day, was also prescribed in 
 the Capitularies of Charlemagne as the best mode of treatment for 
 inveterate drunkards, who were condemned to a course of that 
 meagre beverage until they were cured of their intemperate habits. 
 Conspirators against the sovereign or against public order were 
 punished, the principals by death, and accomplices by being con- 
 demned to flog each other, or, if the circumstances were unusually 
 atrocious, to cut off each other's noses. Charlemagne took away 
 from the Communities the rigJit of administering justice, anu 
 placed it in the hands of Counts (Grafen), named by himself. 
 Those who were dissatisfied with the decision of the local courts 
 njight appeal to commissioners {?nissi dominici), who performed 
 their circuits, like our judges, at stated times of the year. The 
 seven jurymen of the old Salique law were retained under the new 
 title of Schoppen, who were to be nominated by the itinerant 
 commissioners, subject to the approbation of the emperor. These 
 were assisted by three assessors named Sagibarones, and presided 
 over by a vicar, or imperial lieutenant, who held his office for life. 
 Counsel were allowed to those who were too infirm or too ignorant 
 to plead their own cause. In every district the count was required 
 to maintain a prison and a gallows in good and serviceable repair, 
 with a pilloiy in the public market-place for the punishment of 
 minor offences. To the ancient ordeals of the duel, casting of 
 lots, fire, and boiling water, were added those of the red-hol 
 ploughshares, the cross, and cold water. The first of these trials 
 was thus performed : — Nine ploughshares, heated to a red heat, 
 being laid on the ground at unequal distances, the accused was 
 required to walk over them barefoot, touching each with his naked 
 sole. If he escaped burning, his innoctiice was established. The 
 
50 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. Yi. 
 
 man who accused another of perjury was required to undergo 
 the ordeal of the cross, which was performed in the following 
 manner : — Both parties standing before the cross, held their arms 
 above their heads, and he whom weariness first compelled to 
 change that uneasy posture, was condemned on what was esteemed 
 the clearest of all evidence, the judgment of God. The water 
 ordeal was very simple :— A rope being fastened round the ac- 
 cused, he ^\as plunged into the nearest stream. If he sank, liis 
 innocence was established beyond a doubt, but he had generally 
 the misfortune to be drowned ; if he swam, he was at once con- 
 demned as a guilty wretch, whom the water rejected as too unclean 
 to be retained in its bosom. 
 
 Officers of the Empire.— T\\Q first officer of the empire was 
 the Arch-Pfalzgraf (Count Palatine) or Minister of Justice and 
 Police, who possessed the right of removing the judges in case of 
 misconduct. These officers, originally appointed as a check on 
 the dukes, were so styled from their being employed in the ad- 
 ministration of the estates attached to the imperial palaces 
 (Pfalzen). Next to him was the Chancellor, an ecclesiastic, who 
 had the management of all spiritual affairs. A third great officer 
 was the Camerarius (chamberlain or treasurer), who managed the 
 revenue, as well as the expenditure and arrangements of the im- 
 perial household. For the provinces the administration was thus 
 ordered : — In former times they had been divided into large dis- 
 tricts, each of which was ruled by a duke, originally the dux or 
 leader of the army, who, when the forces were disbanded, became 
 possessor of the largest tract of conquered country. The power 
 of these petty princes being too great for Charlemagne's plan of 
 universal dominion, he seized every opportunity of deposing them 
 and dividing their territories into small districts called Gtaie^ each 
 of which was governed by an officer termed a Gau-Graf or Land- 
 Graf. If the Gau was situated on the frontier, he was called 
 Mark- Graf (Count of the Marches or Frontier): if it belonged 
 immediately to the emperor, he had the title of Pfalz-Graf — 
 (Palatine or Palace Count). We have already noticed the im- 
 perial commissioners (Missi or Senden) who made the circuits in 
 January, April, July, and October. 
 
 Military affairs. — A great change was effected in the condition 
 of the people by a new system of raising soldiers for the various 
 wars m which the emperor was engaged. Before liis reign it had 
 been the practice for none but the king's vassals to serve ; but 
 
Sup. Chap. VI. MILITARY AFFAIRS — THE ClIURCII. 51 
 
 Charlemagne, who saw the danger of encouraging tlie existence oi 
 an armed class distinct from the body of the people, introduced 
 the following regulations : — Every freeholder who possessed three 
 homesteads, called Manses, was required to appear in arms when- 
 ever a war broke out. Those who possessed less than the above 
 qualification were obliged to club together to arm or equip one or 
 more of their number, as the case might be. The possessor of 
 twelve Manses wa-s obliged to appear at tlie place of meeting clad 
 in complete armour ; but those of smaller property were only 
 required to be provided with a lance and shield, or a bow, two 
 strings, and twelve arrows. It was not often, however, that the 
 whole of this militia (Landwehr) was called out. The bishops, 
 who had hitherto disgraced their holy profession by appearing in 
 arms, were now strictly prohibited from serving ; two or three 
 only being required to attend the army, not in the character of 
 soldiers, but to comfort the wounded with their prayers, and 
 perform the offices of the church over the dead. The effect of 
 these arrangements was, that the petty freeholders, who had only 
 been able to force from the soil a miserable subsistence by unre- 
 mitting labour, found themselves, on their return from a campaign, 
 so overwhelmed with debt, that they were compelled to sell their 
 freeholds, or AUodes, as they were called, to some bishop or rich 
 noble. Thus in a few years the people of the empire composed 
 only two classes — those who possessed serfs, and those who had 
 none : the former were to a certain extent free, the latter slaves. 
 
 It is worthy of remark, that as none but the emperor, dukes, 
 and spiritual lords, could confer the right of huntiijg, fishing, and 
 wood-cutting on their serfs, the proudest nobles would sometimes 
 become vassals of convents, in order to obtain these advantages. 
 
 The Church. — The influence of the clergy over all classes soon 
 became unbounded, partly on account of their learning, which, 
 although it seldom extended beyond reading and writing their 
 mother tongue, seemed almost miraculous in the eyes of men more 
 ignorant than themselves, and partly from the immense possessions 
 which they had acquired by purchase from the poorer freeholders. 
 The monks (an order which had first originated in Egypt, and 
 rapidly spread over Europe) were formed into regular societies in 
 the sixth century, and took for their guide the rule of Benedict, 
 an Italian who founded a monastery on Monte Cassijio, near 
 Naples. In all spiritual matters the Pope was acknowledgc(i as 
 absolute lord in Germany — a power conferred on him, or at least 
 
52 HISTORY OF GERMANY. • ^hap. YI. 
 
 confirmed, by the well-meant but imprudent conduct of Boniface 
 in soliciting the sanction of the papal see to his mission, and re- 
 cognising the Metropolitan of Rome as universal Bishop, a title 
 which Gregory the Great and his predecessors had rejected witn 
 horror in the better days of the Catholic church. The clergy now 
 clamied the right of being judged by their own bishops for offences 
 whicn, in the cases of laymen, were tried in the ordinary courts ; 
 and from the sentence of these spiritual judges there was no appeal 
 but to the Pope, whose decision was final. Against the laity who 
 disobeyed the commands of the church, the Pope had the power 
 of pronouncing an interdict, which excluded them from public 
 worship, and debarred them from the use of the sacraments : or 
 the still more formidable sentence of tlie ban, by which he declared 
 war against the sinner as an enemy of God, and called on all 
 faithful Christians to aid in his destruction. In the early days of 
 the empire, the election of a pope was not considered valid until it 
 had been confirmed by the Emperor ; but tiiis restriction, which 
 ill suited the ambition of those who styled themselves the immediate 
 representatives of Christ, was soon abolished. On the other liand, 
 the election of an Emperor was informal unless approved by the 
 Pope ; the successful candidate for the crown having only the 
 title of King, until his coronation by the hands of the Bishop of 
 Rome empowered mm to assume tnat of Emperoi'. Thus the 
 feudal lord of all Germany was himself a vassal of the Pope, from 
 whom he received the imperial crown in the character of a gift 
 rather than a right. Bishops, although they received their in- 
 vestiture (a ring and a staff) from the hands of the Emperor, 
 could not exercise their functions until the pallium or pall arrived 
 from Rome, noi' could they be removed from office without the 
 Pope's consent. Pepin had conferred on the Pope the whole of 
 middle Italy, which thenceforward had the name of " States of the 
 Church," or " Patrimony of St. Peter." The revenues of this rich 
 gift were amply sufficient to maintain the papal court in a style 
 suitable to the dignity which it assumed ; whilst the venerable 
 relics of antiquity and memorials of ancient glory threw a splendour 
 around the throne of him who reigned in the city which had once 
 been mistress of the world. 
 
 But Charlemagne, though a warm friend of the church, was not 
 disposed to be ruled by the Pope. Nominally, indeed, he confirmed 
 the Roman Pontiff in the Italian temporalities granted by his 
 father, though he subsequently did all that lay in his power to 
 
Sup. Chap. VI. LITEKATUKE — CHARACTER OF CHARLEMAGNE. 53 
 
 evade his promise. But within his own dominions he took care to 
 assert his supremacy in ecclesiastical matters. He presided over 
 the synods held in diiferent towns of his empire, and even claimed 
 the prerogative of interfering in questions purely of doctrine. 
 Thus, in opposition to Pope Adrian, he forbade the worsliip of 
 images in liis dominions, and caused a violent controversial work 
 to be drawn up against them under liis own immediate superin- 
 tendence. 
 
 Literature. — The leisure hours of Charlemagne were generally 
 passed in the society of learned men, who were encouraged by liis 
 patronage to reside at the imperial court. During his meals some 
 one read aloud to liim out of old cln-onicles or the writings of 
 theologians. He spoke the Latin language fluently, and under- 
 stood Greek, but could not converse in it. His great ambition 
 was to write well, but this object he never fully attained ; for the 
 hand wliich had been accustomed to wield the sword or the lance, 
 could not be rendered sufficiently pliable for the correct guidance 
 of the pen ; although it is said liis writing materials were placed 
 under his pillow, and many a sleepless night was passed in tracing 
 the stubborn letters. Among the most distinguished of his literary 
 associates was his chaplain and chief adviser in ecclesiastical affairs, 
 Alcuin, an English monk, w^th whom he had first become ac- 
 quainted at Rome. This man, who was a prodigy of learning, 
 acted as tutor, not only to the cliildren of the imperial family, but 
 to the Emperor himself. There were also the brave and intelli- 
 gent Eginhard, the chronicler of his master's life and times ; Paul, 
 generally surnamed Diaconus, a learned Lombard ; Bishop Turpin, 
 who wrote a biography of the Emperor ; and Angilbert, Charle- 
 magne's bosom friend. Such men as these were not there merely 
 to adorn his court, but were their master's daily and hourly advisers 
 in the practical affairs of his family and kingdom, forming a sort 
 of literary club where learned and scientific as well as political 
 subjects were freely discussed. At the meetings of this society, 
 Charlemagne himself was addressed by the name of David, Alcuin 
 was Horace, and Angilbert Homer. 
 
 Personal Qualities of Charle?nag?ie.— The stature of Charle- 
 magne IS said to have exceeded that of ordinary men by at least a 
 foot. His imperial crown, wliich is still preserved at Vienna, 
 would fit only the head of a giant. In all bodily exercises he was 
 unrivalled among his contemporaries, especially in swimming, 
 which he practised both for amusement and as a ineiuis of strength- 
 
54 KTSTOKY OF GERMANY Chap. VI. 
 
 eniiig his frame. Extraordinary temperance, particularly in the 
 use of wine, preserved his strength unimpaired almost to the end 
 of his life. His dress was generally remarkable for its extreme 
 simplicity ; and there is a story of his having rebuked the vanity 
 of Ms courtiers, by showing them how little he regarded a soaking 
 rain, which spoilt all their fine clothes : but on solemn occasions 
 he appeared in all the splendour which became his rank, wearing 
 a robe of cloth of gold, with jewelled shoes, a golden brooch, and 
 a diadem of gold set with precious stones, the great sword of state 
 hanging from his girdle, and his hose adorned with ribbons of 
 various colours, crossed in fantastic forms after the fashion of that 
 period. Charlemagne had no fewer than five waves. The second 
 of these (whom he married immediately after liis divorce from 
 Desiderata, the daughter of Desiderius) being calumniated by 
 Taland, a discarded lover, quitted the presence of her husband, 
 and retired to Rome, where she devoted herself to the care of the 
 sick, and other pious duties. At length, as the legend relates, he: 
 wicked accuser Taland appeared before her blind and in poverty. 
 By her skill and attention he was soon restored to sight, and re- 
 cognising the mistress whom he had so cruelly slandered, he fell 
 on his knees, confessed his baseness, and led her back to the Em- 
 peror. 
 
 In the management of his own family, Charlemagne seems to 
 have been almost weakly indulgent. His daughter Emma loved 
 her father's friend Eginhard, and often received his visits. One 
 morning, after having spent many hours with his mistress, Egin- 
 hard was preparing to depart, when they discovered that so much 
 snow had fallen during the night as to render it impossible for the 
 lover to retire without leaving the traces of his footsteps as he 
 crossed the court. In this diflftculty Emma mounted him on her 
 shoulders, and was carrying him towards his own apartments, when 
 they were perceived by Charlemagne, who happened to be standing 
 at one of the palace windows. The lovers now gave themselves 
 up for lost ; but the good-natured monarch, after reproving the 
 presumption of Eginhard, forgave them both, and granted his 
 sanction to their marriage. Charlemagne had three sons. The 
 eldest, Charles, and the second, Pepin (a youth of great promise), 
 died at an early age. Lewis, the youngest, and the most incapable, 
 succeeded him on the imperial throne. 
 
A.D. 814. 
 
 LEWIS THE PIOUS. 
 
 55 
 
 CHAPTEH VII. 
 
 LEWIS THE PIOUS — TREATY OF VERDUN — PARTITION OF THE E5IPIRE- 
 
 From A. D. 814 to 843. 
 
 ■■|iil|::<',:r-//;, :'iii, 
 
 Tomb of Charlemagne, at Aix-la-Chapelle 
 
 "With the life of Charlemagne had departed the pervading spirit 
 which gave strength and activity to the administration of his un- 
 wieldy empire; for his successor, Lewis, surnamed tlie Pious, 
 who in more settled and civilized times might have filled, without 
 nmch discredit, the throne of a limited monarchy, was far too 
 feeble to sway the sceptre of iron, wdth which a German monarch 
 of those days found it necessary to control his half-barbarous 
 subjects. The unhappy prince soon became aw^are of his own 
 utter incapacity to manage the affairs of tlie empire ; and three 
 years after his accession, w^eary of his burdensome dignity, and 
 full of remorse for the crime which he had committed in causino- 
 the eyes of his nephew Bernard to be put out, because the wisest 
 of Charlemagne's counsellors had recommended him, rather than 
 Lewis, as successor to the imperial throne, he proposed to abdicate 
 in favour of his sons. But the Pope and clergy were too fully 
 aware of the advantage afforded them by his inefficiency to permit 
 such a step : and so completely was his superstitious soul terrifierl 
 
56 HISTORY OF GERMANY Chap. VI] . 
 
 by their threats, that, instead of retiring into a convent, as he haii 
 desired, he was obliged to content himself with doing open penance 
 before the Diet of the Empire for the cruel treatment of his nephew. 
 Soon afterwards he married a second wife, by whom he had a son 
 named Charles, known in history by the surname of the Bald. 
 Before the birth of this prince, Lewis had made a will, by M'hicli 
 he divided the empire among his three sons, Lothaire, Pepin, and 
 Lewis. Lothaire was to inherit the title of Emperor with Italy 
 and the Rhineland as far as the sea ; Pepin was to have France ; 
 and Lewis Germany. But the father, being now anxious to make 
 some provision for his youngest son Charles, recommended a fresh 
 division of the empire. Enraged at this proposal, the elder sons 
 at once threw off their allegiance, and made war on their unhappy 
 parent; and having taken him pnsoner, compelled him to do 
 penance in a convent at Soissons, where he read aloud a paper in 
 which he acknowledged himself guilty of perfidy, robbery, and 
 murder. But no threats could compel him to take the monastic 
 vows, and soon afterwards Ms two younger sons, jealous of the 
 elder, replaced Mm on the tM-one. A new division of the empire 
 was then made, from which Lothaire was excluded. Pepin died 
 soon afterwards, and the Empress, who despaired of obtaining the 
 entire empire for her son, gladly accepted the proposal of Lothaire 
 to share it with his younger brother to the exclusion of Lewis. 
 With an affectation of the deepest humility and contrition, Lothaire 
 threw himself at his father's feet, addressing him in the language 
 of the returning prodigal, " Father, I have sinned against heaven 
 and before thee, and am no more worthy to be called thy son ; I 
 come not to seek a kingdom, I ask only for pardon and mercy." 
 The old man embraced Ms son, assured him of his forgiveness, and 
 divided the empire between Lothaire and Charles. TMs arrange- 
 ment was, as might have been expected, vehemently resisted by 
 Lewis, who appeared in arms to enforce his rights. But the life 
 which had been one long scene of turbulence and misery was 
 rapidly drawing to its close. The Emperor had collected his 
 forces, and marched to the banks of the Rhine to meet his un- 
 natural son, when mortal sickness compelled Mm to halt on the 
 island of Ingelheim. The priests, who were called in to administer 
 the last rites of the church, besought him to forgive Ms rebellious 
 child, as he himself hoped for forgiveness at the hands of Ms 
 heavenly Father. " Freely," said the dying man, " freely do I 
 forgive him all Ms offences against me ; but, reverend fathers, fail 
 
Sup. Chap. VII. LEWIS THE PIOUS. 57 
 
 not to warn him that he hath brought down my grey hairs with 
 sorrow to the grave." Soon afterwards he became speechless, and 
 died uttering an inarticulate sound, to scare away, as his super- 
 stitious attendants believed, the fiends which hovered round his 
 bed. Lewis the Pious died on the 20th June, 840, in the sixty- 
 third year of his age, and the twenty-seventh of his reign, and was 
 buried by the side of his mother in the cathedral of IVIetz. Charles 
 and Lewis now united against Lothaire, and a terrible battle was 
 fought near Fontenay in Burgundy, in which 100,000 men ar^ 
 said to have fallen, and the forces of Lothaire were utterly routed. 
 On the 24th of February, in the year 843, the brothers met at 
 Verdun in Lorraine, and concluded the celebrated treaty, by 
 ^^ hich the empire of Charlemagne was divided into three portions. 
 Lothaire, the eldest brother, obtained the imperial dignity with 
 Italy, Helvetia, and a narrow strip of land westward of the Rhine* 
 which was named after him Lotharii regnum (Lorraine) ; Charles 
 the Bald had the title of King of France, with all the territory 
 west of Lorraine ; and Lewis (surnamed the German) received 
 for his share the whole of Germany, with the title of king. Thus 
 was the empire which Charlemagne had spent his life in con- 
 solidating again rent asunder ; yet the brothers, in conceding the 
 title of Emperor to the head of their house, still preserved a show 
 of union which in reality had for ever ceasea to exist. Lorraine, 
 it is true, became after a time incorporated with the other portions, 
 but France and Germany, from that day to the present (except 
 during the short reign of Charles the Fat), have been separate 
 independent kingdoms. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER VII. 
 
 Lmuis the Pious compelled to do penance at Soissons. — The 
 Plain of Colmar, where most of Le\vis's nobles deserted Mm and 
 went over to his sons, has been called from that circumstance the 
 " Perjurers' Field." With a kindly feeling, which did tiim honour, 
 the poor old man implored the few who still remained faithful to 
 follow the example of the traitors. " Go ye also over to my sons," 
 said he, " for God forbid that one of you should lose life or limb 
 on my account.'* The courtiers wept, but took him at his word ; 
 and Lewis in consequence fell into the hands of his sons, who con- 
 veyed him to Soissons, where he was compelled to perform open 
 penance in the church of the convent. Stripping liimself of nis 
 
58 HISTORy OF GERMA^^f. Chap. YIIl. 
 
 armour and mantle, he lay down on a couch of sackcloth and read 
 a list of his sins which had been drawn up by his sons and their 
 advisers. " He had dishonoured the kingly office ;" such were 
 the words put into his mouth by his unnatural persecutors — 
 *' blasphemed God, offended the church." He acknowledged him- 
 self to be a perjured wretch ; a stirrer up of strifes and disturbances ; 
 one v/ho had even dared to wage war against his own sons ! After 
 this recital the Archbishop of Rheims (whom Lewis had promoted 
 from a very humble station) and tiiirty bishops, laying their 
 hands by turns on his head, chanted the penitential psalms, whilst 
 Lothaire, seated on a chair of state, feasted his eyes with the 
 spectacle of his father's degradation. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 LEWIS THE GERMAN CHARLES THE FAT — AENULPH LEWIS THE 
 
 CHILD COXRAD I. 
 
 From A.D. 843 to 917. 
 
 Scarcely had Lewis the German ascended the throne assigned to 
 him in the partition of the empire, when the country was invaded 
 by the Northmen, a fierce piratical race, whose kings had often 
 no dominions but the swift-sailing galleys in which they cruised 
 off the coasts of Germany and France. Such was the audacity of 
 these sea-robbers, that they not only plundered the villages on the 
 coast, but entering the rivers, sailed in their light vessels into the 
 very heart of the country, where they often stormed the strongest 
 cities, and overthrew the armies which were sent out to oppose 
 their progress. Whenever they received a check, they at once 
 threw themselves into their boats, and, plying their oars with a 
 swiftness which rendered pursuit hopeless, soon reached the open 
 sea. So great was the terror caused by these marauders, that a 
 petition for Divine protection against them was added to the 
 litany of the German church. " A furore Nortmannorum, libera 
 DOS, Domine." (From the fury of the Northmen, good Lord 
 deliver us!) Every year they attacked Friesland : and one of 
 iheir princes, named Rollo, established an independent kingdom 
 in that part of France which is still called Normandy. In the 
 interior, the rebellious Sclavonian tribes were kept in check by 
 the nobles : but on one occasion, if we may believe the obscure 
 
A. D. 8*^8. CHARLES THE FAT — CHARLES THE SIMPLE. 59 
 
 annals of those days, the Saxons and Thuringians allowed the 
 barbarians to get the better of them, for which tliey were soundly 
 cudgelled by their wives on their return home. 
 
 Lewis the German died in 876, leaving three sons, who had 
 scarcely closed tlie eyes of their fatlier when they engaged in a 
 bloody war with their uncle, Charles of France, respecting the 
 succession of Lothaire, whose race was now extinct. A battl(> 
 was fought at Andernach on the Rhine, in which Charles was 
 defeated. The two elder sons of Lewis having died without 
 legitimate issue, the youngest, Charles, surnamed the Fat, found 
 himself in possession of the whole of Germany and Lorraine ; 
 and in 884 the French, dissatisfied with their young king, Charles 
 the Simple, and anxious to have a prince who could protect them 
 against the repeated invasions of the Northmen, having offered 
 him the crown of France, the two kingdoms were for a short time 
 re-iujited under one sovereign. But the hopes of the French were 
 miserably disappointed ; for Charles, who had already invested 
 the Danish prince Godfrey with the Dukedom of Friesland and 
 afterwards caused liim to be murdered, soon purchased a disgrace- 
 ful peace by paying a large sum of money to the pirates, and 
 opening to them the city of Paris and the navigation of the Seine. 
 At length his subjects, disgusted at his cowardice, assembled in 
 diet at Tribur, on the plain of the Rhine, near Oppenheim, and 
 solemnly pronounced the sentence of deposition against their weak 
 and incapable monarch, who survived the disgrace only two 
 months. Each nation then elected its own king. Arnulph, a 
 natural son of Carloman (son of Lewis the German), was chosen 
 by the Germans (a.d. 888) ; and soon after his accession dis- 
 comfited the Northmen so effectually, that they ever afterwards 
 avoided the Rhine, confining their depredations to the western 
 coasts of France. About the same time there appeared in Pan- 
 nonia, the ancient dwelling of the Lombards, and subsequently 
 of the Avars, hordes of wild people, called by themselves Magarok 
 or Magj^ars, and by the Germans Hungarians {strangers), or 
 Huns ; being, as it was believed, descendants of the ancient 
 people who bore that name. These barbarians were still heathens ; 
 of short stature, hideously ugly, and speaking a rude and unin- 
 telligible jargon. Their meat was eaten with no other cooking 
 than the tenderness acquired by its being carried for hours between 
 the saddle and the person of the rider : their drink was milk or 
 mead, or sometimes (if ancient clironiclers may be credited) the 
 
60 HISTORY OF GERMANY Chap. VIIL 
 
 heart's blood of their enemies. This wild people had first been 
 called in by Leo, Emperor of the East, to assist him against the 
 Bulgarians. Soon afterwards they straggled towards the West, 
 where Arnulph made an alliance with them against Zwentibald, 
 King of the Moravians. 
 
 As several princes were contending in Italy for the imperial 
 ovown and that of Lombardy, Arnulph, at the invitation of the 
 Pope, visited that country, and took Bergamo by storm ; but 
 hearing that the King of France was marching against him, he 
 was compelled to return into Geniiany. The next year, however 
 (896), he again crossed the Alps and marched to Rome, where he 
 found the city gates closed against him. Every attempt to storm 
 the walls being fruitless, he was preparing to retreat, when his 
 Germans, maddened by the insults of the defenders, made one 
 more desperate assault, which proved successful; and Arnulph 
 entering Rome in triumph received the imperial crown from the 
 Hands of the Pope. He died in the month of November or 
 December, 899, of slow poison, administered, as it was believed, 
 by the Italians, and was buried with great pomp in the church 
 of St. Emmeran at Ratisbon, amidst the lamentations of his 
 people, especially of the clergy, to whom he had been a munificent 
 benefactor. The Germans now elected, as the successor of 
 Arnulph, his son Lewis, surnamed the Child, an infant of six 
 years old : but the perpetual feuds of the powerful vassals, and 
 the terrible invasions of the Hungarians, rendered it impossible 
 for the regents, or subsequently for the young king himself, to 
 preserve tranquillity, and he died of a broken heart in 911. With 
 him expired the race of the Carlovingians in Germany. 
 
 Immediately after his death the people elected Conrad, Count 
 or Duke of Franconia, who died without heirs, after reigning six 
 turbulent years, and with his last breath recommended as his 
 successor Henry of Saxony, whom he believed to be the only 
 prince capable of holding the reins of government in those un- 
 settled times. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 The false Decretals. — Pope Joan. — Ever since the time of St. 
 Boniface the town of Mentz on the Rhine had been closely con- 
 nected with Rome, and one of the chief seats of ecclesiastical 
 learning. A German deacon named Benedict Levita published 
 
?up. Chap. VIII. POPE JOAN. 61 
 
 here, about the middle of ine ninth centiir}^, a collection of De- 
 cretals, by which the Pope was declared absolute sovereign of the 
 Church, and superior to all general councils. By the same in- 
 struments he was also invested with the power of nominating to 
 all bishoprics, and of deciding all ecclesiastical questions. In 
 order to give these forged decretals a legislative power anterior to 
 that of the German emperors, they were ascribed to St. Isidore, 
 a Spanish saint of the seventh century. Nicholas I., an ambitious 
 pontiff, connived at, if he did not actually invent, this forgery. 
 He declared the decretals to be genuine, and adopted them as the 
 founaation of the papal dominion. 
 
 Mentz was also the reputed birthplace of Pope Joan. A young 
 woman of that town, who had carefully concealed her sex, was 
 asserted to have been elected to the papal throne in the year 855, 
 with the title of Pope Joan. The story is, however, a pure fiction, 
 invented at a later date in order to ridicule the petticoat govern- 
 ment under which some of the popes had fallen. Yet, previously 
 to the Reformation, Pope Joan was acknowledged by the Roman 
 Catholics themselves. Her statue long held a place in the cathe- 
 dral of Sienna ; and there was another statue of her in one of th€ 
 streets of Rome at the time of Luther's visit to that city. 
 
 Gy 
 
62 
 
 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 
 
 Chap. IX 
 
 CHAPTEE IX. 
 
 HENRY L, SURNAMED THE FOWLER. 
 
 From A.D. 917 to 93(>. 
 
 ill 5 ^■' - -■ 
 
 Abbey of Corvey 
 
 Henry of Saxony had distinguished himself in the last reign by 
 a brilliant victory over the Franconians commanded by Everard, 
 tlie late king's brother ; when so many of them were slain that the 
 Saxons, in the coarse style of those half-barbarous times, declared 
 " it would be difficult to find a hell large enough to contain them." 
 The announcement of Conrad's death was now brought to Henry 
 by a messenger from his former antagonist, who found him in the 
 Hartz mountains engaged in the sports of the field, whence he 
 obtained the surname of " the Fowler." On receiving this intelli- 
 o-encCj Henry, without loss of time, assembled the Franconian and 
 Saxon nobles, who unanimously elected him King of Germany. 
 The Archbishop of Mentz offered to anoint him, but Henry de- 
 clared it was sufficient that he was called to rule over Germany 
 
A.I). 917. IIEXKY I., SURNAMED THE FOWLER. 63 
 
 by God's grace and tlie choice of the people ; and entreated tlie 
 aiclibishop to reserve the oil for some more pious monarch. 
 
 Although elected only by a portion of his subjects (for tlie 
 Swabians and Bavarians were absent from the diet), the new king 
 at once resolved not only to reduce his own vassals to obedience, 
 but to rid the land of those turbulent strangers, the Hungarians 
 and Danes, whom the weak concessions of former princes had 
 encouraged to ravage Germany almost every year. In order to 
 defend the people from the frequent attacks of foreign enemies, 
 the ancient dukes, whom Charlemagne had laboured so hard to 
 suppress, had been restored by his successors to more than their 
 former authority, and bade defiance to the weak masters whose 
 ^'assals they professed to be. As early as the year 900, the 
 Bavarians had received a duke for the defence of their country 
 against the Hungarians ; and the Saxons (whose frontier was most 
 exposed to incursions from the Danes), the Franconians, and the 
 people of Lorraine, were placed under a similar form of govern- 
 ment. In Swabia the two Commissioners introduced by Charle- 
 magne had usurped the whole of the authority, and under the title 
 of messengers from the imperial chamber (Kammerboten), reigned 
 as despotically as the dukes in the other provinces. Germany 
 was thus divided into five independent sovereignties : 1. Saxony 
 with Thuringia ; 2. Franconia, on the banks of the Rhine and 
 IMain ; 3. Swabia, from the Rhine to the Lech ; 4. Bavaria, from 
 the Lech to the frontiers of Hungary ; 5. Lorraine, wliich at the 
 time of which we are speaking was under the protection of France. 
 
 With the prudence which characterized him, Henry resolved to 
 proceed step by step in the removal of the ills under which his 
 country groaned, by first reducing the rebellious dukes to sub- 
 mission, commencing with the least formidable ; and thus gradually 
 g}^ ing his people courage to face the principal danger. His first 
 expedition was against the Commissioners of Swabia, who yielded 
 without striking a blow. Then he marched against Arnulph, 
 Duke of Bavaria, who had shut himself up in the strong city of 
 Ratisbon. A conference was held outside the walls, to which 
 Henry came unarmed and almost without followers, whilst Aruulph 
 appeared clad in complete armour and surrounded by a strong 
 body-guard. This confidence on the part of the king touched the 
 heart of liis rebellious vassal : and when moreover he spoke to hnn 
 of the duty incumbent on every true German to defend his father- 
 land, to maintain the honour of the empire, and to sacrifice all fur 
 
 K 2 
 
64 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. TX. 
 
 the peace and prosperity of the people, Arnulph burst into tears, 
 and tiirowing liimself at the king's feet, tendered him his allegiance. 
 There now remained only the people of Lorraine, who were easily 
 persuaded to abandon their former liege lord, the King of Fi'ance, 
 and unite themselves to Germany. 
 
 Having thus restored to the CYO\m the rights of which it had 
 oeen robbed through the weakness of former sovereigns, Henry 
 now sought to retain the dukes in their allegiance by permitting 
 them to form alliances with members of his own family ; and at 
 the same time, as a check to any further encroachments, he placed 
 m every dukedom, as governor of those lands which belonged 
 immediately to the crown, a Count Palatine, who was invested 
 with the authority of imperial judge witliin his district. After 
 making these important arrangements, the king proceeded to take 
 measures for resisting the Hungarians, who had invaded his do- 
 minions. Their king having been captured in a skirmish, Henry 
 consented to release him, and also to pay them a yearly tribute, 
 provided they consented to a nine years' truce. These nine years 
 v/ere passed by Henry in the most active preparations to meet 
 the enemy, as soon as the truce should expire. 
 
 As the Hungarians always fought on horseback, it was neces- 
 sary that the cavalry forces of the empire should be strengthened 
 and improved. Henry therefore directed, that all whose estates 
 qualified them for this service, should meet at certain times, and 
 practise military exercises. At these meetings (which were the 
 origin of tournaments) noble ladies sat as spectators, and rewarded 
 with their smiles the knights who most distinguished themselves 
 by their bravery and adroitness. In order to improve the state of 
 ihe infantry, which, like the cavalry, had fallen into great disorder 
 since the days of Charlemagne, Henry issued a decree that every 
 male person above the age of thirteen should bear arms and 
 accustom himself to the use of them. No less a punishment than 
 death was to be inflicted on him who neglected to appear at the 
 place appointed for practice within three days after being sum 
 moned. Many of the miseries which the Hungarians and other 
 enemies had inflicted on Germany might have been avoided if the 
 Germans had possessed a sufficient number of fortified towns, 
 where they could have remained in safety until the storm was 
 past : but they had always been accustomed to despise any defence 
 except that of their swords and shields ; and therefore allowed 
 even the few strong places which they possessed to fall into dila- 
 
A.D. 936. HENRY I., SURNAMKI) THE FOWLER. 65 
 
 pidation. These were now repaired by Henry, who laid at llie 
 same time the foundations of several new towns. To gan-ison 
 these strongliolds, the bands of outlaws wiio infested the country 
 were formed into regular companies, and promised forgiveness if 
 they performed their duty faithfully. Besides these, every ninth 
 man was required to leave the cultivation of the soil, and join in 
 defence of the fortresses, into which a third of all agricultural 
 produce was to be regularly conveyed and kept for the use of the 
 garrison. It was also ordered that, for security's sake, fairs, 
 marriages, divine worship, and the administration of justice should 
 take place within the walls. Gradually, as the advantages of 
 residing in these places of safety became better known, the people 
 crowded more into them, or established themselves in the immediate 
 neighbourhood, where they could carry on their trades in com- 
 parative security. All these preparations having been made, the 
 king found himself in a condition to bid defiance to the Hungarians, 
 and as soon as the nine years of trace had expired, is reported 
 (although the story is of very doubtful authenticity) to have sent 
 them a mangy dog as the only tribute he thenceforward intended 
 to pay. 
 
 The next year (933) they entered Germany with two armies, 
 one of which was defeated by the Saxons near Sondershausen : 
 the other was met by the king in person at Keuschberg on the 
 Saale. The Hungarians, who had learnt the defeat of their 
 brethren, made fire signals on the hills to draw the rest of their 
 hordes together. Henry, having addressed his men in a spirited 
 and encouraging harangue, unfolded before them the banner of 
 the Archangel Michael, and charged the Hungarians with the cry 
 of Kyrieleison (Lord have mercy), which was echoed back by the 
 fearful Hui ! Hui ! of the barbarians. After a bloody conflict 
 the whole army of the enemy was either slain or put to flight, and 
 Henry falling on his knees, with all liis soldiers, offered up a 
 .solemn thanksgiving to the God of battles. The anniversary of 
 this victory is still celebrated in the village of Keuschberg. 
 
 Three years after this battle (a.d. 936) Henry died at Mem- 
 leben in Thuringia in his sixtieth year, leaving behind him three 
 sons ; the eldest of whom, Otho, had previously to his father's 
 death been approved by the diet as his successor. As he lay on 
 his deatli-bed, and felt his end approaching, the good old king 
 called his wife to him and addressed lier in these words : " I thank 
 Je'^us Clirist that I do not survive tliee. Never had man a wife 
 
 E 3 
 
66 
 
 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 
 
 Chap. X. 
 
 more faithful or of more assured piety. I am thankful that thou 
 didst always luoderate my wrath, give me good counsel, guide me 
 in the path of justice, and teach me to have compassion on the 
 oppressed. I now commend thee and our children, as well as my 
 own departing spirit, to the most High, the Almighty God, and 
 to the prayers of his elect." 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 OTHO I. 
 From A.D, 936 to 973. 
 
 ^^^■ii* 
 
 Shriue or Relic-Chest of the Tenth Century, preserved at Goslar. 
 
 Otho, the eldest son of the late monarch, was twenty -four years 
 old when his father died. Although his nomination had been 
 already confirmed by the diet, it was thought necessary that he 
 should be formally elected before his coronation at Aix-la-Chapelle. 
 The memory of his illustrious father, no less than the importance 
 of the empire over which he was called to reign, imparted no 
 small interest and solenmity to this ceremony, which was attended 
 by the dukes of the various provinces, with the counts of the em- 
 pire and other nobles, the archbishops, bishops, and an immense 
 
A.D. il3«. OTHO T. C)7 
 
 multitude of people. The nobles liaving first taken the oatli of 
 allegiance in one of the halls attached to the chapter-house, the 
 procession moved towards the cathedral, at the entrance of wliich 
 the king was received by the Archbishop of Mentz, who led him 
 into the church, and placing him in the centre aisle, where he could 
 best be seen by the assembled crowds, turned to the people and 
 addressed them in these words : " Behold him who has been 
 chosen of God, recommended to you by your late sovereign, and 
 elected by the princes of Germany to be your king. Let those 
 who are content with this election signify the same by holding up 
 their right hands." The hands of all were raised at the conclusion 
 of this address, and a loud shout of joy and triumph testified the 
 approbation of the people. Then the archbishop led the king to 
 the altar, on which lay the insignia of the empire — the sword, 
 mantle, armlets, stafi^, sceptre, and crown. Placing the sword in 
 the hands of Otho, he said, " Take thou this sword ; with the 
 same shalt thou, by the power which God hath committed unto 
 thee, and with the assembled forces of the empire, drive forth the 
 enemies of Chi-ist." On investing him with the mantle, he said, 
 " The hem of this garment reacheth even unto the ground ; let it 
 be a sign unto thee that thou persevere unto the end in upholding 
 peace." The sceptre and staff were then presented, the archbishop 
 addressing him in these words : "Let the emblems now put into 
 thy hands remind thee that thou oughtest to restrain thy subjects 
 with fatherly correction ; and above all tilings to stretch forth the 
 hand of kindness to the servants of God, to widows and orphans — 
 so shall the oil of mercy never fail to anoint thy head, and thou 
 shalt be adorned in the life to come with a crown which fadeth not 
 away.'* At the conclusion of the address the archbishop, assisted 
 by the other prelates, placed the golden crown of Charlemagne on 
 the head of the new sovereign, and anointed him with the holy oil. 
 After the solemn performance of divine service, the crowd dis- 
 persed, and Otho returned to the palace to partake of the coronation 
 banquet, which was served to the king and archbishop of Mentz 
 on a marble table, the nobles being entertained at other tables. 
 The circumstance which added the greatest dignity to tiiis feast, 
 was the attendance of the most powerful vassals in their character 
 of officers of the imperial household. The Duke of Lorraine acted 
 as grand chamberlani, and superintended the general arrangements 
 of 'the banquet, as being duke of the district in which Aix was 
 situated. Everard, Duke of Franconia, was cliief sewer, ana 
 
68 HISTORY OF GERlVrAXY Chap. X. 
 
 placed the first dish on the royal table ; whilst Herman, Duke of 
 Swabia, in quality of arch-butler, presented a cup of wine to the 
 king. The Duxke of Bavaria, as master of the Iwrse, presided over 
 the arrangement of the stables. At the conclusion of this banquet 
 the king made presents of great value to the officers of state who 
 had attended on him, as well as to the other nobles and prelates. 
 But the crown, which had been placed on the head of Otho with 
 so much gorgeous magnificence, was destined, at the beginning of 
 his reign, to be an uneasy burden ; for scarcely was he seated on 
 the throne, when intelligence was received of tumults and insur- 
 rections in various parts of the empire. In Bavaria, Everard, 
 who had succeeded his brother as duke, refused to do homage for 
 his dukedom. The Duke of Bohemia also bade defiance to the king ; 
 wliilst, to add to his embarrassment, the old enemies of the empire, 
 the Hungarians, encouraged by these appearances of disaffectioii, 
 entered the south of Germany, which they ravaged as far as the 
 frontiers of France. But the new sovereign proved himself worthy 
 of the confidence v/hich his renowned father, as well as the electors, 
 had reposed in him. Everard was attacked, conquered, and de- 
 prived of his dukedom, which v/as conferred on liis younger 
 brother ; and the Duke of Bohemia was at length subdued, after 
 a war which lasted nearly fourteen years. But the enemies who 
 threatened to prove most formidable were those of his own family. 
 In the year 937 tlie Duke of Franconia entered into a conspiracy 
 with the Duke of Lorraine and the Archbishop of Mentz to depose 
 the king, and place his brother Henry on the throne. They had 
 agreed that Henry should first revolt, and whilst Otho was engaged 
 with him, the Duke of Franconia should rise in Saxony and attack 
 the king in the rear. As they had expected, Otho followed his 
 brother towards Lorraine; but on reaching the Ehine, he sent 
 messengers to the conspirators to inquire whether they desired war 
 or peace. Meanwhile a little band of scarcely a hundred men had 
 embarked in the few boats that were at hand and crossed the nver. 
 The messengers soon returned with the unsatisfactory reply that 
 the confederates would hear of no accommodation. Otho, alarmed 
 for the safety of the handful of soldiers who had crossed the Ehine, 
 could only pray that God wovdd grant them a deliverance, whicli, 
 humanly speaking, seemed impossible. " Help me, O Lord," he 
 exclaimed, " in this mine utmost need : look on thy people over 
 whom thou hast made me to be king, and deliver them from their 
 enemies, that all the nations may know how great is thy power, 
 
A.i\ 937. OTIIO L 09 
 
 and that no mortal man can resist thy will.'' " It was soon seen," 
 says the pious chronicler of these events, " that the effectual fervent 
 prayer of a righteous man availeth much." The brave little l^and, 
 on reacliing tlie opposite bank, innnediately took up a position, 
 with a deep pool in front, and the river in their rear ; so that the 
 enemy could only attack tiiem by entering the narrow strip of 
 land on which they stood, at one or other of its extremities. Whilst 
 they were attempting this, some of the royalists stole round and 
 attacked the rebels in the rear, shouting at the same time in French, 
 "Save yourselves." The enemy, confused, and supposing that 
 their rear was assailed by a large force, immediately fled, leaving 
 the field in possession of the royalists. Henry, who had been 
 sligiitly wounded in this skirmish, took refuge in the city of 
 INIerseburg, and shortly afterwards rejoined the other conspirators. 
 At this time the situation of Otho was critical, for the ecclesiastical 
 princes on the Rhine who had hitherto supported him now went 
 over to his enemies ; and under the circumstances many of tlie 
 royal generals were of opinion that an immediate retreat was 
 expedient; but Otho peremptorily refused to comply with their 
 wishes. " No," he exclaimed, " I will hear of no retreat. If our 
 time is come we will fall like men, and not tarnish our reputation. 
 It is better to die for the good cause than to flee and live dis- 
 graced. Brave men never reckon their enemies." Whilst affairs 
 were in this posture, one of the most powerful counts, willing to 
 take advantage of the sovereign's difficulties, petitioned for the 
 grant of a rich abbey, hinting at the same time that a refusal 
 would considerably weaken his attachment to the royal cause. 
 The king's reply w^as full of courage and dignity. " At such a 
 moment as this," said he, " thy prayer is no prayer, but a threat. 
 Therefore do I declare unto thee, and these men are witnesses of 
 my declaration, that neither the abbey nor any other gift shalt 
 thou receive at my hands. If thou wilt be faithless, ana abandon 
 me with the other traitors, do so. The sooner the better." The 
 count, moved by this address, threw himself at the king's feet and 
 swore perpetual fidelity. Soon afterwards the conspirators crossed 
 the RMne at Andernach, intending to storm the royal camp ; but 
 at this critical moment a reinforcement arrived, led by the Duke 
 of Swabia, who attacked the rebels with such fury that they 
 retreated hastily across the Rhine, leaving both their commanders 
 dead on the field of battle. 
 
 Havu7g thus settled the internal affairs of his kingdom, Otho 
 
70 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. X. 
 
 had leisure to carry on his operations ag-ainst tne Sclavonians and 
 Danes, *who were made tributaries of the German crown ; but 
 scarcely had these enemies been subdued when he was called to 
 take a part in the affairs of Italy. That unhappy country was 
 now in a state of indescribable confusion. The family of Charle- 
 magne being extinct, new candidates for the crown appeared, and 
 prosecuted their claims with a ferocity which spread desolation 
 and woe throughout the land ; nor did there seem to be any pros- 
 pect of a settlement, except by calling in the intervention of a 
 mightier power. Berengar, Duke of Ivrea, who had long had his 
 eye on the Italian crown, had endeavoured to compel Adelaide, 
 the beautiful widow of the last king, to become the wife of his son, 
 and on her refusal had shut her up in a strong fortress on the 
 Lago di Garda. From this captivity she was rescued by the 
 intrepidity of a pious and faithful monk, named Brother Martin, 
 who undermined the walls of the castle and withdrew the unhappy 
 princess from her dungeon. For a long time she w^andered up 
 and down in the most pitiable distress, travelling by night, and 
 concealing herself by day among reeds or standing corn, until at 
 length she reached the cottage of a fisherman, wdiere she remained 
 for some days disguised in male apparel. Intelligence of her 
 escape having been conveyed by Brother Martin to her friends, 
 Adelaide was removed to the castle of Canossa, which was imme- 
 diately attacked by her cruel persecutor ; and the besieged, terrified 
 at the appearance of a force so much superior to any that they 
 could raise,- at once decided on calling in the assistance of Otho, 
 and sent messengers to offer him the crown of Italy, and the hand 
 of the widowed queen. Nothing could be more acceptable to 
 Otho than this proposal ; for the death of Ms wife Edith, daughter 
 of Edmund, King of England, had left him at liberty to contract 
 another marriage ; and no alliance could be so advantageous as 
 one which would make him lord of the fair realms of Italy. He 
 therefore at once entered that country, compelled Berengar to raise 
 the siege of Canossa, and, carrying off Adelaide in triumph, married 
 her at Pavia, where he caused himself at the same time to be 
 crowned King of the Lombards (a. d. 951). Otho now returned 
 into Germany with Ms young bride, and soothed himself with the 
 belief that peace and tranquillity were established on a basis wMch 
 might bid defiance to the assaults of disaffection. But these hopes 
 w ere miserably frustrated. His own son, Ludolph, Duke of Swabia, 
 v.as the first to raise the standard of rebellion against Mm. The 
 
A.D. 055. OTIIO 1 71 
 
 pretext for this act of iiiflxniy was, that Otho allowed lihnself to 
 be influeneedj to the prejudice of his son, by his brother Heniy, 
 whom he had now with unaccountable infatuation admitted to his 
 confidence. In conjunction with the Archbishop of Mentz and 
 Conrad, son-in-law of the king-, Ludolph carried on this unnatural 
 war fo. some time, but at length, worn out and despairing- of sue- 
 cess, he suddenly appeared before his father, barefoot, and in tlie 
 dress of a penitent, and, throwing himself on his knees, im})lored 
 forgiveness. Otho readily pardoned him, but deprived him of his 
 dukedom, and sent him into Italy to fight against the Lombards. 
 In the year 955 the Hungarians again entered Germany in such 
 prodigious numbers that, as they boastingly declared, unless the 
 earth opened and swallowed them up, or the sky fell on them, it 
 was not possible that they could be overcome. They pitched their 
 camp near the city of Augsburg ; and Otho, fully aware of the 
 danger with which his kingdom was threatened, prepared to meet 
 it by calling out the whole militia of Germany. Happily for the 
 king, he was joined by Conrad, Duke of Franconia, at the head 
 of a well-trained body of cavalry. The Germans, in the higiiest 
 spirits, wished to commence the attack at once ; but Otho would 
 not permit this until he and all his soldiers had partaken of the 
 Holy Sacrament. Having performed this duty, the king made a 
 vow to St. Lawrence, on whose day (10th Aug. 955) the battle 
 was fought, that if he obtained tlie victory he would found a 
 bishopric in Merseburg. Ulric, Bishop of Augsburg, then blessed 
 the w^hole army, which, although not equal in numbers to that 
 of the Hungarians, consisted nevertheless of eight formidable 
 battalions. The king himself commanded the fifth division, sur- 
 rounded by a body-guard of picked men, who had charge of the 
 sacred spear (formed out of the nails of the cross, or, according to 
 some legends, the weapon itself with which the soldier pierced oui- 
 Saviour's side), and the banner emblazoned with a representatioji 
 of the Archangel Michael. The Hungarians, crossing the Lech, 
 on the banks of which the Germans were drawn up, attacked them 
 furiously in the rear, and so discomposed the Bohemians by the 
 showers of arrows which they poured in upon them, that they gave 
 way, and suffered the whole of the baggage to be taken. Otho, 
 observing this, commanded Duke Conrad to advance witli his 
 Franconians and ciiarge the enemy in front ; an order which was 
 executed so faitiifully and boldly, that in a short time the baggage 
 and prisoners were re-taken. Then began the general engage- 
 
72 - HISTORY OF GERMANY Chap. X. 
 
 ment. Wherever the fight raged most fiercely Otho was seen, 
 encouraging his men, and performing prodigies of valour. The 
 Hungarians fought well ; and it was not until thousands and tens 
 of thousands of them were slain, and the Lech ran red ^vith their 
 blood, that they at length gave way. The two following days 
 they were pursued by the Germans, and the villages in which they 
 sought refuge being set on fire, most of them were burnt to death. 
 Three of their princes fell in the battle and pursuit, and we are 
 told by one of their own liistorians that out of two divisions, con- 
 sisting of 60,000 men, only seven Hungarians escaped, and they 
 with slit noses and ears, to announce to their countrymen the 
 terrible disaster wliich had befallen the army. So delighted were 
 the Germans at the bravery of their king, that they saluted him 
 on the field by the titles of " Emperor and Father of his country." 
 The victory, however, had been dearly purchased. Many of their 
 best warriors lay dead on the field ; and among others Duke Con- 
 rad of Franconia, who, happening to open his vizor for air, was 
 pierced through the brain with an arrow. The Bishop of Ratisbon, 
 although grievously wounded, had sufficient strength left to strike 
 down a Hungarian, who was beginning to strip him, and thus 
 preserved his life. Since this great victory the Hungarians have 
 never appeared with an organized army in Germany proper. 
 
 The only task that now remained was to chastise the Sclavo- 
 nians ; an operation which was carried on in the full spirit of the 
 advice given by Dittmar of Merseburg : — " If you want a Scla- 
 vonian to obey, you must cudgel him and make him eat hay like 
 an ass." Some attempts, however, were made to civilize the people 
 by founding bishoprics at Oldenburg, Meissen, Prague, and other 
 places. Germany was now tranquil ; the Sclavonians reduced to 
 obedience, and the Italians vassals of the empire ; the people were 
 prosperous, and deriving great advantage from the silver-mines, 
 which had lately been discovered in the Hartz forest ; and in the 
 royal family, the state, and the church, peace and unanimity 
 seemed firmly established. 
 
 It has been mentioned that Otho's son Ludolph had been sent 
 into Italy to chastise the Lombard prince Berengar, who, forgetful 
 of his oath, had thrown ofiT his allegiance to the German crown. 
 Ludolph, after reducing his adversary to the greatest extremities, 
 havino- fallen a victim to the unhealthiness of the climate, the 
 Lombard again rallied, and treated with cruelty all who refused 
 to acknowledge his authority. 
 
A.D. 973. OTIIO I. 73 
 
 By the invitation of these sufferers Otho entered Italy, marched 
 into Pavia without opposition, and, having deposed Berengar, 
 was a second time crowned King of Italy. From Pavia he pro- 
 ceeded to Rome, where he received the imperial crown from the 
 hands of Pope Jolni XII. on the 2nd of February, 962. 
 
 Sliortly afterwards Otho again marched to Rome to depose 
 John XII., at the request of the Romans, who were scandalized 
 by that pontiff's profligate life. Otho caused Leo VIII. to be 
 elected in liis place. It was this last pope who made the cele- 
 brated but much disputed decree allowing Otho, and liis successors 
 in the kingdom of Italy, the faculty of naming the pope, and also, 
 consequently, all archbishops and bishops, who were to receive 
 their investiture from those princes. 
 
 As the south of Italy still belonged to the eastern empire, 
 Otho, choosing to proceed by negotiation rather than violence, 
 despatched Luitprand, Bishop of Cremona, to Constantinople, to 
 demand the emperor's step-daughter for his young son ; but the 
 envoy and his suite sped so ill that, after enduring (as the bishop 
 tells us in his journal) intolerable affronts, they departed in disgust, 
 their chief congratulating himself, as he stepped into his boat, on 
 his escape from that " perjured, lying, cheating, rapacious, greedy, 
 avaricious, nasty town." Soon afterwards, however, Nicephorus 
 being deposed, his successor ceded the whole of Lower Italy to 
 Otho, and promised to give his daughter in marriage to the young 
 prince. 
 
 In the sixty- second year of his age the Emperor lost his old and 
 attached friend Herman Billing, whom he had invested with liis 
 own Dukedom of Saxony. From tliis stroke he never rallied, 
 and died soon afterwards (on the 6th May, 973) so tranquilly, as 
 he knelt before the altar in the church of Memleben, that the 
 attendants who found him stretched on the pavement supposed at 
 first that he was asleep. His body was brought to Magdeburg, 
 and buried in the church of St. Maurice, by the side of his first 
 wife, Edith of England. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER X. 
 Empire of Germany. — Otho completely subdued Italy, in 
 which country he passed several of the latter years of his life. 
 When at Rome he resided in the Vatican. It was he who fixed 
 the title of Emperor in the German name and nation. Otho's 
 father, Henry, and his predecessor, Conrad, were, properly speak- 
 Gv. F 
 
74 HISTORY OF GERMAXY. Chap. X. 
 
 iiig, only kings of Germauy ; they never received the imperial 
 crown from the hands of the pope, and are consequently not 
 reckoned among the emperors by the Italian historians. From 
 the time of Otho two maxims of public jurisprudence began to 
 prevail: — 1. That the prince elected by the German diet became 
 by that election King of Italy and Rome ; 2. That he could not, 
 however, lawfully assume the title of emperor before he had re- 
 ceived the imperial crown from the hands of the Roman pontiff. 
 
 Bishop LuitpTan(V s Embassy to Constcmtinople. — " Vie ar- 
 rived here," writes the good bishop, " in the month of June, and 
 immediately they assigned us a guard of honour, without which 
 we were not allowed to stir a single step. On the second day 
 after our arrival we were admitted to an audience. The Emperor 
 Nicephorus is a little roundabout fat man, and so black withal, 
 that if you met him by chance in a wood he would scare you. 
 He spake thus : ' I greatly regret. Sirs, that your lord should 
 have had the audacity to take possession of Rome, and put to 
 death Berengar and Adalbert, both good men and true — this was 
 done, 1 know full well, by your advice.' We — ' Our lord the 
 Emperor hath freed Rome from tyrants and miscreants ; * * * 
 and there be knights in our company who are at any time ready 
 to maintain his right with their bodies in fair and honourable 
 duel ; nevertheless we come to you on a peaceful errand, and to 
 ask the hand of the Princess Theophania.* On hearing these 
 words he started from his seat, bawling out, ' It is time now to 
 attend the procession ; we will hear the rest of your story at a 
 more convenient season.' The next day at table it pleased liim 
 to find fault with our sj'stem of warfare : our weapons, he said, 
 were too heavy, and our soldiers only brave when they were 
 (h'unk — you must look for the true Romans at Constantinople. 
 Here he made a* sign with liis hand that I should hold my peace. 
 Then he would talk of church affairs, and sneeringly asked whe- 
 tlier there had ever been any council held in Saxony. Where 
 the most diseases are, there we find the most remedies. All sorts 
 of heresies have had their birth among the Greeks ; so it was 
 necessary that they should have councils of the church to set them 
 right. I wot, nevertheless, of one Saxon council where it was 
 resolved that it was more honourable to fight with the sword than 
 v/ith the pen. The Emperor is surrounded by flatterers : the 
 whole city is a sink of uncleanness : even on fast days they have 
 {)erformances at the theatre. Their army is composed of iiired raga- 
 
A.D. 973. oTiio ir. 75 
 
 niuflins from Amalfi and Venice. Four lnin(iro(l Germans, witli a 
 fair field and no favour, would, I verily believe, beat them afl." 
 
 Discovery of Silver Mines in Germany. — The rich mines of 
 \\\Q Hartz mountains were discovered in this reign. A nobleman 
 who was riding through the forest had iialted to observe some 
 f'bject of interest, when his horse, impatient of the delay, began to 
 paw the ground with its foot, and scratched up a stone of white 
 ore, which, on examination, proved to be silver. In consequence 
 of this discoveiy, the earliest silver mines of which we have any 
 record in Germany were opened in the year 938. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 OTHO II,, SUKNAilED THE RED OTHO III., SURNAMED THE PRODIGY 
 
 HENRY II., SURNAMED THE SAINT. 
 
 From A.D. 973 to 1024. 
 
 Otho the Second, surnamed the Red, Mas nineteen years old wnen 
 he succeeded his father on the imperial throne. His understand- 
 ing, naturally good, had been diligently cultivated by his Italian 
 mother, Adelaide : but, unfortunately for Germany, she had also 
 inspired him with a love of the south, which led him into distant 
 unprofitable wars, and eventually to defeat and ruin. He had 
 scarcely reigned a year when Duke Henry of Bavaria declared 
 w^ar against his sovereign, but was soon conquered and taken 
 prisoner. The following year Charles, brother to Lothaire, King 
 of France, invaded Lorraine, under the auspices of tlie king, who 
 swore that the horses of France should drink up all the livers of 
 Germany ; to which Otho replied, in the same style of boastful 
 exaofg-eration, that he would cover France with straw hats. The 
 two annies met at Aix-la-Chapelle, where the French had already 
 got possession of the palace, and turned the golden eagle on the 
 roof with its head towards France : but Otho's force (composed 
 in a great measure of Saxons, who wore straw hats over their 
 helmets) soon compelled the invaders to retreat, and, pursuing 
 them as far a.s Paris, burnt the suburbs : but, being unable to take 
 the city, they returned into Gennany, after agreeing that Charles 
 should hold Lorraine as a fief of the empire. 
 
 F 2 
 
76 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XL 
 
 The heart of Otho had always been in Italy ; he was therefore 
 by no means displeased when circumstances arose wliich gave him 
 a fair excuse for visiting that country. A Roman, named Cres- 
 centius, had caused himself to be proclaimed Consul, murdered 
 the pope (Boniface VI.), and set up Boniface VII. in Ms place. 
 The imperial party resisted tliis nomination, and elected another 
 pope, Otho, thinking himself called on to interfere in these dis- 
 putes, marched to Rome and restored order, though after a some- 
 what barbarous fashion, by inviting the principal Romans to a 
 feast in the area before St. Peter's church, and then seizing and 
 putting to death all whom he suspected of being his enemies. The 
 refusal of the Greeks to give up certain lands which the Eastern 
 Emperor had promised as the dowry of the Princess Theophania 
 having furnished Otho mth an excuse for declaring war, he now 
 entered Lower Italy with a large army, and, meeting the united 
 forces of the Greeks and Saracens at Basantello in Calabria, was 
 defeated with terrible loss. The following year he died of grief 
 and disappointment in the twenty-ninth year of his age and tenth 
 of his reign, (a.d. 983.) 
 
 His son Otho III., a child of three years old, was acknowledged 
 as his successor, and placed under the guardianship of his mother 
 Theophania and his grandmother Adelaide; Gerbert, Abbot of 
 Magdeburg, the most learned man of that age, undertaking the 
 office of tutor. 
 
 Scarcely had the remains of Otho II. been laid in the earth, 
 when Henry, Duke of Bavaria, renewed his attempts on the crown 
 of Germany, and succeeded in making himself master of the young 
 king's person ; but the nobles on whose assistance he had reckoned 
 declared that they had already sworn fidelity to Otho, and would 
 not violate their oath. At the head of these loyalists was Willigis, 
 Archbishop of Mentz, the son of a wheelwright, who had adopted 
 a wheel as the arms of his electoral see, with the motto, " Willigis, 
 forget not thine origin." 
 
 Hemy, finding himself thus deserted, was content to secure his 
 own safety and the possession of liis dukedom by delivering up the 
 voung king, and consenting to take the oath of allegiance. Under 
 the instruction of his tutor, whose profound knowledge of mathe- 
 matics and natural philosophy had, as was usually the case in those 
 ignorant times, brought on him the suspicion of dealing with the 
 p°owers of darkness, Otho made such rapid progress in all branches 
 of knowledge as to obtain the surname of the Prodigy. At fifteen 
 
A.D. 1000. OTHO III. 77 
 
 lie assumed the reins of government, and made liis first journey to 
 Rome, to show himself to his Italian subjects, and receive tiie 
 imperial crown from the hands of the pope. No attempt was 
 made to oppose his progress, and on his arrival at Rome he was 
 crowned with great solemnity ; but no sooner had he quitted the 
 city than the Romans, headed by the pope himself, broke out into 
 open rebellion. A second time Otho entered Rome, deposed the 
 pope, and elevated his late tutor, Gerbert (Silvester II.), to the 
 papal throne. Crescentius, who had joined this insurrection, 
 although he had sworn allegiance to Otho, tlirew himself into the 
 castle of St. Angelo, where he was besieged by the Margrave of 
 Meissen, and, after an ineffectual resistance, taken prisoner and 
 beheaded. Meanwhile the year one thousand, which according to 
 traditional belief was to be the last that the world would ever 
 behold, was rapidly approaching ; and warriors, laying aside their 
 arms, endeavoured by prayer and penance to prepare themselves 
 for the day of judgment. Otho availed himself of this period of 
 tranquillity to make a pilgrimage into Poland, where he founded 
 a church in honour of the martyr Adalbert : and on his return to 
 Germany visited Aix-la-Chapelle, and, opening the sepulchre of 
 Charlemagne, discovered the body of that renowned monarch sit- 
 ting on its chair of state, as it had been placed nearly two hundred 
 years before. In the year 1001 he visited Rome for the third 
 time, with the intention of making that city his residence and the 
 capital of the empire : but his plans were disturbed by a violent 
 insurrection of the populace, who could ill brook the rule of a 
 foreign prince, and, besieging him in his own palace, demanded 
 with savage outcries that he should resign the crown. All would 
 now have been lost, but for the courage and sagacity of the 
 emperor, who came forward when the uproar was at its greatest 
 height, and, having with some difficulty obtained a hearing, ad- 
 dressed the crowd in a speech glowing with religious enthusiasm ; 
 which so touched the hearts of the excitable Romans, that they at 
 once took the oath of allegiance, with many expressions of remorse 
 for their rebellion. The following year Otho died of a spotted 
 fever, or (as the Italian and some of the German chroniclers 
 assert) of poison administered by his mistress Stephania, the 
 beautiful widow of Crescentius. 
 
 The only surviving representative of the Saxon house was 
 Henry, son of that Duke of Bavaria who had attempted to wrest 
 tlie crown from Otho in his infancy. After a severe struggle this 
 
7b HISTORY OF GERMANY. CnAP. XI. 
 
 prince succeeded in obtaining his recognition in Germany ; but 
 three journeys to Rome were liardly sufficient to establish him 
 fully in Italy, although he obtained the Lombard crown in 1004, 
 and that of the empire in 1014. A great part of his life was 
 spent in alternate wars with the Italians, Poles, and Bohemians. 
 He died in 1024, recommending on his death-bed Conrad of 
 Franconia as most worthy to succeed him on the throne. Of his 
 character we know nothing, except from the priests, the only 
 chroniclers of those times, who have rewarded his piety in endow- 
 ing the Bishopric of Bamberg out of his private resources by con- 
 ferring on him the title of Saint. 
 With him ends the Saxon dynasty. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER XI. 
 
 Religion in the Tenth Century. — During this century very 
 little was done to remove the ignorance of the people. The 
 bishops (who were so universally men of high birth that great 
 surprise and disgust were expressed at the nomination of Willigis, 
 the wheelwright's son, to the electoral see of Mentz) had too mucli 
 of the aristocratic passion for war and the chase, to bestow any 
 time on the education of their flocks ; and these unclerical tastes 
 were encouraged by the emxperors, who augmented the power of 
 the clergy by repeated grants of lands and privileges in the hope 
 of establishing a counterpoise to the overweening influence of the 
 temporal nobles. Superstition therefore of the most abject cha- 
 racter took the place of religion in the benighted minds of the 
 people. The doctrine of purgatory and the practice of auricular 
 confession became universal, and crimes of the blackest dye were 
 expiated, as men believed, by fasting, penance, and renunciation 
 of the world. 
 
 Literature. — Among the few men of learning who flourished 
 during this gloomy period may be noticed Rather, Bishop of 
 Verona, a native of the Netherlands, who attacked the ignorance, 
 coarseness, and immorality of the monks, and suffered grievous 
 persecution on account of his opinions; Luitprand, Bishop of 
 Cremona, who wrote an account of his embassy to Constantinople 
 m the rei.gn of Otho I., as well as a history of the popes ; Witte- 
 kind of Corvey, author of a valuable history of the Saxons ; and 
 Dittmar, Bishop of Merseburg, who wrote a history of the Saxon 
 emperors, with an especial account of the Sclavonians, among 
 
Sup. Chap. XL LITERATURE IX THE TENTH CENTURY. 79 
 
 whom he lived. In Dittinar's cliroiiiele we find anecdotes of Scln- 
 vonic outbre-aks, and bisliops hunted into the water by the blood- 
 hounds of ferocious counts, agreeably interspersed with minute 
 accounts of the good bishop's own dreams, and the " wonderful 
 fulfilment of the same ;" of gibbering spectres haunting death- 
 beds ; and of a ivnocking ghost, which, like tiie famous visitant oi 
 Cock Lane, disturbed the rest of a respectable family, uutil he was 
 laid by the parish priest. ^ It was in the days of the Emperor 
 Otho I., of blessed memory," thus begins one of his tales, "that 
 liis daughter-in-law, the lady lola, she, I mean, who gave so 
 largely to the church at llochlitz, beheld a strange and unnatural 
 portent. She had caused a feast to be prepared for the workmen 
 employed in restoring the church, and was herself in the act of 
 serving them at table, when lo ! the bread which she pierced witii 
 her knife sent forth streams of foul and clotted blood ; a sure sign 
 and token," such is Ms conclusion, " of the blood to be shed in the 
 war wliich soon afterwards took place." 
 
 To these names may be added that of Eoswitha, of Ganders- 
 heim, who, with a taste somewhat singular in a lady, and she a 
 nun, amused herself with the composition of Latin comedies ip. 
 imitation of Terence. 
 
 Tlie Arts. — Architecture, it appears, was so successfully culti- 
 vated during the reigns of the Saxon emperors, that in the follow- 
 ing century Germany, instead of copying the Byzantine model of 
 the church of St. Sophia at Constantinople, herself introduced that 
 noble style M'hich we distinguish by the name of Gothic. The 
 transition from the former of these styles to the latter is seen in 
 the cathedral of Strasburg, the foundation of which was laid in 
 1015. Painting and music were also cultivated with success. 
 Tiie art of making statues in plaster, which were afterwards 
 hardened in the fire, was also known. Bells came into general 
 use in this century. 
 
 JJress. — Many changes took place in dress, particularly in that 
 of the ladies, on which Dittmar of Merseburg comments ^itli 
 great severity, accusing them in his quaint old style of " making 
 their backs the stands whereon pedlars were wont to exhibit their 
 trumpery wares ; \\'hilst modesty, the fairest adornment of women, 
 was set aside as a thing of nought." 
 
80 
 
 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 
 
 Chap. Xil. 
 
 CHAPTEE XII. 
 
 CONRAD II. HENRY III., SURNAMED THE BLACK. 
 
 From A.D. 1024 to 1056. 
 
 Goslar Cathedral — Pillar of the Porch. 
 
 As soon as the death of Henry was announced, the States of the 
 Empire assembled to elect his successor. The place of meeting 
 was a plain on the banks of the Rhine between Mentz and 
 Oppenheim, where the dukes, counts, archbishops, bishops, and 
 abbots, appeared in person, attended by an immense army of 
 their vassals, and encamped on both sides of the river, the 
 Rhenish Franks and Lorrainers being on the left bank, the Saxons, 
 Swabians, and other German nations on the right. The two 
 candidates for the throne were Conrad the Elder (surnamed the 
 Salian, as being, according to tradition, a descendant of the 
 Merovingian princes), and tiis cousin of the same name, a year 
 younger than himself. Both were Franconian princes, and 
 
A.D. 1039. CONRAD II. 81 
 
 grandsons of Conrad, duke of that country. The elder, son of 
 Henry, Duke of Franconia, had, as we have seen, been recom- 
 mended by the late Emperor on Iiis deathbed : the younger had 
 also strong claims on the electors, as being the son of an elder 
 brother, and himself a man of no inconsiderable ability. Before 
 the election began, it was proposed by the elder Conrad, thai 
 each of them should pledge himself to do homage to his cousin, 
 in the event of his obtaining a majority of votes. It was better, 
 he said, for either of them to be only a relative of the reigning 
 house, than that the crown, through any dispute of theirs, should 
 go into another family. To this proposal the younger cordially 
 assented, and gave his hand to his cousin, who embraced him 
 affectionately, and being elected with only two dissentient voices, 
 placed him by his side amidst the acclamations of the electors and 
 their vassals. 
 
 The first care of the new king was to make a progress through 
 his dominions, with the view of appeasing those feuds by which 
 the country had been so long distracted. Then he visited Italy, 
 where the people, who believed that the hereditary right of the 
 emperors had expired with Henry II., were on the eve of electing 
 the son of the King of France. After being detained a whole 
 year before the city of Pavia, Henry at length reached Ivome, 
 where he was crowned with great pomp, two sovereign princes 
 being present at the solemnity, viz., Rudolph of Burgundy and 
 Canute the mighty sovereign of Scandinavia and England. The 
 latter gave his daughter in marriage to Conrad's son, and received 
 in return the March of Sleswick, which was no longer of any 
 value to Germany as a barrier against the people of the Xortli, 
 who had all become Christians. The river Eyder thus became, 
 as it had been in Charlemagne's days, the boundary of the empire 
 on that side. 
 
 Among the laws which Conrad framed for the good of his 
 people, one of the most beneficial was that which made the 
 smaller fiefs hereditary, first in Italy and afterwards m Germany. 
 Hitherto the weak vassal had been little better than the slave of 
 Ms powerful lord. It was now provided that every fief (not held 
 immediately from the crown) should be regularly transmitted from 
 father to son ; that all delinquent vassals should be tried, not as 
 heretofore by their lords, but by a jury of men of their own rank ; 
 and that in the event of liis feeling aggrieved, any vassal niitiht 
 appeal from his lord to the Emperor. Conrad died in 1039, 
 
 F 3 
 
82 HISTORY OF GERMANY Chap. XII. 
 
 and was bnried at Spires. During his reign the kingdom oi 
 Burgundy, which now comprehended Provence, Dauphine, Savoy, 
 and parts of Helvetia, was annexed to the possessions of the 
 German crown. Conrad must be reckoned amongst the ablest of 
 the German emperors. 
 
 Henry the Tliird was two and twenty years old when the 
 unanimous voice of the electors called him to fill liis father's 
 throne. No emperor ever reigned with more absolute authority 
 over the church as well as the state. The different parties in Italy 
 having at this time chosen three different Popes, each of whom 
 claimed the obedience of the faithful as the Vicar of Christ on 
 earth, Henry, who had already distinguished himself by putting 
 down formidable insurrections in Bohemia and Burgundy, entered 
 Italy in the character of an arbitrator, and after listening to 
 the claims of the three Popes, determined to show his power by 
 removing them all, and placing a German (Clement II.) on tlie 
 papal throne. 
 
 In 1056, Henry I., King of France, having renewed his claim 
 on Burgundy and Lorraine, the Emperor challenged him to single 
 combat, and, at a meeting of the two sovereigns at Ivois, threw 
 down his gauntlet, according to the practice of those days ; but 
 the French King, instead of accepting the challenge, quitted the 
 town and returned to his capital. 'I'he same year Germany was 
 visited by earthquakes, famine, and pestilence, and before its 
 conclusion the Emperor died in the flower of his age, leaving the 
 reins of government to his M'idow Agnes and his son Henry, a 
 child of five years old. During tliis reign Hungary was annexed 
 to the German crown. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER XIL 
 
 Henry III. and the Popedom. — On his way to Rome in 1046 
 Henry was met by a hermit, who presented him with a paper 
 containing the following lines : — 
 
 Una Suuamitis 
 
 Nupsit ti'ibus maritis : 
 
 Rex Henrice, 
 
 Omuipoteutis vice 
 
 Solve connubium 
 
 Triforme, dubium. 
 
 The Sunamite woman was the papacy, and the three husbands 
 Benedict IX., Silvester III., and Gregory YI. Henry, as we 
 
Sup. Chap. XII. HENRY riL— OPJGINT OF THF: GUELPIIS. 83 
 
 have seen, answered the ap})eal by deposing all three, in a great 
 Council which he held at Sutri. Gregory VI. was banished to 
 C4eniiany, and the celebrated monk, Hildebrand, who was now 
 beginning to distinguish himself at the papal court, was sent to 
 bear him company. 
 
 No emperor exercised a greater power over the popedom than 
 Henry. After the death of Clement II. he caused another 
 German, Bruno, bishop of Toul, a relation of his own, to be 
 elected pope in the Diet of iVonns. The election was confirmed 
 by the Roman clergy and people. Bruno, who assumed the title 
 of Leo IX., passed much of his time in Germany. 
 
 Origin of the GueJpJis. — The origin of the Guelphs, or Welfs, 
 who are first mentioned in the reign of Conrad II., and afterwards 
 occupy a prominent position in the liistory of the empire, was 
 miraculous, if we may believe tradition. " Once on a time," says 
 the legend, " Isembrand, Count of Altdorf, met an old woman 
 who had brought forth three children at a birth, and assailed her 
 v\4th coarse and unmanly ridicule. Full of rage, the old beldame 
 raised her hands to hea\en, and prayed that the wife of the Count 
 migJit at her next confinement become the mother of as many 
 cliildren as there w^re months in the year. Her wish was fulfilled, 
 for in due time the countess brought forth twelve sons ; eleven of 
 whom she delivered to a maid to be drowned in the lake. Kov/ 
 it happened that the handmaiden on her way to execute this 
 commission met the Count, who inquired of her what she had in 
 her basket. ' Whelps' ( Welfe;i), said the damsel. Not satisfied 
 M'ith this reply, the Count raised the cloth, and beholding the 
 children, commanded that they should be carried to the palace, 
 where he brought them up as his own, and from that time the 
 descendants of those rescued children have borne the name of 
 Welf" In the eleventh century, Azzo, Lord of Milan and 
 Genoa, became connected with a branch of this family by 
 maniage ; and at a later period liis descendants, as w^ell as the 
 representatives of the German line, were the founders of a 
 powerful political party in Italy and Germany, which distinguished 
 itself by its support of the Popes, and its advocacy of Italian 
 independence, in opposition to the Ghibellines, who took pait 
 with the emperors. A descendant of the Guelphic house, George, 
 Elector of Hanover, ascended the British throne on the death of 
 Queen Anne in 1714. 
 
84 
 
 HISTORY OF GERMANY 
 
 Chap. XIII. 
 
 CHAPTER XIJT. 
 
 HENRY IV. 
 
 Fjom A.D. 105G to 1075. 
 
 statu;' ot ilukuul 
 
 Henry IV. was only five years old wlicn his father died ; the 
 mauagement of the kingdom was therefore intrusted to his mother, 
 Agnes, a woman of pious character and cultivated understanding, 
 
A.D. 1056. HENRY IV. 85 
 
 but wanting in the ener^ necessary to control the turbulent 
 nobles, who now availed themselves of their sovereign's minority 
 to renew their attacks on the privileges of the crown, and tiie 
 liberties of the people. The first step of the regent, althougli 
 dictated by kind and Christian motives, was ill-judged and un- 
 fortunate. Tlie enemies of her house were not only pardoned, but 
 admitted to offices of the highest trust and honour. One of these 
 men, named Rudolph of Kheinfelden, had forcibly carried off 
 lier daughter, a child of eleven years old; and Agnes, so far 
 from punishing him for his crime, had conferred on him the 
 dukedom of Swabia, and the vice-royalty of Burgundy. The 
 former of these dignities had been promised by Henry III. 
 to Berthold of Zahringen, who, furious at what he reasonably 
 enough considered a gross act of injustice, forced his way into the 
 presence of the regent, and, exhibiting a ring wliich Henry had 
 given him as a pledge of his good faith, complained in no very 
 gentle or respectful language of the injury which he had sustained ; 
 and was only pacified by being invested with the dukedom of 
 Carintliia and the county of Verona in Italy. In the same 
 manner the dukedoms of Lorraine and Bavaria were conferred on 
 enemies of the imperial house. By such concessions Agnes hoped 
 to conciliate those whose opposition she had reason to dread ; but 
 the event soon convinced her that she had committed a fatal error 
 in conferring favours on men incapable of gratitude, and guided 
 only by the dictates of ambition. Her chief counsellor and 
 favourite was Henry, Bishop of Augsburg, a man of upright but 
 stern and unbending character, who caused universal discontent by 
 his endeavours to remedy the evils which he was assured would 
 result from the injudicious concessions of his mistress. 
 
 The kind-hearted regent was in consequence represented as a 
 feeble and vicious woman, whose criminal affection for the bishop 
 rendered her incapable of carrying out those plans of conciliation 
 and benevolence which she had contemplated at the beginning 
 of her administration. At length the fiame which had gone on 
 smouldering for two years burst forth. A conspiracy was formed 
 to carry off the young king, and deprive his mother of the 
 regency. 
 
 Ilanno, Archbishop of Cologne, a man of rigid morals, con- 
 siderable talent, and great experience, invited the queen-motlier 
 and her young son to enjoy the festivities of Easter on the island 
 of Kaiserswerth {the Emperor's ule) in the Rhine. After the 
 
86 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XIII. 
 
 banquet, the young king was decoyed on board the archbishop's 
 pleasure-boat, wlrlcli immediately shoved off and rowed towards 
 the main land. Finding that the intention of the conspirators 
 was to separate him from his mother, the courageous boy sprang 
 into the stream, but was dragged back into the boat by Egbert 
 of Brunswick. In vain did the agonized parent implore the 
 assistance of her attendants ; none dared to help her farther than 
 by pursuing the conspirators with yells of execration. Henry 
 was brought to Cologne, and placed under the guardianship of 
 the archbishop, who immediately proclaimed liimself regent of the 
 kingdom. 
 
 The mihappy queen, finding all hope vain of rescuing her 
 child, and abandoned even by those on whom she had heaped so 
 many favours, wished to retire into a convent in Italy, and was 
 only withheld by the energetic representations of the few who 
 remained faithful to her. In order to obtain a sanction for his 
 usurpation, Hanno procured a law to be passed to the effect that 
 tJie bishop in whose diocese the king happened to reside should 
 be intrusted with the administration of the kingdom. Still he 
 was well aware that there were many other nobles, scarcely less 
 powerful than himself, who would probably dispute with him the 
 possession of the sovereign's person : he therefore proposed to 
 Adelbert, Archbishop of Bremen, that Henry should reside in 
 his diocese at a subsequent period, and that the regency mean- 
 while should be administered by the two prelates conjointly. Ko 
 characters could be more opposite than those of the men who had 
 thus taken upon them the government of Germany. Hanno, a 
 dark stern zealot, of irreproachable morals, but rigid, inflexible 
 character, was acquainted with no system of education except 
 that of the cloister. Adelbert of Bremen, on the contrary, v.as 
 a lover of luxury and pomp, a jovial companion at the banquet, 
 and strongly suspected of a propensity to pleasures still more 
 exceptionable. In their hearts the two prelates were the bitterest 
 enemies, and agreed only in striving, each to the full extent of 
 his power, to tyrannize over and plunder the German empire. 
 
 The means which they employed for the attainment of this 
 object were illustrative of their different characters. Whilst Hanno 
 endeavoured tq increase his influence by conferring bishoprics on 
 his relations and dependants, his rival sought to dazzle the people 
 by the magnificence of his court and the gorgeous suite of vassals 
 by whom he was attended. His profusion was as boundless as 
 
A.D 1063. HEXRY IV. 87 
 
 his ambition. Often in a fit of ostentatious generosity he would 
 bestow on a single beggar a sum sufficient for the relief of fifiy 
 poor families : or M^aste his revenues in forming gardens on sandy 
 ground, or vineyards on cold clayey soils, in order to obtain the 
 glory of having compelled even nature to yield to his power. 
 
 The young king, whose unfortunate fate had thrown him into 
 the hands of two guardians so unfit for the task which they had 
 undertaken, possessed a pliancy of disposition which rendered his 
 character peculiarly susceptible of injury from the opposite but 
 equally faulty systems pursued by his instructors. AYhilst Ilanno, 
 by educating him as he would have educated the meanest chonster 
 of Ids church, excited in his young mind feelings of bitter hatred 
 towards his severe taskmaster, Adelbert (to whose care he was 
 committed in turn) corrupted liis morals by the daily scenes of 
 licentiousness which disgraced the palace at Bremen. The first 
 lesson v.hich the young monarch learnt was the dangerous one, 
 that kings are accountable for their actions to none but God; 
 tiie second, that the dukes of the empire, his natural enemies, as 
 he was told, were to be hunted down with as little remorse as 
 wild beasts. The court resembled that of our own licentious 
 monarch Charles II., where wit and talent were cherished and 
 applauded as the handmaids of sensuality. The most serious affairs 
 of state were transacted over the wine cup, or in the society of 
 abandoned women ; and many were the jests passed on the German 
 people, whom the witty flatterers of the king represented as 
 donkeys, fit only to be cudgelled into bearing the burdens wliich 
 tlieir sovereign might do them the honour of laying on their 
 backs. The Saxons, with whom Adelbert had long been at 
 variance, were unceasingly reviled, and a prejudice created in 
 the mind of Henry, which at a later period of his reign was the 
 cause of much bloodshed and misery. 
 
 In the year 1063 the young king accompanied his guardian 
 in an expedition against the Hungarians, and returned after a 
 successful campaign, more than ever delighted with his unprin- 
 cipled instructor. Two years later, Henry, being now fifteen 
 years of age, was girded with the sword of knightliood, ami 
 declared a man. No sooner was this ceremony performed than 
 he drew his sword, and made several passes in jest against the 
 person of his ancient persecutor. Archbishop Hanno, whom he 
 now treated with undisguised contempt ; whilst Adelbert, secure 
 of his influence over the king, conducted himself even more 
 
88 HISTORY Of" GERMANY. Chap. XIII. 
 
 insolently than before. Amon^^ other instances of his arrogance 
 and total want of decency, we are told that he was in the habit 
 of boxing the ears of bishops and abbots whenever they happened 
 to offend him. The revenues of his bishopric, ample as they 
 were, proving insufficient for the support of his profusion, he 
 carried on a shameful trade in the sale of ecclesiastical offices, and 
 even melted down and sold the candlesticks and other ornaments 
 of his church. Henry, who now resided at Goslar in Saxony, 
 did full justice to the instructions which he had received at 
 Bremen. His court was a scene of the most undisguised and 
 shameless profligacy. Women of abandoned character might be 
 seen blazing in jewels, which had been torn from tlie priestly 
 robes and furniture of his church by Archbishop Adelbert, whilst 
 wine was quaffed, as in the impious feast of Belshazzar, out of 
 the chalice and other vessels of the altars. 
 
 To support the expenses of this court, contributions M^ere levied 
 on the people of the surrounding country, whose murmurs and 
 remonstrances were treated with contempt. At this crisis the 
 Archbishops of Cologne and Mentz assembled the princes of the 
 empire to take into consideration the affairs of Germany; and 
 Henry and Adelbert, knowing the danger which threatened them, 
 repaired to Tribur (where the Diet was held) in the hope of 
 being able to defeat the designs of their enemies ; but the princes 
 resolved unanimously that no choice should be allowed to the 
 king except that of abandoning Adelbert or resigning the crown 
 Henry, unwilling to renounce his favourite, endeavoured to escape 
 by night, carrying with him the regalia of the empire ; but his 
 snemies having surrounded his palace with a guard, his attempt 
 was frustrated. A second council was then held, at which 
 scenes of great violence were enacted, and the archbishop hardly 
 escaped being personally ill-treated by the enraged princes. 
 After a stormy debate, it was at length resolved by a great 
 majority that Henry should be called on to dismiss his favourite, 
 renounce his profligate course of life, and many Bertha, daughter 
 of the Italian Margrave of Susa, a woman of the most estimable 
 character, to whom he had been formerly betrothed. Yielding 
 to necessity, Henry dismissed the archbishop, and retired with 
 his bride to Goslar. Adelbert, being now exposed unprotected 
 to the fury of his enemies, was plundered of all his possessions, 
 and reduced to a state of the most abject poverty. Meanwhile 
 Henry, deeming himself safe in his castle of Goslar, returned 
 
A.D. TOGO. HENRY IV. 89 
 
 to Iiis old profligate life, and treated his wife with ^eat cruelty. 
 In order to overawe the Saxons, strong- fortresses were built in 
 different parts of the country ; and at length, in the year 1068, 
 the insurrection was quelled. But he had made other enemies. 
 The Archbishop of Mentz had obtained a promise from the king 
 that he would assist him in chastising the Thuringians on condition 
 of his using his influence with the court of Rome to procure a 
 divorce for Henry ; but the application was peremptorily rejected 
 by the Pope, and the princes of Germany, in a diet held at 
 Frankfort, declared their approbation of his refusal. At last, in 
 despair, Henry consented to retain his wife, and after a time was 
 so touched by the gentle patience with which she had borne all 
 his neglect, that he began to treat her \vith as much affection as 
 his depraved heart was capable of feeling ; and was abundantly 
 requited by finding in her the most constant of friends and 
 wisest of counsellors. In the year 1069 Henry's evil genius, the 
 Archbishop of Bremen, again appeared at Goslar, and from that 
 moment all hopes of amendment were at an end. Adelbert at 
 first seemed humbled and improved by his misfortunes, and 
 sliowed some disposition to bear his faculties more meekly than 
 he had hitlierto done; but ease and luxury soon brought back 
 all his old dispositions, and in a very few months his insolence 
 and profligacy were displayed as offensively as they had ever 
 been in former days. The chief object of his indignation was 
 Otho, Duke of Bavaria, who had played a conspicuous part at the 
 diet of Tribur. In order to effect his ruin, a false witness was 
 suborned, who swore that he had been hired by Otho to assassinate 
 the king, and showed the sword which, as he pretended, the duke 
 had given him for that purpose. Otho met this accusation by a 
 denial of his guilt, and it was arranged that the question should 
 be decided, according to the practice of those times, by ordeal of 
 l)attle : but the duke refusing to appear at the place appointed 
 for the combat, a second assembly was summoned, consisting 
 entirely of his enemies, which pronounced him guilty of the 
 charge, and authorised the king to invade Bavaria and Saxony. 
 Otho was not slow in making reprisals ; and with an army of 
 3000 Bavarians ravaged the possessions of the crown in Thuringia : 
 but having, after an ineffectual struggle, surrendered himself in 
 order to spare the further effusion of blood, lie was thrown into 
 prison, whence he was subsequently released by conmiand of 
 Henry. Archbishop Adelbert was dead, but his spirit st^emcd still 
 
90 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XIII. 
 
 to guide the counsels of the king. The Saxons, goaded almost 
 to madness by a succession of insults, sent a deputation of their 
 nobles to remonstrate with him ; but, after waiting a whole day 
 in the ante-room, they were told that the king had ridden out, 
 and that there was no hope of their obtaining an audience until 
 the morrow. Indignant at this gross affront, the Saxon nobles 
 swore that they would defend the liberties of tlieir countrymen 
 even to the death, and no longer submit to the exactions and 
 insults of the king. Messengers were at the same time despatched 
 to the other provinces of Germany, imploring them not to assist 
 Henry in his attempts to enslave their brethren. In the year 
 1073," the conspirators, at the head of 60,000 men, appeared 
 before the castle of Hartzburg and made the following demands : 
 1. That the king should dismantle all the fortresses which he had 
 built in Saxony, and transfer himself and his court to some other 
 part of the country ; 2. That he should release Duke Magnus 
 of Saxony, whom he had thrown into prison ; and 3. That he 
 should dismiss all his evil counsellors. In case of liis refusal 
 to comply with these demands, they were determined at once to 
 renounce their allegiance. Henry, in the greatest embarrassment, 
 endeavoured to appease them by fair words ; and, whilst the 
 negotiations were pending, quitted Goslar, and went to reside at 
 Hersfeld, in Hesse. Soon afterwards Duke Magnus was exchanged 
 for seventy Swabians, v/ho had been taken in battle : whence 
 the Saxon proverb, " One Saxon is worth seventy Swabians." 
 On reaching Hersfeld, Henry threw himself on his knees before 
 the assembled princes, and in the most abject manner implored 
 their assistance. A day was appointed, on which the Saxons 
 should meet the royal commissioners for the purpose of settling 
 the matters in dispute. On that day 16,000 Saxons appeared at 
 the place of meeting, and after much discussion it was settled, 
 that they should give satisfaction to the king for their insurrection, 
 and that Henry on his part should forgive them all that was past, 
 and remove their grievances. Henry naturally concluded that 
 the performance of these conditions would restore tranquillity ; 
 but he soon found that the treacherous nobles, whilst they seemed 
 to be using tiieir best efforts to bring back the Saxons to their 
 allegiance, were in reality plotting with them another and more 
 general insurrection, the object of which was to depose the king, 
 and place Rudolph of Swabia on the throne. That they might 
 have some pretext for this act of treason, they persuaded one 
 
A.D. 1073. HENRY IV. 01 
 
 Reginar to come forward and swear that lie had been nired })y 
 the king to assassinate the Dukes of Swabia and Carinthia. All 
 the princes pretended to believe this accusation, and gave the 
 king to understand, that, unless he could exculpate himself, they 
 would renounce their allegiance. A diet was then held at 
 Katioibon, and measures concerted for depriving Henry of tluj 
 crown ; but his good fortune once more prevailed, and brought 
 liim help from a quarter whence he had little reason to expect it. 
 The long period of peace which Germany had enjoyed under the 
 kings of the Saxon line, had raised up in the towns a body of 
 opulent traders, who contemplated the prospect of civil war with 
 undisguised apprehension. These men were all expert in the use 
 of arms; for even in the most tranquil days of that barbarous 
 period no man's life or property was safe unless he could defend 
 them with his own sword. As soon as they heard of the Saxon 
 insurrection, and the treachery of the nobles, the burghers resolved 
 to venture goods, life, and limb in defence of their sovereign. 
 The city of Worms invited him to take refuge within its walls ; 
 and when their bishop, a brother of Rudolph of Swabia, refused 
 to sanction this proceeding, they at once expelled him, and, 
 marching with a considerable force, met Henry, and conducted 
 him in triumph into the city. Ulrich of Cosheim, one of the 
 king's most faithful friends, now offered to do battle on behalf 
 of his master with the accuser Reginar ; but before they could 
 meet, the wretch died raving mad ; and the superstitious people, 
 thinking that they discerned the finger of God in this judgment, 
 at once pronounced Henr^^ innocent, and overwhelmed his accusers 
 with their curses. The Saxons also concluded a peace with the 
 kino- at Gerstingen, the chief condition of which was that all the 
 royal fortresses in Saxony should be put into their hands, and 
 levelled with the ground — a work which they performed with 
 great zeal, and often with disgusting barbarity, particularly at 
 the Hartzburg, where they disinterred and insulted the corpse of 
 Henry's son. This atrocity roused the king, who declared that 
 he no lon"-er considered himself bound by the conditions of the 
 peace. The nobles were now on his side, for they had taken 
 deep offence at the Saxons for having presumed to conclude a 
 peace without theii sanction ; and Henry soon found himself nt 
 the head of a powerful army, with which he encountered the 
 enemy near the town of Langen-Salza, in Thuringia. The combat 
 lasted tlie whole day, and, at its conclusion, the Saxons, who had 
 
92 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XIII. 
 
 lost 8000 men, surrendered themselves to Henry, as their fathers 
 had often done to Charlemagne, determined to burst the chain as 
 soon as a favourable opportunity should occur for renouncing 
 their forced allegiance. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 Gregory VII. — About the middle of the eleventh century 
 appeared a man who was destined to work a mighty alteration iu 
 the spiritual as well as temporal affairs of the empire. Hilde- 
 brand, the son of a Roman blacksmith, or, according to other 
 authorities, of a petty proprietor in the little town of Soano, had 
 risen by his talents to the highest offices of the church, and was 
 eminently qualified by character as well as abilities to act the 
 part of a reformer. To a rigid firmness of disposition, which no 
 terrors could shake, he united the most saintlike purity of life 
 and the greatest contempt for the pleasures of the world ; yet he 
 possessed an acquaintance with human nature which astonished 
 those who believed that such knowledge could only be obtained 
 by a practical familiarity with the crooked by-ways of vice. So 
 great was his eloquence, that Henry the Third, when Hildebrand 
 preached before him, declared that no sermon had ever affected 
 him so deeply. His notions of the papal power were extrava- 
 gantly exalted. " As man," he was wont to say, " consists of 
 soul and body, so do human affairs consist of spiritual and earthly ; 
 and as the body is ruled by the soul, so ought the world to be 
 governed by the church. As there are two great lights in heaven, 
 the sun and the moon, so are there two mighty rulers on earth, 
 the Pope and the Emperor. Now, as the moon derives her light 
 from the sun, so is all the power of the Emperor derived from 
 the Pope. The Pope is the successor of the Apostle Peter, to 
 whom the Saviour said ' Feed my sheep.' Now God having 
 placed all things under the feet of his Son, and Peter being the 
 successor of Christ, and the Pope the successor of St. Peter, it 
 follows that all earthly principalities, and powers, and dominions 
 should be subject to him who is the representative of God in the 
 world." "With such views it was only natural that Hildebrand 
 should employ the influence arising from his position as confiden- 
 tial adviser of five successive popes, to increase by every means 
 within his reach the authority of the papal see. Allowing that 
 tiie church was corrupt, he fancied that lie saw the cause of that 
 
Sup. Chap. XIII. GREGORY VII. 93 
 
 sinfulitess and corruption in the enslaved state of the ecclesiastical 
 l^ower. Hitherto the popes had been elected by the Roman 
 clergy and people, but the emperor enjoyed the right of confirm- 
 ing or annulling these elections. The emperor also claimed the 
 prerogative of assembling councils, and of appointing them to 
 decide on the affairs of the church. He also possessed the right, 
 of conferring the great ecclesiastical benefices in Gemiany, of 
 receiving their revenues during a vacancy, and of succeeding to 
 the property of ecclesiastics who died intestate. Were the arm 
 of the Pope free, lie would cast out of the building every stone 
 of offence, and restore the sanctuary to its original beauty. But 
 in order to attain this important object the election of the popes 
 must be wholly independent of the emperor ; he therefore pro- 
 posed, at the beginning of Henry's reign, that they should be 
 chosen by a college of cardinals. This proposition being adopted 
 at a council held at Rome, in 1059, the sacred college, as it was 
 called, was formed after the model of those chapters which had 
 long been attached to the episcopal sees. Hildebrand was ap- 
 pointed a member of this college (which consisted of .seventy 
 members, in imitation of the college of our Lord's first disciples), 
 and archdeacon or chief secretary of the Pope. The next step 
 was to obtain for the pontiffs, thus independently elected, an in- 
 crease of temporal power, which was effected by persuading the 
 Norman kings in Naples and Sicily to hold their crowns as fiefs, 
 not of the emperors, but of the popes, thus giving them an au- 
 thority, as feudal sovereigns, which hitherto none but the empe- 
 rors had enjoyed. In this manner the foundation was laid of 
 that mighty structure which Hildebrand, when he himself ascended 
 the papal throne, raised to such an imposing height. 
 
 In the year 1073 he was elected pope, and assumed the title 
 of Gregory VII. ; and, in addition to his compact with the Nor- 
 mans, formed a strict alliance with Matilda, Countess of Tuscany. 
 Thus supported on both sides, Hildebrand combated fearlessly 
 the abuses of the church, and that which he conceived to be the 
 chief cause of them — the interference of the temporal magistrate 
 in spiritual concerns. His first attacks were directed against the 
 simony or corrupt purchasing of ecclesiastical offices (so called 
 from the crime of Simon Magus, who sought to buy with money 
 the gift of working miracles), which for a long time had pre- 
 vailed to a fearful extent. Two decrees of general councils were 
 published, forbidding this practice on pain of exconnuunication. 
 
M HISTORY OF GERMAN Y. Chap. XII I. 
 
 Having succeeded thus far, Gregory next proposed a measure 
 from which even his fearless soul would probably have shrunk, 
 had not the change which he sought to introduce been in full 
 accordance with the spirit of the age. Hitherto only the monks 
 had led lives of celibacy, the bishops and secular priests being 
 permitted to marry or not, as they thought fit. Gregory per- 
 ceived that as long as the clergy were permitted to marry, they 
 would have interests independent of the church ; but if he could 
 succeed in enforcing celibacy, those affections wliich had hitherto 
 been shared by wives and children would be exclusively devoted 
 to their order, to the Pope, and as he believed, or affected to be- 
 lieve, to heaven. Thus did Gregory seek to lay the foundation 
 of that system which for nearly eight hundred years has been 
 employed to increase the influence of the Romish church at the 
 expense, in many instances, of the happiness and morality of her 
 clergy. The change, although agreeable to the laity, was by no 
 means equally acceptable to the clergy themselves. In every 
 part of the empire an outcry was raised against the tyranny of 
 the Pope ; and at Erfurt, where the Archbishop of Mentz at- 
 tempted to read the edict to a council of bishops, there arose 
 such an uproar tliat his life was in danger. But Gregory was 
 not to be so easily defeated. Relying on the sympathy of the 
 people, and the co-operation of the monks, he excommunicated 
 all the secular clergy, forbidding their congregations to listen to 
 the masses celebrated by them. This had its effect ; for in a 
 short time, although the bisliops of Constance and Ratisbon 
 clearly proved from Scripture that marriage was honourable in 
 all, the Germans were compelled to yield ; and the celibacy of 
 the clergy became thenceforward one of the fundamental laws of 
 the Romish church. 
 
 The next year Gregory passed a law forbidding lay patronage, 
 and thus struck at the root of simony, which for a long time had 
 been shamelessly practised by the ministers and favourites of tJie 
 Emperor. It was now ordered that all bishops shoidd be elected 
 by the clergy, and their election confirmed by the Pope, and that 
 the Emperor sliould no longer interfere in their appointment. 
 Thus the papal see became the sole patron and proprietor of those 
 enormous ecclesiastical endowments which had iiitherto been held 
 as fiefs of the empire ; and the priesthood, formed into a compact 
 society, equally independent of the control of earthly sovereigns 
 and the ties of domestic affection, hoped to reign without restraint 
 
Sup. Chap. XIII. GROWTH OF THE GERMAX CITIES. 95 
 
 over tlie whole Christian world. That tiiis formidable body 
 u\'\u;hi have a recognized iiead, Gregory declared that the l*o[je 
 nUnie iiad the power of siuiinionin<2: general councils, and tiiat 
 the proceedini2;s of sucli as were called without his sanction were 
 null and void. In inntation of Charlemagne, who had sent com- 
 missioners into different parts of the empire, he despatclied ambas- 
 sadors or legates, whose business it was to support the power and 
 watcli over the interests of the church in those countries to which 
 tiiey were accredited. As the principle on which these enormous 
 usurpations were grounded, it was solemnly proclaimed tliat " the 
 Pope was through God and instead of God upon earth, and 
 therefore that all things temporal as well as spiritual were subject 
 to his power." 
 
 Rise and growth of the German cities. — The events related in 
 the preceding chapter show that tiie German cities had already 
 attained a considerable degree of im})ortance. The ancient Ger- 
 mans, as we have seen, detested cities. They laid in ruins thc^se 
 whicii had been built by the Romans on the south side of the 
 Danube, in Switzerland, and on the left bank of the Rhine, and 
 continued to live in scattered dwellings. By degrees, however, 
 as the population increased, villages began to spring up around 
 the castles of the nobility, the cathedrals and cloisters of the 
 abbots and bisliops, and the palaces of the emperor. But these 
 villages were at first without walls, and their inhabitants nothing 
 but serfs. Henry the Fowler saw the use which might be made 
 of these villages as a defence against the attacks of the Hun- 
 garians ; and, as we have already related, converted many of 
 them, especially those which surrounded the churches, into towns 
 and cities, by providing them with walls and ramparts. His 
 policy was followed by his successors, and particularly by the 
 Othos, who looked upon the cities as their best safeguard against 
 the powTr of the dukes and princes of the empire. Hence they 
 conferred charters upon them, and privileges which had hitherto 
 been enjoyed only by the bishops and dukes, namely, those of 
 coining and levying customs. 
 
 The cities of the empire which thus sprung up were nominally 
 governed by an imperial lieutenant or bailifl (Reichsvogt), gene- 
 rally some neighbouring count, who troubled himself but little 
 about the affairs of the citizens, except to receive their presents 
 and partake of their feasts. He was however invested with the 
 militarj' command of the town and the supreme administration of 
 
96 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XIH. 
 
 justice. Under him was a court of twelve aldermen or sheriffs, 
 elected by the burgesses, whose president, the Sclndtheiss, or 
 mayor, at first decided only the smaller civil suits. By degrees, 
 through the absence of the Reichsvogts, or by new privileges 
 granted by the emperor, the mayor began to be invested with the 
 entire government; and the aldermen, with the mayor at their 
 head, formed a town council for the administration of affairs. 
 
 The towns of northern Germany were walled in and fortified, 
 in order to secure them against the incursions of the Danes and 
 Northmen. Paderborn and Bremen were fortified in the first 
 half of the eleventh century ;* yet the inhabitants of the latter 
 trace its claims as a free city, invested with the independent admi- 
 nistration of justice, to the time of Charlemagne. In the market 
 place still stands a colossal statue of Eoland, the favourite general 
 of that emperor, intended, it would seem, as a personification of 
 the supreme civil authority. The statue is eighteen feet high, and 
 represents a warrior clothed in armour, over which is thrown a 
 lono- mantle. In his right hand he holds a drawn sword, to indi- 
 cate the right of inflicting capital punishment ; and on the left 
 arm is a shield ornamented with the imperial double eagle, and 
 this inscription in low German : — 
 
 Vryheid do ick ju openbar, Freedom proclaim I far and wide, 
 
 De Karl und manuig Vorst ver- Which Charles and many a prince beside 
 
 ^ahr To this our town hath giv'n indeed : 
 
 Deser Stadt gegeven hat : Thank God, therefore, that is my rede 
 Des danket Gott— is min Rad. (advice). 
 
 Between the feet lie the head and hands of a malefactor on whom 
 execution has been done. The long hair, mantle, belt, and pointed 
 knee-caps, being the costume of a knight, are emblematical of 
 the privileges enjoyed by Bremen as a free city of the empire. 
 The statue was erected in 1404, to replace a very ancient wooden 
 figure destroyed in 1 366. 
 
 In all these towns the nucleus of the population were the free 
 burgesses or landed proprietors who had built houses on their own 
 ground, and their tenants, who, although possessing no property 
 in the city, were proprietors of lands in other districts. To these 
 were added a crowd of persons, originally serfs, exercising me- 
 chanical trades, or employed by the free burgesses as household 
 servants. These settlers (many of whom had taken refuge in the 
 cities to escape the tyranny of their rural lords), although ten 
 
 * Hullmann, Stcdtewesen des Mittelalter^ ii. 169. 
 
Sup. Chap. XIII. GROWTH OF THE GERMAN CITIES. 97 
 
 times more numerous than the free burgesses, were viewed with 
 great contempt by the Gesclilechter (families) who composed tlie 
 aristocracy of the towns, and were neither permitted to hold 
 public meetings, nor to take any part in the management of the 
 common affairs. In later times, however, when the trades became 
 more powerful, they foraied unions of their own called Ziinfte 
 (guilds), each of which M'as governed by a guild-master, and the 
 whole presided over by a burgo-master chosen out of their body. 
 From the very beginning these bodies threatened to dispute the 
 power of the Gesclilechter and mayor ; nor was it long before 
 civil contests actually broke out. 
 
 Gy 
 
98 
 
 HISTORY OF GERMANY, 
 
 CoAP. XIY. 
 
 CHAPTEE XIV. 
 
 HENRY IV. 
 
 From A.D. 1075 to 1106. 
 
 iVich of Ibe Cathedral at Gosiar. 
 
 The Saxons broiiglit tlieir complaints before Gregory VII. , and 
 ITemy was weak enough, by lodging a counter complaint, to con- 
 stitute tlie Pope judge of tbe quarrel between himself and his 
 subjects. Gregory at once issued his summons to the king to 
 appear at Piome, and excommunicated all the bishops who had 
 obtained their offices at his hands by simoniacal means : wiiilst 
 Henry, who little knew the inflexible energy of the Pope's cha- 
 racter, assembled a council of German bishops at Worms, and 
 solemnly deposed him from his office by a decree containing much 
 gross personal abuse. This proceeding, although common enough 
 
A.D. 1076. HENR\ IV. 99 
 
 in the days when the papal chair was filled by weak or vicious 
 pontitfs, and the emperors were wise and powerful, was a hazardous 
 experiment for a prince of Henry's character to try against such a 
 pope as Gregory VII. The effect was such as miglit have been 
 expected. No sooner was the decision of the council announced 
 at Rome, than a bull was issued, excommunicating Henry, ab- 
 solving his subjects from their allegiance, and formally deposing 
 Jiim from the imperial and royal dignities. " In the name of 
 Almighty God," thus ran the bull, " I interdict King Henry, 
 son of the late Emperor Henry, from the exercise of all kingly 
 authority, inasmuch as he hath conducted himself with unheard of 
 uaughtiness and presumption towards the church ; and all Christian 
 men I hereby absolve from any oath of allegiance which they 
 have already taken or shall hereafter take to the said Henrj"-, 
 forbidding all and each of them to render unto him the obedience 
 due to a king. And I do by these presents, and in thy name, 
 O blessed Peter, bind him with the bonds of cursing, that all the 
 people may know thee to be the rock on \^hich the Son of God 
 hath built his church." Henry at first laughed at the arrogance 
 of this insolent priest ; but was soon compelled to acknowledge 
 that Gregory had calculated rightly on the piety of the German 
 character. 
 
 With the exception of the cities and free peasants, all his 
 subjects shrank from tne insulter of the church as from one 
 infected by a pestilence. The Saxons again broke out into open 
 rebellion ; whilst Lewis of Thuringia, whom the king had detained 
 in the fortress of Giebichenstein on the Saale, escaping from his 
 confinement by a desperate leap, joined Rudolph of Swabia and 
 other princes at Tribur, where it was resolved in solemn diet that, 
 unless King Henry were freed from the papal ban within a year, 
 he should be adjudged to have forfeited his crown. To prevent 
 his effecting such a reconciliation, by throwing himself at the feet 
 of the Pope, all the passages of the Alps were jealously guarded ; 
 but Henry contrived to elude the vigilance of his enemies, and in 
 the winter of 1076-7, one of the severest ever known, entered the 
 pass of Mont Cenis, accompanied only by his faithful Bertha, 
 their infiint son, and one servant. As they advanced, the forlorn 
 party vrere exposed to all the horrors attendant on a winter's 
 journey across the Alps. Whilst the snow fell so thick as to 
 render everj^ step a work of increasing toil, avalanches from time 
 to time descended with tlie roar of a thunder-storm, threatening 
 
100 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XIV. 
 
 to bury them beneath the ruins of trees and fragments of rock 
 which were detached from the side of the mountain, and came 
 rushing down, sometimes within a few paces of the affrighted 
 travellers. Nor were the terrors of their situation greatly dimi- 
 nished when a severe frost rendered the narrow pathway so slip- 
 pery that they were compelled to creep on hands and feet, or slide 
 down the glaciers, in order to save themselves from being dashed 
 to pieces, the precipice in many places going sheer down to the 
 depth of many hundred feet on one side of a road scarcely a yard 
 wide, whilst a wall of rock rose on the other. 
 
 The horses, unable to retain their footing, were bound with 
 ropes, and lowered over the edge of the precipice by peasants, 
 whilst the queen and her infant, wrapped in an ox's hide, were 
 dragged along the slippery causeway, their rude sledge being 
 steadied by men who walked beside it, whenever the nature of 
 the ground rendered such a support necessary. At length, after 
 enduring indescribable sufferings, Henry and his small suite de- 
 scended, weary and foot-sore, into the sunny plains of Lombardy. 
 Here a scene awaited him very different from that which he had 
 left on the other side of the Alps. The Lombards, whose king, 
 with most of his bishops and nobles, was, like himself, under sen- 
 tence of excommunication, received him cordially ; and he might 
 perhaps have compelled the Pope to reverse his sentence, had he 
 possessed decision of character enough for any important step. 
 For a moment Henry debated whether he should appear before 
 the Pope as a humble pilgrim or at the head of an army; find 
 Gregory, who was at that time on his way to Germany, seems to 
 have doubted in which character he was to expect him ; for he 
 shut himself up in Canossa, a fortress belonging to his ally, 
 Matilda of Tuscany, determined to proceed no farther until the 
 intentions of the king were knoAvn. He was not kept long in 
 suspense, for Henry, who doubted the fidelity of his Lombard 
 allies, soon sent an abject message to the Pope, imploring an 
 audience. After considerable delay this was granted, and the 
 king appeared at Canossa, clothed in the hair-shirt of a penitent, 
 with bare head, and feet miserably lacerated by the roughness of 
 the road. Entering the castle-gate, he was insolently ordered by 
 the guard to wait in the court-yard until it was the pleasure of 
 the Holy Father to receive his submission, and for three days and 
 nights he remained in the open air at that rigorous season, bare- 
 headed and bare-footed, without food, and exposed to the brutal 
 
A.D. 1077. HENRY IV. 101 
 
 scoffs of the Pope's attendants. At length, at the intercession of 
 IMatilda, Gregory consented to remove the ban, the king engaging 
 to exercise none of tiie functions of royalty until a diet of the 
 empire, assembled under the presidency of the Pope, should 
 decide whetlier he might continue to wear the crown of Germany 
 or not. 
 
 Tliese terms being concluded, the Pope proceeded to the cliapel 
 of the castle, followed by his penitenty %nd there, in the presence 
 of a crowd of people, ascended the steps of the high altar, and 
 turning to Henry addressed him in these words : — " Thou hast 
 oftentimes reproached me, as though I had obtained the papal 
 crown by bribery and dishonest acts, and liad disgraced the 
 Christian religion by the foulest crimes. I now hold in my hand 
 tlie body of our Lord Jesus Ciu*ist : I will divide the wafer, and 
 myself swallow the one half, praying the Almighty to strike me 
 suddenly dead, if the charges which thou hast brought against me 
 are true." Having thus spoken, he swallowed a part of the wafer, 
 and, turning again to Henry, said, *' Thou too standest accused 
 of many and great sins, on account of which I have placed thee 
 under sentence of excommunication. If thou be innocent, swallow 
 the rest of this wafer, and purify thyself from all suspicion." But 
 the weak mind of Henry was not prepared to undergo this solemn 
 ordeal, and he refused to receive the host until he had consulted 
 with his friends and advisers. They then separated, and the king- 
 set out on his return to Germany. On the road he received intel- 
 lio-ence that the nobles had set him aside duiing his absence, and 
 elected in his room Rudolph, Duke of Swabia, whom the people 
 in derision nick-named the Parsons' King {den Pfaffen Koeniy), 
 as having been raised to the throne by the intrigues of the Pope 
 and clergy. Henry, who knew that the majority of the German 
 people were still faitliful to him, and felt besides that he ndght 
 hope for the assistance of the Lombards, determined to resist to 
 the death this usurpation of Rudolph; and, conceiving himself 
 absolved from the promise made to the Pope by the treacherous 
 conduct of the German nobles, he declared his intention of imme- 
 diately resuming the crown. On his return to Germany, crowds 
 of his subjects, particularly from the Rhenish towns, came to 
 proffer their allegiance ; and Henry held a solenm diet at Ulm, ni 
 which Rudolph, Berthold of Carinthia, and Guelph of Bavaria 
 were condemned to suffer death as rebels and traitors. The duke- 
 dom of Swabia and the hand of the princess Agnes were given to 
 
 G a 
 
102 HISTORY OF GERMANY. CiiAP. XIV, 
 
 Count Frederick of Biiren, who built the fortress of Hohenstaufen, 
 fiom which his family derive the title so famous in later history. 
 
 The whole empire was now in confusion: there were two 
 emperors, two popes ; in every dukedom two dukes, and in every 
 diocese two bishops. Brother fought against brother, and sons 
 against their fathers. At length the forces of the royalists and 
 the army of St. Peter's faithful servants (as Gregory's party 
 styled themselves) met at Melrichstadt, near the south-west comer 
 of the Thuringian forest, and separated without any decisive 
 result. On the same day the royalists were beaten with great loss 
 on the banks of the Neckar, when many thousand peasants wlio 
 had fought for Heniy were cruelly mutilated by his rival, because 
 they had presumed to bear arms. In a second battle, near Fladen- 
 heim, Henry was again defeated. Gregory now confirmed tlie 
 election of Rudolph, and, as the imperial jewels were in the hands 
 of Henry, presented him with a crown, which he was to hold as a 
 vassal of the Holy See, and which bore this inscription : — " Petra 
 dedit Petro, Petrus diadema Rudolpho." Henry on his part a 
 second time deposed Pope Gregory, and appointed in his place 
 the Archbishop of Ravenna, who assumed the title of Clement III. 
 The same year (1080) Henry and his opponents again met at 
 Grona on the Elster, on the great plain between Merseburg and 
 Leipzic, where so many battles have been fought. In this en- 
 gagement Rudolph had his right hand smitten off by Godfrey of 
 Bouillon, who afterwards became Duke of Lorraine and leader 
 of the Christian armies in the first crusade. As Rudolph lay on 
 the ground in the agonies of death, he looked sorrowfully on his 
 hand and said, " This is the hand which was once raised to swear 
 fealty to Heiuy. JMay God's vengeance pursue the traitors who 
 tempted me to commit perjury." He was buried at Merseburg, 
 and soon afterwards, vrhen the town fell into the hands of the 
 royalists, Henry was advised to destroy the monument which had 
 been erected over his remains. " Would to God," was his reply, 
 " that all my enemies were as handsomely entombed." In spite 
 of some advantage gained in this battle. Rudolph's party, deprived 
 of its head, gradually melted away, whilst that of Henry increased 
 so much tliat he ventured to leave the prosecution of the war in 
 Germany to Frederick of Hohenstaufen, and proceeded in person 
 into Italy, with the intention of humbling his old enemy, Pope 
 Gregory. Near Parma he encountered and beat Matilda's forces, 
 and continuing his march to Rome besieged the city for three 
 
A.D. 1080. IIKXRY IV. lOli 
 
 years, during which time he caused himself to be crowned in his 
 camp by an archbisliop. At length Wiprecht of Groitsch mounted 
 the walls, and the city was taken by storm. Gregory, who held 
 out for some time in the castle of S. Angelo, was at last com- 
 pelled to retreat by night, and retire to Salerno, where he placed 
 himself under the protection of Robert, King of the Normans. 
 His rival, Clement III., was then conducted to the chair of St. 
 Peter by Henry, and placed the imperial crown on the head of liis 
 patron ; but no sooner had the Germans quitted Rome than Gre- 
 gory returned at the head of a large body of Normans, who com- 
 mitted such excesses that the populace rose and drove both them 
 and the pope out of the city. Gregory again retired to Salerno, 
 where he soon afterwards fell sick and died. His last words were, 
 " I have loved righteousness and hated iniquity — therefore do I 
 die in exile." 
 
 Meanwhile the Germans, taknig advantage of Henry's absence, 
 had elected Count Herman, of Luxemburg, whom tlie peo})le in 
 derision called the Garlic King {deii Knoblauch- Koeriig), be- 
 cause great quantities of that herb grow in the neiglibourhood of 
 Eisleben, where his election took place. After many years of 
 resistance, Herman, finding that he was nothing more than the 
 tool of a party, made his peace with the emperor and retired into 
 private life. In Italy the contest between the imperial and papal 
 factions continued to rage witli unabated fury. Gregory VII. 
 had been succeeded by Urban II., a man of similar views, and tiie 
 Italian malcontents had raised up an antagonist to Henrj^ in the 
 person of his own son Conrad. This was the heaviest blow which 
 the emperor had ever experienced, and so vehement was his grief, 
 that he was with difficulty restrained from laying violent hands 
 on himself. l>ut suddenly a diversion in his favour was effected 
 by Duke Guelph of Bavaria, who had affianced his son Egbert to 
 the old Countess Matilda of Tuscany, in the expectation that she 
 would make him her heir. Learning, however, that she had 
 already devised all her rich possessions to the Pope, he went over 
 in a paroxysm of rage and disappointment to the party of the 
 emperor. Conrad, who had treated with contempt tlie touching 
 remonstrances of his father, was now excluded fiom the succession 
 to the throne by a solemn act of the diet, and sliortly afterwards 
 died of disappointment. Meanwhile Henry's feud with the l\)pe 
 continued, and he was exconmiunicated by Urban's successor, 
 Pascal II. This encouraged the emperor's second son, Ilenr}-, 
 
104 HISTORY OF GEEMAXY. Chap. XIY. 
 
 whom he had nominated his successor, to throw off his allegiance 
 and proclaim himself king. The Pope supported him with all 
 his influence, and the nobles of Germany, who were ^veary of tlie 
 peaceful life which the conclusion of the war in Italy compelled 
 them to lead, and longed for a change of masters, eagerly flocked 
 to the standard of the young prince. In vain did tlie afllicted 
 father write the most touching letters to his disobedient son : Ids 
 remonstrances were treated with scorn ; and no means of pre- 
 serving his crown remained but marching an army against the 
 rebel. The cities all remained faithful to the emperor, and refused 
 to open their gates to his son. But treason soon appeared in the 
 imperial camp, and Henry, dispirited and heart-broken., abandoned 
 the field, and referred his cause to the diet at JNIentz. The son 
 now employed the basest treachery in order to get his father into 
 his power. Feigning deep contrition, he persuaded the unhappy 
 old man to meet him at Coblenz, whence they travelled together 
 towards Mentz ; but on the road the traitor contrived to separate 
 his father's attendants from liini, and, seizing his person, shut him 
 up in the fortress of Bingen, Here he Avas visited by the Arch- 
 bishops of Mentz and Cologne, and the Bishop of Worms, who 
 required him to surrender the imperial jewels. Finding tears and 
 entreaties vain, the emperor hoped to make an impression on his 
 persecutors by appearing before them in liis robes of state ; but 
 the wretches, as soon as they had recovered from their first asto- 
 nishment, threw themselves on the aged monarch, and, stripping 
 liim by force of the imperial ornaments, conveyed them to his 
 son. The diet now required that Henry should abdicate. He 
 craved permission to appear before them at Mentz, hoping pro- 
 bably that the faithful burghers of that city would have rescued 
 him ; but his son, for the same reason, refused to allow him to 
 proceed farther than Ingelheim, where he was met by the nobles 
 of the empire. Here a scene ensued disgraceful to human nature, 
 and uncommon even in those dark times. The father threw him- 
 self at the feet of his son, and implored him with streaming eyes 
 to have pity on his grey hairs ; but the unnatural m.onster and 
 his confederates were deaf to all entreaties, and compelled the 
 old man to sign the instrument of abdication, and acknowledge 
 his son King of Germany by the title of Henry V. Soon after- 
 Avards the broken-hearted father ended his miserable life. A short 
 time before his death the Rhenish states rose in his defence, and 
 gave his son a severe check in Alsace. Henry availed himsel 
 
A.D. 1106. 
 
 THE FIRST CRUSADE. 105 
 
 of this opportunity to crave from the bishop of Spires, to whose 
 catliedral he had been in better days a munificent benefactor, a 
 spot of consecrated ground, on which he might die in peace ; but 
 the bishop sternly replied that he could grant no favour to one 
 who was under the ban of the Pope. So abject was his poverty 
 at this time that he was compelled to sell his boots, in order to 
 purchase the most common necessaries of life. An asylum was 
 at length offered him by the Duke of Lorraine, who raised an 
 army and defeated the usurper on the banks of the Meuse. Henry 
 V. then laid siege to Cologne, and while he was thus engaged 
 his injured father died at Liege, solemnly declaring with his last 
 breath that he forgave his son all his acts of disobedience, and 
 sending him his sword and ring. The body was deposited, by 
 permission of the Bishop of Liege, on an island of the Meuse, 
 and for many years was watched day and night by a hermit, who 
 had lately returned from the Holy Land. At length, in the year 
 1111, the sentence of excommunication being taken off, the ashes 
 of Henry were removed to Spires, and laid by the side of her wiio 
 had been the consoler of all his sorrows. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER XIV. 
 The First Crusade— Peter the Hermit (a.d. 1093).— In the 
 reign of Henry lY. began the first crusade. For many years it 
 had been the practice of pious Christians to visit the scenes of 
 the Redeemer's labours and suflferings, in the belief that prayers 
 offered up on the very spot where the Son of God had preached, 
 and died, and risen again, would be more acceptable to the 
 Almighty than any devotions which could be performed else- 
 where. A black robe of the coarsest serge, the cape of whicl. 
 was studded with cockle-shells gathered on the shores of Palestine, 
 a long staflf shod with iron, a large slouched hat, a rosary of 
 beads, which had lain on the sepulchre of our Lord, and the 
 faded branch of a palm-tree, were the distinguishing marks of 
 those who returned to their native land from this holy pilgrimage. 
 As long as the Arabs continued in possession of Jerusalem, they 
 not only granted toleration to these inoffensive enthusiasts, but 
 even aided them in the erection of churches, and of a hospital, 
 which was dedicated to St. John the Baptist ; but when the Turks, 
 a horde of savage mountaineers from the Caucasus, became mas- 
 ters of the Holy Land, the sepulchre of Christ was defiled, and 
 
106 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XI Y. 
 
 the Christians either carried off into slavery, or treated with un- 
 bearable cruelty and oppression. An account of these enormities 
 soon reached the West ; but Gregory VII. was too much engaged 
 in his disputes Mdth the emperor to bestow much attention on the 
 complaints of his persecuted brethren in Palestine, and could 
 only reply to the prayers of the Eastern Emperor, Alexius, by 
 vague promises, which he was never able to fulfil. Soon after 
 the accession of Urban 11. another message was received from 
 Alexius, imploring Ins brethren of the western church, in the 
 name of Him whose blood was shed for them at Jerusalem, to 
 assist him in rescuing the Holy Sepulchre from the hands of 
 unbelievers. About the same time there appeared in Italy a 
 haggard and way-worn man, who rode from place to jDlace on a 
 sorry mule, bearing in one hand a crucifix, and in the other a 
 letter, v/hich purported to be a commission from the persecuted 
 Patriarch of Jerusalem ; and declaring that, as he prayed in the 
 church of the Ascension in the Holy City, Christ himself had 
 appeared, and commanded him to go forth and exhort the brethren 
 to cleanse his tomb from infidel pollution. In this guise Peter 
 of Amiens, or Peter the Hermit, as he was generally called, tra- 
 ^'ersed France and Italy, preaching to the people with such fiery 
 eloquence that thousands melted into tears, and declared their 
 readiness to follow whithersoever he should lead them. The 
 feelings of the people having been thus roused. Urban II. deter- 
 mined to follow up the work which the hermit had begun, and 
 held a council of the church at Piacenza in Italy, at which so 
 great a crowd attended that it was found necessary to hold the 
 assembly in the open air. After giving audience to the ambas- 
 sadors of Alexius, who prayed for assistance against the Turks, 
 iiow encamped on the shores of the Bosphorus, opposite Con- 
 stantinople, the Pope harangued the multitude, and a great pro- 
 portion of those who were present made a solemn vow to aid the 
 Eastern Emperor against the common enemies of Christendom. 
 In the year 1095 Urban crossed the Alps, and entered France, 
 where he summoned clergy and laity to meet him at a general 
 council, to be held on the eighth day after the feast of St. Martin 
 (Nov. 19) at Clermont in Auvergne. So great was the enthu- 
 siasm already excited by the preaching of Peter, that on the 
 appointed day 14 archbishops, 225 bisaops, and 400 abbots, be- 
 sides a crowd of inferior clergy, and a countless multitude of 
 laymen, assembled in an open plain near the town. After the 
 
Sup. Chap. XIV. THE FIRST CRUSADE. 107 
 
 oitlinary afltiiirs of the church had been transacted, and the ban of 
 excomnuuiication solemnly pronounced against Philip, King of 
 France, wlio was at variance with the Pope, Urban addressed th(! 
 assembled multitude. The touching- appeal in whicii he described 
 the sutferiugs of the Christian pilgrims, and exhorted the assendjiy 
 to rescue the Holy Sepulchre from the infidels, was answered by 
 a universal shout of " It is the will of God !" At the conclusion 
 of the address most of the clergy and laity present entreated per- 
 mission to join the crusade. Each pilgrim then sewed on his 
 shoidder a cross of red cloth. The flame spread with wonderful 
 rapidity through France, Italy, England, and Gascony ; for tliose 
 who had themselves assumed the cross at Clermont left no means 
 untried to induce their friends and neighbours to follow their 
 example. The movement w^as at first confined in a great measure 
 to the inferior vassals and serfs, who gladly embraced tlie crusade 
 as a means of escape from the tyranny of their lords, and as- 
 sembled by thousands round Peter the Hermit, and his coadjutor, 
 Walter of Pexejo, a needy adventurer, whom men in derision 
 named the Lord of Lackland. 
 
 The jealousy of the proud knights was roused by this demon- 
 stration, but they resolved to remain inactive for the present, 
 and when the undisciplined rabble had melted away, then to 
 assume the cross, and enjoy alone the glory of rescuing the Holy 
 Sepulchre from the hands of the Turks. In the spring of the 
 year 1096 the two leaders, at the head of their motley and ill- 
 armed troops, crossed the Rhine and entered Germany, where 
 they were received with ridicule by the people, who, in addition 
 to their national hatred of the French, were slow to believe that 
 the cause could be a hopeful one which had no better supporters 
 than a half-naked rabble. The Bishop of Strasburg alone and 
 tiie Abbot of SchaflThausen joined the army, which penetrated as 
 far as Hungary, where it was nearly annihilated by the inha- 
 bitants. Scarcely, how^ever, had this strange apparition quitted 
 Germany, when the people, whose character it has ever been to 
 be most tardy in comprehending those ideas which afterwards 
 lake the deepest root in their minds, began to reflect on all that 
 they had seen and heard ; and the flame of enthusiasm at lengtJi 
 burst forth with a violence proportionate to the slowness witli 
 which it had been kindled. Signs were observed in the heavens 
 and on the earth; the body of Charlemagne was reported to 
 liave risen from its grave at Aaclien, and declared that it wa:i 
 
108 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XIY. 
 
 commissioned by God to lead the crusaders ; and fiery squadrons 
 were seen fig-hting- in the clouds, and sending down showers of 
 blood on the horror-stricken peasantry. In a short time three 
 armies, consisting of the inferior vassals and serfs, were raised 
 in Germany, by Gottschalk, a monk, Yolkmar, a priest, and 
 Emicho, Count of Leiningen. Their first act was to massacre 
 12,000 Jews at Treves, Cologne, and Mentz, because their fore- 
 fathers had crucified tlie Lord of life. Then they marched into 
 Hungary, where they soon met the fate of those who had pre- 
 ceded thein. The attempts of the common people having thus 
 miserably failed, the nobles now prepared to undertake the ex- 
 pedition with a splendour worthy of the cause. Among the 
 most distinguished men who joined the crusades were Godfrey of 
 Bouillon, Duke of Lower Lorraine, and his brother Baldwin, 
 Count of Flanders ; Hugh de Yermandois, surnamed the Great, 
 brother of the King of France ; Eobert of Normandy, brother of 
 William the Conqueror ; and Boemund, Prince of Tarento, who 
 was accompanied by his nephew Tancred, the bravest warrior of 
 the age. The Duke of Lorraine, with an army of 80,000 men, 
 marched through Hungary, and reached Constantinople in safety, 
 where they found Hugh de Vermandois with a strong French 
 force, and were shortly afterwards joined by the rest of the 
 crusaders. The whole force now amounted to little short of 
 600,000 men. The eastern nations called them Franks (because 
 the greater portion of them were Frenchmen), a name which 
 continues to this day to be given by the Turks to all European 
 nations. Godfrey of Bouillon was unanimously elected generalis- 
 simo of this army, an oflftce for which he was eminently qualified 
 by his courage, integrity, and piety. 
 
 Having settled a dispute between the Emperor Alexius and 
 Boemund the Norman leader, Godfrey crossed with his army 
 into Asia Minor, where Peter the Hermit joined hhn with the 
 miserable remnant of his followers. The city of Niceea (where 
 the famous councils of the church were held) was first attacked, 
 and carried by storm after a desperate resistance. The amiy 
 then marched southwards towards the Holy Land, and on their 
 way took Edessa, which was given to Boemund, the Norman 
 general. The city of Antioch, which they next invested, offered 
 a more obstinate resistance, and was only taken at last through 
 the treachery of a renegade. Scarcely however had the invaders 
 got possession of the town, when an army of Turks appeared 
 
Sup. Cjlvp. XIV. THE FIRST CRUSADE. 109 
 
 before it, and tlie Christians, shut up without provisions, and 
 compelled to subsist on the most loathsome food, were on the 
 eve of surrendering, when a priest, named Peter Barthelemi, 
 came forward, and declared that he had seen a vision in which 
 it was revealed to him that the spear which had pierced tlie 
 licdeemer's side was concealed in one of the old churches of the 
 city, and that the possession of it would insure victory to the 
 Crusaders. After a long search, an old spear- head was dug up, 
 and elevated on the ramparts as the standard of the Christian 
 army. 
 
 The Crusaders now gathered fresh courage, and rushing out 
 of the gates, attacked tlie 'J'urkish force with a fury which 
 nothing could resist. The Archangel Michael was distinctly 
 seen, as tliey asserted, aiding them with the armies of heaven. 
 The Turks, although far superior in number, were utterly routed, 
 and their rich camp became a prey to the conquerors. Again 
 the army was put in motion, and aftcir suffering severely from 
 hunger, thirst, disease, and the almost unremitting attacks of the 
 enemy, came at length in sight of Jerusalem. All fell on their 
 knees and kissed the sacred ground. But a terrible struggle yet 
 awaited them. Pestilence, and the sword, and desertion had 
 reduced the army of the Crusaders to 1500 cavalry and 20,000 
 infantry'-, and with this miserably insufficient force they were to 
 attack the strong city of Jerusalem, which was garrisoned by at 
 least 40,000 Saracens. But the enthusiasm of tne Christians ele- 
 vated tliem above all considerations of personal danger. Heaven 
 itself fought for them, as they believed. From the Mount of 
 Olives, the very scene of our Lord's mysterious agony, Peter 
 the Hermit addressed the Crusaders in a strain of high-wrought 
 enthusiasm. Then the attack commenced and continued without 
 intermission for two days. The besieged fought with the most 
 desperate bravery, showering down stones, melted pitch, and the 
 destructive composition called Grecian fire, on the heads of their 
 assailants. But the firm belief that God was on their side ani- 
 mated the besiegers to more than human exertions. When the 
 struggle was at the fiercest, a cry was raised that there had ap- 
 peared on the Mount of Olives a form in bright raiment, holding 
 a glittering shield, with which it pointed towards the city. On 
 receiving this intelligence, a shout of triumph burst from the 
 multitude, and ami(kt cries of " God helpeth us," and " God 
 willeth it," the gates were forced open, and the battlements 
 Gy. u 
 
110 TIISTOUY OF GERMANY. CllAP. XIV.. 
 
 scaled. Still the besieged contested every inch of ground, until 
 the streets were choked Math the bodies of the fallen, and the 
 Christians, wading through streams of blood, and clambering 
 over the sm^oking ruins, moved in solemn procession with bare 
 heads and feet to the church of the Holy Sepulchre, to return 
 thanks to God for their almost miraculous success. The sepulchre 
 of Christ was now free, and the great object of the Crusaders 
 attained ; but in order to secure their new acquisition, it was 
 necessary that some form of government should be establislied : 
 they therefore assembled, and having erected Jerusalem into a 
 kingdom, offered the crown to Godfrey de Bouillon. But the 
 ])ious hero refused to wear it in the city v/here his Saviour had 
 been crowned with thorns, and contented himself with the title 
 of Protector of the Holy Sepulchre. Edessa and Antioch were 
 made principalities, of which Boemund governed the first, and 
 Baldwin, the brother of Godfrey, the other. Two years after- 
 '.vards Godfrey died in consequence of the fatigue which he had 
 imdergone during the siege, and was succeeded on the throne of 
 Jerusalem by his brother Baldwin. A few^ years later the hospital 
 of St. John was restored, and an order of knights founded called 
 Knights Hospitallers, or Knights of St. John, who took the 
 monastic vows of chastity, obedience, and poverty, and devoted 
 themselves to the care of the sick. About the same time, Hugh 
 de Puyens and Godfrey de St. Omer founded another knightly 
 order on the spot where the Temple of Solomon had once stood. 
 These knights were called Knights Templars, and, in addition to 
 the usual monastic vows, swore to defend the Eedeemer's Sepul- 
 chre against tlie enemies of the Christian faith. 
 
1106. 
 
 HENRY V. 
 
 11] 
 
 CHArTER XV. 
 
 ni:NEY V. — LOTiiAiao— coxRAD III. (of iiohenstaufen.) 
 From A.D. 1106 to 1152. 
 
 ^^? i:.^=-^.-- 
 
 •^ -^<. 
 
 
 Castle of Weinsberg, from a Tain ting presei ved in the Cliurch of the Village. 
 
 One of the first acts of Henry's reign was to cross the Alps with 
 an anny, and compel the Pope, Pascal II., to renounce the rig-lit 
 (){ investiture. Scarcely, however, had he quitted Eome, when 
 the populace forced the Pope to recall all his concessions, and 
 excommunicate Henry. In the year 1122a compact was made, 
 called the Concordat of Worms, by which the rights of the 
 Emperor and those of the Pope were clearly defined. The 
 bishops were to be chosen by the clergy of their respective dio- 
 ceses, who composed what was called the ciiapter : at this eh^ction 
 the Emperor himself was either to be present in person, or to 
 send his representative ; and should any dispute arise, it was to 
 be referred to him : then the new bishop was to take the oath of 
 allegiance as a vassal of the empire, and the Pope was to invest 
 him with the ring and pastoral staff, as emblems of his spiritual 
 
 u 2 
 
112 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XV. 
 
 authority. Three years afterwards the Emperor died at Utrecht, 
 and the Salique or Frankish house ceased to reign in Germany. 
 
 As soon as the death of Henry V. was known, the German 
 dukes and nobles, with their vassals and knights, assembled on 
 the left bank of the Rhine, between Mentz and Worms, for the 
 purpose of electing his successor. The four principal nations of 
 Germany, viz., the Saxons, Franconians, Swabians, and Bava- 
 rians, appeared at this meeting to the number of 60,000, all well 
 armed and appointed; and each chose ten nobles, who again 
 chose one, thus reducing the number of those who were to vote 
 at the election to four, one for each nation. On this occasion, 
 Frederick, Duke of Swabia, brother-in-law of the late Emperor, 
 behaved with such unwarrantable insolence that the electors set 
 aside his claim, and chose Lothario of Saxony, Duke of Supplin- 
 burg, who immediately renounced all the advantages which his 
 predecessor had obtained by the Concordat of Worms, and evoi 
 consented to hold his crown as a vassal of the Holy See. In 
 eternal remembrance of this event the Pope caused a picture to 
 be painted on the Myalls of the Vatican, in which the Emperor 
 was represented on his knees before him. Underneath was the 
 inscription, — " Rex homo fit Papae," that is, " The King be- 
 comes the Pope's man (or vassal)." Most of these measures 
 were dictated by his dread of the powerful brothers, Frederick 
 and Conrad, Dukes of Swabia and Franconia, and representatives 
 of the house of Hohenstaufen. 
 
 During the greater part of his reign he carried on a bloody 
 war with these princes ; and it was not until the year 1135 that 
 a truce was concluded between the two powerful factions. Two 
 years afterwards Lothario died in a peasant's hut on the Alps. 
 The whole kingdom was now divided into two parties, the 
 Guelphs or adherents of Henry the Proud, Duke of Bavaria 
 and Saxony, and the Waiblingers (so called from a little Swabian 
 town of that name), who supported the Hohenstaufen. These 
 Waiblingers, or Ghibellines, as they were called by the Italians, 
 assembled a diet at Coblenz, and elected Conrad of Hohenstaufen 
 king of Germany, to the great disappointment of Henry the 
 Proud, who, as sole heir of the late Emperor, had expected to 
 succeed him. No sooner had Conrad ascended the throne, than 
 he resolved to humble the power of the Guelphs. For a long 
 time Henry debated whether he should defend himself or yield to 
 his rival ; and at length determined on surrendering the crown 
 
A.D. 1149. CONRAD III. (OF IIOIIENSTAUFEN.) 113 
 
 jewels (which he had retained since Lothario's death), and aban- 
 doning all further claim to the throne. But here a great diffi- 
 culty arose, Conrad declaring that he could not permit any duke 
 to hold two dukedoms, and requiring Henry to resign Saxony. 
 Henry, on hearing this, renounced his allegiance, and being 
 placed under the ban of the empire, was deprived of both his 
 dukedoms, Bavaria being given to the Margrave Leopold of 
 Austria, and Saxony to Albert of Anhalt, surnamed the Bear. 
 Meanwhile the vassals on the Guelphic estates in Bavaria as well 
 as Swabia had espoused the cause of their lords with great zeal, 
 and were fighting manfully against the Ghibellines, whilst Duke 
 Guelph, the brother of Henry, shut himself up in the city of 
 Weinsberg, in AYiirtemberg. After a protracted siege the gar- 
 rison capitulated (a.d. 1140) on condition that all the women 
 should be allowed to depart, taking with them as much of their 
 property as they could carry. The terms of surrender having 
 been signed, the gates were opened, and to the great surprise of 
 the besiegers the duchess appeared, bearing her husband on her 
 shoulders, and followed by all the women of the city similarly 
 laden. The generous heart of Conrad was touched by this proof 
 of conjugal affection ; and when his courtiers would have per- 
 suaded him to send back the men, since they had obtained their 
 liberty by a fraud, he replied indignantly, *' An emperor keeps 
 his word." The hill which this extraordinary procession crossed 
 retains to this day the name of Weibertreue {woman's fidelity) . 
 
 In this war the Germans first exchanged their war-cry of 
 "Kyrie eleison" for the party watchwords of the '^Guelphs," 
 the "Ghibellines." Soon after the taking of Weinsberg, peace 
 was restored by the death of Henry ; and Conrad, anxious to 
 conciliate his son, Henry the Lion, conferred on him the duke- 
 dom of Saxony ; whilst Albert the Bear was indemnified for re- 
 signing it by receiving as an independent sovereignty that part 
 of the kingdom which was called the Saxon marches. This 
 was the origin of the March of Brandenburg. At the feast of 
 Whitsuntide, in the year 1149, Conrad returned to Germany 
 from a campaign in the Holy Land, and three years after- 
 wards died of poison, in the midst of his preparations to oppose 
 Guelph, who had entered into a conspiracy against him witli 
 lloger of Naples. 
 
114 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XV. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER XV. 
 
 The Second Crusade, a.d. 1144 — 1149. — Jerusalem had 
 been well-nigh forgotten during the domestic troubles of almost 
 fifty years; but intelligence was received in the year 1144 which 
 forced on the nations of Europe the conviction that a new cru- 
 sade must be undertaken, or the Holy City be abandoned to the 
 unbelievers. During the reigns of Baldwin I., and his son 
 Baldwin II., the Saracens had been constrained to endure in 
 sullen silence the presence of Christian settlers, mourning over 
 their own degradation, as a judgment sent from God to punish 
 their neglect of religion. But the accession of Baldwin III., a 
 boy of thirteen, seemed a favourable opportunity for renewing 
 the war ; for the Christian army, no longer held together by 
 the strong hand of a practised warrior, presented a miserable 
 spectacle of disunion ; Germans, Frenchmen, Italians, English- 
 men, Normans, and Greeks, regarding one another with feelings 
 of hatred only less intense than those with which they looked on 
 the haughty Hospitallers and Templars, the powerful and am- 
 ])itious princes of Edessa and Antioch ; and, above all, a mongrel 
 race called PuUans, the offspring of the early Crusaders by Arab 
 mothers, who, as children of the soil, considered the rest as in- 
 truders. 
 
 The Turks, on the other hand, were animated by a common 
 feeling of religious enthusiasm, fostered by itinerant saints and 
 preachers, who travelled through the land, calling on the people 
 everywhere to rise and sweep away the accursed enemies of God 
 and the Prophet. Societies were formed, each distinguished by 
 some peculiarity of belief or practice ; but all uniting in hatred 
 of the Christians. The most remarkable of these associations 
 was that of the Assassins, who professed unlimited obedience to a 
 leader named the Old Man of the Mountain ; and at his command 
 attacked, with the most reckless disregard for their own safety, 
 those Christians whom he pointed out to them as objects of his 
 especial hatred. A still more fonnidable enemy was Zenki, 
 Sultan of Bagdad, who appeared before Edessa with an over- 
 whelming force, and carried it by storm in the year 1142. The 
 intelligence of this disaster, and of the danger with which 
 Jerusalem itself was threatened, soon reached Europe, and spread 
 universal dismay. The Pope, Eugenius III., sent out Bernard 
 of Clairvaux (a Burgundian monk of extraordinaiy piety, Mhose 
 
Hup. CUAP. XV. THE SECOND CRUSADE. 115 
 
 holy intervention had brought about a reconciliation between the 
 Guelphs and Ghibellines) to preach a second crusade. Tiio 
 King^ of France, Lewis VII., whose conscience was sorely bur- 
 tliened by remorse for having permitted a cruel massacre in 
 Champagne, eagerly embraced this opportunity of expiating his 
 guilt, and promised to march a large army into the Holy Land ; 
 but Conrad of Germany, who supposed that he had already done 
 enougii for the welfare of his soul in making a pilgrimage to 
 Jerusalem, was inclined to turn a deaf ear to the exhortations of 
 Bernard, and declared that he could do nothing without the 
 advice of his nobles. For this purpose a diet was held at Spires 
 at w^hich Bernard appeared, and addressed Conrad from the altar 
 in a strain of impassioned eloquence ; imploring him, as he would 
 answer it before the judgment-seat of Christ at the last day, to 
 show his gratitude for the blessings which God had showered 
 down upon him, by succouring his persecuted brethren. The 
 king was so touched by this address that he cried out — "I ac- 
 knowledge tlie mercy and goodness of God, and he shall not find 
 me ungrateful," and innnediately prepared for the expedition, 
 which was to take place in the spring of 1147. The example of 
 the king was followed by his nephew Frederick, his former enemy 
 Guelph, and many others. Conrad's army is said to have been 
 at least G0,000 strong, besides an almost countless multitude of 
 pilgrims, a> ho availed themselves of his protection to visit the Holy 
 Sepulchre. Their march through Hungary was performed with 
 little loss ; but sliortly afterwards many thousands of them were 
 swept away by a terrible visitation. They had halted in one of 
 those lovely valleys with which the shores of the Hellespont 
 abound, and were preparing to celebrate the feast of the Blessed 
 Virgin's Nativity, when suddenly the sky became overcast, a 
 torrent of rain descended, the rivers overflowed their banks, and 
 in a few minutes the ground on which they w^ere encamped had 
 become a lake ; horses, tents, provisions, and the greater part of 
 tiieir treasure, with many thousands of the pilgrims, being over- 
 whelmed by the deluge; which the Greeks, who had suffered 
 severely by the irregularities of these strangers, believed to have 
 been sent as a punishment for their sins. The army, having at 
 length recovered from the confusion into which this accident had 
 thrown them, crossed the Hell-espont : but here fresh difficulties 
 occurred ; for the faithless guides led them astray through a wild 
 and desolate country, where neither bread nor water could be pro- 
 
116 HISTORY OF GERM.\J<fY. Chap. XY. 
 
 cured. Hundreds in consequence died of hunger, thirst, and 
 exposure to the burning- heat of the sun. Whenever they ap- 
 proached a town the inhabitants closed their gates, and lowering 
 baskets from the walls, required the crusaders to deposit money 
 in them : the baskets were then drawn up, and a second time 
 lowered with such provisions as they thought fit to supply, gene- 
 rally of the coarsest kind, and often mixed with lime, the eating 
 of which caused fatal diseases among the pilgnms. In the midst 
 of this distress they one morning discovered that the guides had 
 abandoned them altogether, not far from Iconium ; and a few 
 hours afterwards had the additional mortification of finding them- 
 selves surrounded by the Turks ; whilst an eclipse of the sun 
 added to the horrors of the scene. 
 
 With their accustomed bravery the crusaders cut their way 
 through a force greatly superior to their own ; but so fierce was 
 the engagement that scarcely more than 7000 of them were left 
 alive. Conrad had now no course left but to retreat as rapidly 
 as possible with the miserable wreck of his army. At Nicsea he 
 met the French advancing : the Greeks having reported to them 
 that their allies had obtained splendid victories in Asia Minor, 
 they were hastening forward to secure their share of glory. The 
 King of Germany was received with many expressions of sym- 
 pathy and kindness by Lewis of France ; but many of the French 
 warriors made the misfortunes of his troops the subject of insulting 
 mockery ; an insolence for which they dearly atoned when, within 
 a few days, they themselves were also compelled to return, having 
 lost the whole of their advanced guard by an attack of the Turks. 
 
 Conrad, sick, and almost broken-hearted, retired to Constanti- 
 nople, w^here he held a council of .w^ar, at w^hich it was decided 
 that no further attempt should be made to enter Palestine by 
 land, but that both the French and German armies should im- 
 mediately embark for the Syrian coast. Accordingly the two 
 sovereigns took ship, and landed not far from Antioch ; but even 
 of the miserable remnant of their armies only a few followed 
 them, and these entered the Holy Land rather in the guise of 
 pilgrims than of warriors. Still the two kings were determined 
 to make another effort for the recovery of their honour : and arm- 
 ing the pilgrims, who had come together from the different coun- 
 tries of Europe, they assaulted the strong fortress of Damascus. 
 The Germans performed prodigies of valour ; and Conrad him- 
 self is said to have cut oflf the head and right arm of a Turk at a 
 
A.D. 1152. 
 
 FREDERICK I. 
 
 117 
 
 single blow : but disunion and want of discipline in the army, 
 added to the treachery of the Greeks and Templars, compelled 
 them to raise the siege. It was during this crusade that the 
 double eagle was first adopted as the arms of the empire. The 
 two great Christian sovereigns of Greece and Germany having- 
 formed an alliance to defend the Christian religion against the 
 infidels, their union was typified by this figure, which became 
 thenceforth the arms of both. It is now borne by Austria 
 and Russia as the representatives of the German and Grecian 
 emperors. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 FREDERICK I., 6URNAMED BARBA-ROSSA. 
 From A.D. 1152 to 1190. 
 
 Tcfmb of the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa. 
 
 Conrad the Third had recommended to the electors his nephew 
 Fr^iderick, surnamed by the Italians Barba-rossa or red-beartl, 
 
 II 3 
 
118 HISTOEY OF GERMANY. Chap. XVI. 
 
 rather than his own son, whose tender age rendered him unfit to 
 hold the reins of government in those stirring times. Frederick, 
 who had already acquired a high military reputation in the 
 crusades, was the son of Conrad's brother Frederick, Duke of 
 Swabia, by Judith, daughter of Henry the Black, Duke of 
 Bavaria. Thus he was a Ghibelline by the side of his father, 
 and a Guelph by that of his mother, and it was hoped that his 
 election would put an end to the long and bloody wars which 
 had subsisted between the two factions. Accordingly on the 
 5th of March, 1152, he was unanimously elected at Frankfort, 
 and five days later crowned with the usual magnificence at Aix- 
 la~Chapelle. Frederick I. was thirty years of age when he 
 ascended the throne. In person he was above the middle size, 
 and a model of that manly German beauty which distinguisiied 
 his race. His short fair hair curled over a broad and noble fore- 
 head ; his complexion was clear, his blue eyes full of intelli- 
 gence and courage, and his lips so delicately chiselled as to give 
 a cheerful expression to a countenance of which the other features 
 were somewhat grave and severe. The reddish tinge of his 
 beard procured him the name by which he is generally distin- 
 guished in history. In the last disastrous expedition to the Holy 
 Land he had acquired an iron hardihood of frame which rendered 
 him capable of sustaining the extremes of heat and cold, hunger, 
 thirst, and privation of every kind. Here too, whilst exposed to 
 the constant attacks of the Turks, he had learnt to act in every 
 emergency with decision, and to rely more on his own judgment 
 than on the opinion of others. Knowing that his commands 
 were the result, not of caprice, but of mature deliberation, he 
 exacted obedience to them with a strictness which in a less 
 righteous monarch would have been tyranny. Frederick was 
 sincerely religious, but a determined enemy to the arrogant 
 claims of universal dominion over the souls of men which the 
 popes had been advancing for many years. With the quick 
 penetration which belonged to his character, he soon perceived 
 that any attempt to restrain the power of the Roman Pontiff 
 would be fruitless, unless he could dictate terms to him in liis 
 own capital : he therefore resolved on undertaking an expedi- 
 tion into Italy, as soon as the affairs of his own country were 
 sufficiently settled to permit his absence. The most formidable 
 enemy of his house was Henry, surnamed the Lion, Duke of 
 Saxony ; whom he conciliated by oromising him tlie dukedom o-f 
 
A. D. 1158. FREDERICK I. 119 
 
 Bavaria ; and having thus restored tranquillity, he proceeded to 
 take decisive measures against the pope, by sending his legates 
 back to Italy, and raising a formidable army with which he 
 intended shortly to follow them. A camp was formed near 
 Constance, to which the three Swiss Cents, as they were tlien 
 called, of Schsvyz, Uri, and Unterwalden came and offered to 
 accompany the expedition. At the same time deputies from the 
 Lombard city of Lodi threw themselves at Frederick's feet, and 
 implored his assistance against the Milanese, by whom they were 
 cruelly oppressed. In consequence of these representations 
 Frederick wrote to the Milanese, requiring them to make instant 
 reparation, but his letters were torn in pieces and thrown into 
 the faces of his messengers. The following year he crossed the 
 Alps with a formidable army, and encamped on the plain of 
 Eoncaglia, near Piacenza, where he exhibited the royal shield on 
 a high pole, and required all the vassals of the empire to appear 
 and do homage on pain of forfeiting their fiefs. Even the 
 Milanese feared to disobey this summons, and offered him 4000 
 marks of silver on condition of his confirming them in the lord- 
 ship of Lodi and Cremona. Although Frederick rejected this 
 proposal, he did not venture to attack a city so strongly fortified 
 as Milan, but contented himself with laying siege to the allied 
 town of Tortona, which yielded after an obstinate resistance. 
 The effect of this conquest was what he had anticipated. Most 
 of the other Lombard cities sent ambassadors, who did homage 
 for their fiefs ; and Frederick having assumed the iron crown of 
 Lombardy in the city of Pavia, marched at once upon Rome, where 
 he intended to be crowned by the Pope. At that time the Romans 
 were divided into two parties, the popish, and the republican or 
 lieretical under Arnold of Brescia. The Pope, terrified by the 
 violence of his enemies, now applied to Frederick for assistance. 
 Arnold of Brescia also-sent ambassadors to implore his aid ; and 
 it would have been an act of sound worldly policy if, instead of 
 rejecting his overtures, the king had employed this radical 
 reformer as his coadjutor in the great work of humbling the 
 papal pretensions. But Frederick was a true son of the church, 
 alt}iouo:h opposed to the arrogant claims of its head ; and when 
 Arnold's messengers appeared before him, and spoke of tlie ancient 
 Roman virtue, he interrupted them with the insulting remark, 
 "It is not among you, effeminate liars as ye are, that ancient 
 Rome and her virtues are to be found ; but among us, who aie 
 
120 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XVI. 
 
 full of vigour and truth." The whole plot indeed appeared to 
 him more like a wretched attempt to establish a temporal republic 
 than the commencement of a great reform in the church : with- 
 out hesitation, therefore, he abandoned Arnold to the fury of his 
 enemies ; and on the morrow as he entered Rome, the rising sun 
 showed him the pale features of the republican leader, whom the 
 papal guards were leading forth to execution. The citizens, dis- 
 heartened and terror-stricken, admitted Frederick without resist- 
 ance, and the Pope, Hadrian lY., who had fled during the insur- 
 rection of Arnold, now returned, and solemnly placed the impe- 
 rial crown on the king's head in the church of St. Peter. Pre- 
 viously to this ceremony Frederick, according to ancient custom, 
 held the stirrup for the Pope to dismount from his mule : but he 
 soon showed that he was by no means inclined to submit to 
 spiritual tyranny ; for one of his first acts was to destroy the 
 picture which represented the Emperor Lothario receiving the 
 imperial crown as a fief from the Pope. " God," said he, " has 
 raised the church by means of the empire, but the church desires 
 to overthrow the empire. You begin with painting and follow 
 it up by writing, in the expectation of treading us under your 
 feet. Destroy your pictures, and take back your letters, if 
 you desire that there should be peace between us." Mean- 
 while the citizens, furious at the loss of their leader, rose in 
 great numbers, and Frederick, whose horse happened to fall as 
 he charged the insurgents, would have lost his life but for the 
 bravery of Henry the Lion, who dragged him out from the midst 
 of his enemies. A terrible slaughter ensued, and Rome was 
 taken, only to be abandoned almost immediately by the victor, 
 whose men had begun to fall victims to the unhealthiness of the 
 climate. After an attempt to chastise the Normans in the south, 
 which failed from the same cause, Frederick retreated to the 
 Alps, and cutting his way through an Italian force which 
 blockaded the passes, he at length reached Germany in safety, 
 but with little acquisition either of advantage or reputation. 
 The feuds between the German nobles were crushed in the follow- 
 ing year by the strong hand of the emperor, who condemned one 
 of the most turbulent among them, the Palatine Herman, to 
 carry a dog a mile on his shoulders ; an affront which weighed 
 so heavily on his haughty spirit, that he soon afterwards retired 
 into a convent, where he died within a year. The emperor then 
 directed his attention to an evil which had spread to a frightful 
 
A.D. 1158. FREDERICK I. 121 
 
 extent during the times of the last crusade. Many of tlie nobles, 
 confiding in the strength of their castles, had long been in the 
 nabit of carrying off peaceful travellers, especially priests and 
 merchants, and exacting large sums of money for their ransom. 
 Most of these robbers' nests were now levelled to the ground ; 
 at the same time many of the peasants, who had long groaned 
 under the oppression of their feudal lords, were encouraged tc 
 seek the protection of the cities. Nor was Frederick the only 
 prince who sought to improve the condition of his peasants ; for 
 it is related of Lewis II. of Thuringia, that having once lost his 
 way during the chase, he obtained shelter for the night at the 
 cottage of a blacksmith ; who, ignorant of his visitor's quality, 
 began the next morning to hammer a horse-shoe, apostrophizing 
 liis work at every stroke with the words " Harder, Lewy ! harder, 
 my boy !" Being questioned as to the meaning of this strange 
 expression, he informed his guest that he meant to say, the Land- 
 grave should smite the nobles as hard as he struck the iron on 
 his anvil. Lewis took the hint, and delivered the peasants from 
 tlieir oppressors. He overthrew the nobles in a battle near 
 Kaumburg, and harnessed by turns four of these petty tyrants 
 to a plough, with which he ploughed a large field, called from 
 that circumstance " the nobles' acre." In consequence of these 
 proceeding* Lewis obtained the name of the Iron Margrave. 
 Germany was now tranquil and more powerful than she had ever 
 been, for the emperor had increased his dominions by a marriage 
 with the daughter of the Duke of Burgundy, and compelled the 
 King of Poland to appear before him in the guise of a suppliant, 
 barefooted, with a naked sword hung about his neck, and to do 
 homage for his kingdom. The King of Denmark had also con- 
 sented to hold his crown as a fief of the empire. So great was 
 the estimation in which Frederick was at this time held by foreign 
 monarchs, that Henry II. of England addressed a letter to him, 
 in which he expressed an anxious wish for friendship between the 
 Germans and English, acknowledging the superiority of Frederick, 
 and professing his willingness to do him homage. In Italy alone 
 the power of the emperor was resisted. In the year 1158 
 Frederick crossed the Alps at the head of a numerous force and 
 laid siege to Milan, which at length, worn out by hunger, 
 surrendered on the 6th of September. The chief nobles of the 
 city with naked swords suspended round their necks, and tlie 
 citizens with halters, marched in melancholy procession to tiic 
 
122 HISTORY OF GERMANY Chap. X^'J. 
 
 camp of t]ie conqueror, and throwing themselves at liis feet 
 prayed for mercy. The conditions granted were less rigorous 
 than might have been expected. The Milanese v/ere required to 
 swear fidelity to the emperor, build him a palace in the city, pay 
 down a sum of 9000 silver marks, and permit him in future to 
 nominate their magistrates. As soon as these conditions were 
 settled, the emperor raised the members of the deputation, and 
 embraced them with great kindness and cordiality. 
 
 Soon afterwards Frederick granted a constitution to the cities 
 of Upper Italy, reserving to himself the right of nominating their 
 magistrates, subject to the approbation of the citizens. To the 
 terms of this constitution all male persons between the ages of 
 eighteen and seventy were required to swear obedience, and to 
 renew their oath every five years. Whilst peace was thus ob- 
 tained in Upper Italy, Pope Hadrian IV.* was intriguing with 
 the German bishops, in the hope of inducing them to resist what 
 he called the encroachments of the emperor, to whom he applied 
 the epithets of a rapacious dragon, which would fly through the 
 heavens, and tear a third part of the stars from their splieres ; 
 and a ravening w^olf, 'vvhich spoiled tlie vineyard of the Lord. 
 The bishops, hov\^ever, continued faithful to their sorereign, but 
 the endeavours of Hadrian to raise disturbances in Upper Italy 
 were more successful. Milan, already in a state of insurrection 
 on account of some unpopular taxes, declared itself a fief of the 
 Pope, promising to make neither peace nor war without his con- 
 sent. At this crisis Hadrian died, and a double election being- 
 made by the college of cardinals, Frederick confirmed the nomi- 
 nation of the Ghibelline Pope Victor IV., upon which his rival 
 issued a bull excommunicating all who had taken any part in 
 the elevation of Victor to the papal see. Disregarding these 
 threats, the emperor directed all his attention to the reduction of 
 Milan, and swore never again to place the crown on his head 
 until he had humbled her pride in the dust. For two years the 
 war continued in Upper Italy. At length the Milanese, worn 
 out by famine and distracted by factions, surrendered at discre- 
 tion on the 6th of March, 1162. The whole starving population, 
 clad in sackcloth, with ropes about their necks, and t-apers in 
 their hands, issued out of the gates and proceeded to the camp of 
 Frederick, where they were compelled to wait in the rain until 
 
 * Pope Hadrian was an Englisliman named Nicolas Breakspear, the only 
 native of that country ever promoted to the papal dignity. 
 
Sup. Chap. XVI. TREACHERY OF THE MILANESE. 123 
 
 be had risen from table ; and then were required to surrender 
 all their insignia of honour into the hands of the eniperor':^ 
 attendants. 
 
 The sls-ulls of the Magi, or Wise Men of the East, which had 
 been deposited at IMilan during the first crusade, were transferred 
 by Reinold, Archbishop of Cologne, to his own cathedral, where 
 they are still venerated under the names of Caspar, Melchior, 
 and Balthasar, the Three Kings of Cologne. 
 
 During this siege, if we may believe popular tradition, the 
 Empress Beatrice, who had been taken prisoner in one of the 
 sallies of the besieged, was exhibited in the streets of Milan 
 riding backwards on a donkey ; an insult which Frederick 
 avenged by compelling each of the magistrates to remove witJi 
 his teeth a fig stuck underneath the tail of the same animal. 
 Hence the indignation always manifested by a Milanese at any 
 allusion to " the fig." 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 Treachery of the Milanese. — We learn from contemporary 
 historians, that several attempts were made to assassinate tlie 
 Emperor Frederick Barbarossa when he lay with his army before 
 Milan. On one occasion, whilst Frederick was engaged in 
 prayer in a lonely spot on the banks of the Adige, a Milanese of 
 gigantic strength, who had been watching him for some time, 
 crept stealthily behind, and endeavoured to throw him into the 
 stream. But the emperor was also young and vigorous, and 
 grappled so manfully with the assassin that the imperial attend- 
 ants, alarmed by the cries of their master, had time to come up, 
 and put the ^Milanese to death. Soon afterwards, an ill-favoured 
 elderly man appeared in the camp, offering for sale various wares, 
 which, as it was subsequently discovered, were so imbued with a 
 subtle poison as to cause instant death to those who touched 
 them. But the emperor had been warned of his danger by an 
 anonymous communication, and no sooner was the pedlar's 
 arrival announced than he commanded him to be arrested and led 
 off to execution. 
 
124 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XVII. 
 
 CHAPTE-R XVII. 
 
 FREDERICK I. — THE THIRD CROSADE. 
 
 In the year 1167, Frederick, who had been excommunicated by- 
 Pope Alexander, the successor of Victor IV., entered Italy for 
 the third time, and proceeding by rapid marches to Rome, com- 
 pelled the inhabitants to receive a pope of his own nomination. 
 But soon after his arrival a frightful pestilence, brought on by 
 the heat of the weather, thinned the ranks of the German army. 
 So sudden were its eifects, that men apparently in full health 
 were seized with giddiness as they mounted their horses, and 
 died in a few hours. Among the victims was the Viceroy 
 Reinold, Archbishop of Cologne, whose tyranny had rendered 
 him odious to the Italians. Frederick now saw that the only 
 chance of preserving the remnant of his forces was to withdraw 
 them from Italy : a work which he accomplished with consider- 
 able difficulty and danger, the passes of the Alps being every- 
 where beset by the insurgent Lombards. At Susa an alarm was 
 given in the dead of night that his quarters were invaded by 
 armed strangers, and he had barely time to escape, when the 
 assassins entered his bed-chamber and found the bed occupied, 
 not by the emperor, but by a knight named Herman of Sieben- 
 eichen, whose devotion led him to expose his life in the hope of 
 saving his master. 
 
 Maddened by disappointment, the conspirators were at first 
 inclined to sacrifice Herman ; but admiration of his courage and 
 fidelity at length prevailed, and they allowed him to depart un- 
 hurt. Frederick at last reached Germany ; and it was not until 
 the year 1174 that he invaded Italy for the fourth time. At 
 Chiavenna, Henry the Lion, who had lately returned from a 
 pilgrimage to Jerusalem, declared his intention of abandoning 
 the expedition : an offence which he subsequently expiated by the 
 forfeiture of all his possessions except Brunswick and Luneburg, 
 and by banishment from the empire for three years. 
 
 In the year 1184, the affairs of Italy being happily settled by 
 a treaty of peace with the Lombards, Frederick celebrated the 
 feast of AVhitsuntide at Mentz with more than ordinary magnifi- 
 cence. Forty thousand knights, the fairest women, the most 
 renowned minstrels united to give to the august ceremonial a 
 
A.D. 1184. 
 
 FREDERICK 1. 125 
 
 gorgeous splendour which has survived in the popular songs oi 
 that day. But it was remarked at the time as an evil omen, 
 tluit in the midst of the revelry, a violent storm of wind suddenly 
 arose and overthrew tlie tents which had been erected for the 
 accommodation of spectators. The next year the emperor 
 married his eldest son to Constance, heiress presumptive of the 
 kingdoms of Naples and Sicily, hoping thus to establish in the 
 South, as in the North, an influence which should overawe tiie 
 Pope and the Lombards. " Italy," he said, " was like an eel, 
 which a man had need to grasp firmly by the tail, the head, and 
 the middle, and which might nevertheless give him the slip." 
 The Pope saw the danger, and in a transport of alarm and rage 
 excommunicated those bishops who had assisted at the marriage 
 ceremony. A breach between the spiritual and temporal powers 
 now seemed inevitable, when suddenly the news arrived that 
 Jerusalem was in the hands of the unbelievers. Since the ill- 
 omened crusades of Conrad III. and Lewis VII. of France 
 which ended in the year 1149, but little assistance had been sent 
 from the West ; and the native Christians, rendered effeminate 
 by the enervating climate, were unequal to the efficient defence 
 of those possessions which their hardy ancestors had wrested 
 from the infidels. As the power of the Christians declined, that 
 of the Turks increased, and was at its greatest height under 
 Saladin, Sultan of Egypt and Damascus : a zealous Mussulman, 
 but enlightened beyond the wont of his countrymen, brave to 
 the verge of rashness in the field of battle, yet exercising in peace 
 a knightly courtesy scarcely inferior to that of the more polished 
 chivalry of Europe. For a long period a sort of insecure peace 
 had subsisted between this formidable chief and Guy de Lusig- 
 nan. King of Jerusalem, interrupted by frequent misunderstand- 
 ings and sometimes by skirmishes. At length the storm burst. 
 
 A Knight of Jerusalem, named Reginald de Chatillon, having 
 seized the person of the Sultan's mother, who was travelling 
 from Eg}^pt to Damascus, Saladin demanded his immediate 
 punisliment, a satisfaction which the king wanted either the will 
 or the power to grant. Finding that no redress could be 
 obtained, Saladin at once marched upon Jerusalem, meeting on 
 his way the Christian army, which he totally routed near 
 Tiberias. In this battle eleven hundred men were slain, and tlie 
 King of Jerusalem, with Reginald de Chatillon, the unhappy 
 cause of the war, fell into the hands of Saladin, who instantly 
 
126 HISTORY OF GERMANY. CiiAP. XVII. 
 
 put Reginald to death with his own hand. After this decisive 
 victory, the infidels made themselves masters with little difficulty 
 of all the cities occupied by Christian garrisons ; and on the 3rd 
 October, 1187, eigiity-eight years after its first conquest, the 
 Sultan of Damascus entered Jerusalem amidst the shouts of his 
 followers, and the music of trumpets and kettle-drums. The 
 cross which the Christians had erected on the Temple Church 
 was torn from its place and sent to the Caliph of Bagdad, who 
 ]>uried it in the ground before one of the city gates in such a 
 manner that the small portion which appeared above the surface 
 was daily and hourly trodden under foot. As soon as the intelli- 
 gence of this disaster reached the West, Gregory VIII. issued a 
 bull, calling on all the faithful servants of Christ to assist in 
 reconquering the Holy City, and imploring them, where heaven 
 was to be won, to forget all inferior objects. The appeal was 
 abundantly successful. Immense armies were levied by the kings 
 of France and England, and even Frederick, although seventy 
 years of age, prepared for the expedition with all the ardour of 
 youth, and receivea the cross from the hands of the Cardinal 
 d'Albano. Having despatched a letter of defiance to kSaladin, 
 the Emperor commenced his march, and after an adventurous 
 progress through Hungary arrived at Constantinople ; where the 
 terrified Emperor Isaac granted him the use of a fleet for the 
 transport of his army to the shores of Palestine. Frederick, who 
 had already had experience of the Turkish mode of warfare, 
 determined as soon as he landed on the coast to oppose craft to 
 craft. He therefore marched with a crowd of camp followers to 
 the place where the enemy were lying in ambush, and then, pre- 
 tending to be suddenly aware of his danger, fled towards the 
 camp, followed by the Turks, who were warmly received by the 
 regular troops and defeated with great slaughter. But famine 
 and pestilence soon thinned his ranks, and the Turks seeing his 
 distress, proposed that he should pay them a sum of money for 
 the ransom of the Christian host. The only reply vouchsafed 
 by Frederick to this insulting message was to send them a small 
 piece of silver, with a request that they would divide that among 
 themselves. As they advanced towards Armenia the heat 
 became insupportable. It was necessary to cross an inconsiderable 
 stream called the Calycadnus : the bridge was narrow, and the 
 passage of the troops necessarily slow and tedious. Frederick, 
 weary of waiting, and anxious to join his son, leaped his horse 
 
SUF. Chap. XVII. INFLUENCE OF THE CllUSADES. 127 
 
 into the stream, intending to swim to the opposite bank ; but tlie 
 current swept liim away, and his lifeless body was dragged out of 
 the river a considerable distance below the place at which he liad 
 entered it. The consternation of the troops at beholding the 
 corpse of their chief cannot be described. In him they had lost 
 not only an emperor and a leader, but one whom they loved with 
 the affection of children. All hope seemed to have abandoned 
 them, and by far the greater portion of the army returned to 
 Germany. Only about 7000 infantry and 700 cavalry remained 
 Avith Duke Frederick of Swabia, the late emperor's son, who, 
 after fighting bravely with his handful of followers, died of the 
 l)lague in the twentieth year of his age. The mortal remains of 
 the emperor were buried at Antioch : but even to the present 
 hour the legend is repeated and believed by the ignorant, tliat he 
 of the red-beard sleeps in the cleft of a rock in Thuriiigia, his 
 head resting on his hand, and his beard grown through the stone 
 table on which he leans. At some future day, when the ravens 
 cease to hover over the mountain, he will awake from his long 
 sleep, and bring back golden times to Germany. 
 
 SUPPLEilENT TO CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 Influence of the Crusades on Germany. — One of the effects of 
 the Crusades was to increase the power of the Church in Germany, 
 and thus to second the deep-laid plans of Gregory VII. The 
 fanatical enthusiasm which they excited was naturally calculated 
 to bend the hearts of men to the spiritual power. But their effects 
 were also of a more material nature. The bishops and abbots 
 remained at home, whilst the princes and nobles were following in 
 the train of the pious crusaders to the distant East. INIany who 
 tfx)k the cross either presented or sold their estates to the Church, 
 in order to prepare themselves for the expedition ; many returned 
 no more, and their widows and daughters retired into convents, 
 whilst their houses and lands fell into the hands of the clergy. 
 
 In many respects, however, the influence of the Crusades was 
 highly beneficial. Among the nobles, engaged in the pursuit of 
 a vast and sacred object, a high chivalrous spirit was developed, 
 which had great eflfect in raising the tone and manners of society. 
 Their influence on the burgher class was not less marked. They 
 opened a new route to commerce. All the commodities of the 
 Kast poured into Europe ; new fruits, new fiowers, new species of 
 
128 
 
 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 
 
 Chap. XYIII. 
 
 animals, new kinds of furniture, new stuffs, new modes of dress, 
 were introduced into the West, and gave a stimulus to trade. 
 Bremen in the north of Germany, and Ulm in the south, became 
 the staples of these new objects of traffic. The towns increased 
 in size and importance, and the citizens were better enabled to 
 maintain their privileges against the spiritual and temporal 
 nobility. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIIL 
 
 HENRY VI, 
 From A.D. 1190 to 1197. 
 
 Ruins of Triefels, the prisou of PJclrard Cuiur de Lion. 
 
 Scarcely had the Emperor's eldest son Henry entered on tlui 
 regency which his father had committed to him previously to his 
 own departure for the Holy Land, when Henry the Lion returned 
 from his exile in England, and landed on the coast of Holstein, 
 although he had sworn to absent himself from Germany for three 
 years. The excuse for this act of perjury was, that his posses- 
 sions had been plundered during his absence, and since he could 
 not obtain justice either from the emperor or the regent, it was 
 necessary that he should come in person to procure it for himself. 
 The town of Hamburgh and several other places readily opened 
 
A.D. 1190. HENRY VI. 129 
 
 their gates to receive him. Bardewick, a commercial city of 
 some importance which had formerly insulted Henry, was taken 
 and levelled with the earth, all the male inhabitants put to death, 
 and the women and children carried off. It was now necessary 
 that tlie regent should adopt decisive measures; he therefore 
 marched a strong force into the territories of the duke, and 
 carried Hanover by storm. The city of Brunswick, however, 
 resisted all his attacks, and whilst his army lay before it, intelli- 
 gence arrived from Italy that a powerful body of Neapolitan 
 bishops and nobles had placed on the throne of that kingdom an 
 illegitimate descendant of Roger, the father of Henry's wife 
 Constance. On receiving this information, Henry at once crossed 
 the Alps, and having persuaded the Pope to crown him at Rome, 
 marched into Apulia, and appeared before the walls of Naples. 
 35ut here he was met by the same enemies which had formerly 
 overcome his father — heat and pestilence. The most frightful 
 diseases broke out in the German army, and Henry, after losing 
 thousands of his soldiers, was at last compelled to raise the siege 
 and return to Germany, leaving his empress a prisoner in the 
 hands of the enemy. Meanwhile the young Duke of Brunswick, 
 son of Henry the Lion, was enabled by a fortunate marriage to 
 heal the feud between his house and that of Plohenstaufen. There 
 lived at that time a brother of the late emperor, named the Count 
 Palatine Conrad. In better days, Agnes, the beautiful daughter 
 of this prince, had been destined by Barbarossa for the young 
 duke; but when the feud between their houses began, he be- 
 trothed her to Philip Augustus, king of France. The affections of 
 the lady however were not so easily transferred, and she declared 
 to her mother her fixed determination to marry none but her first 
 lover. As Henry, disappointed and sorrowful, was returning 
 home from an unsatisfactory interview with the emperor, a mes- 
 senger put into his hands a letter, in which he was invited by the 
 countess to come that very night to the fortress of Stahleck, near 
 Bacharach, on the Rhine, and receive the hand of her daughter. 
 The delighted lover at once accepted this invitation, and disguising 
 himself as a pilgrim was admitted into the castle, where the mar^ 
 riage ceremony was immediately performed. The next morning 
 Comit Conrad, who had been absent, returned to his castle, and 
 was met at the gate by his countess, who thus addressed him, 
 " My lord, there came yesterday to our tower a falcon, a fairer 
 you never beheld, and I have taken and kept him." The Count, 
 
130 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XVllI. 
 
 unable to comprehend the riddle, but fearing some disaster, rushed 
 hastily into the house, M'here he was met by the newly married 
 pair : " Behold, my lord," said his wife, " the son of the Prince 
 of Brunswick, to whom I have given our daughter, and pray that 
 what I have done may be approved by you." Conrad, althougli 
 greatly astonished, was easily reconciled to what had happened, 
 and thought only of appeasing the wrath of the emperor, who at 
 first refused to sanction the marriage, but having at length given 
 his consent, peace was restored between the imperial house and 
 that of Brunswick. Soon after this union, Henry the Lion, who 
 had passed the last few years of his life in retirement, died in the 
 sixty-first year of his age. With him perished the old dukedom 
 of Saxony, which the chroniclers of those days compare to a 
 noble courser (the ancient arms of the duchy) torn in pieces by a 
 ravening pack of wild beasts. " The lion," says one quaint old 
 writer, " kept the heart for his share ; the lynx (Bavaria) had a 
 leg ; the dog (Hesse) a shoe ; the sow (Holstein) the lungs ; 
 Cologne and Bremen each a hind leg; Mentz the tail," &c. 
 About the same time Tancred, the usurping king of Naples, died 
 also ; and the Emperor, at the head of a formidable army, entered 
 Palermo in triumph on the 2nd of November, 1194, and was 
 crowned king of Sicily and Apulia. Thus was the grandson of 
 an insignificant Swabian count the wearer of five crowns, viz., 
 those of Germany, Burgundy, Lombardy, the Roman Empire, 
 and Sicily. 
 
 At first Henry affected to rule his new kingdom with mode- 
 ration, nor was it until the follov>^ing Christmas that he gave 
 proof of his suspicious and cruel disposition. A monk had put 
 into his hands letters, purporting to be from some of the principal 
 nobles and ecclesiastical dignitaries, in which a conspiracy against 
 his person and crown was alluded to in no very ambiguous terms. 
 A commission of inquiry was immediately appointed, which, after 
 examining the letters, broke up, without pronouncing any decided 
 opinion ; some of the members believing the letters to be forgeries, 
 whilst others held that they were genuine. The tyrant, however, 
 was unwilling to be thus baffled; and many of the suspected 
 individuals were put to death by the most cruel tortures. Having 
 thus thrown off the mask, Henry gave loose without restraint to 
 his ferocious disposition. The young son of the deceased usurper 
 Tancred (who had placed himself and his mother under Henry's 
 protection) was cruelly mutilated, and deprived of his eyes: a 
 
A.D. 1195. HENRY VI. 131 
 
 man whom he suspected of a design on the crown was compelled 
 to sit on a throne of iron heated red hot, with a crown of tlie 
 same glowing material nailed on his head : some were dragq-ed 
 tln-oiigh the streets at the tails of horses, others scourged to death • 
 in a word, there was hardly a form of torture which this monstei* 
 of cruelty did not inflict on his unfortunate Sicilian subjects. 
 Having by these means secured, as he supposed, his kingdom 
 against any further attempts, he determined to retire into Ger- 
 many, for the purpose of putting into execution a plan which he 
 liad long secretly cherished, of making the imperial dignity here- 
 ditary in his family. In the year 1195 this project was laid 
 before the electors, some of whom were convinced by the aro-u- 
 ments of the emperor, seconded as they were by a liberal distri- 
 bution of bribes ; but the majority, headed by the Archbishops of 
 Mentz and Cologne, opposed the plan so vehemently, that Henry 
 was compelled to abandon it, and content himself with seeino- his 
 son Frederick elected as his successor. The following year he 
 prepared to load a great army into the East ; not with the pious 
 object of rescuing the Holy Sepulchre, but from motives of per- 
 sonal ambition. The Greek emperor having been deposed and 
 imprisoned by his brother, had applied to Henry for assistance 
 promising (if it were granted) to bequeath his crown to Henrv's 
 brother Philip, who had married his daughter. The army des- 
 tined for this object was divided into two parts, one of which was 
 lield in readiness to proceed by the usual route, whilst the other 
 60,000 strong, marched into Apulia under the command of the 
 emperor himself In the midst of these preparations death sur- 
 prised him. He had been hunting near Messina, on one of the 
 hottest days of summer, and thirsty and exhausted drank immo- 
 derately of cold water, or as some writers assert, of wine witn 
 vv^hlch poison had been mingled by his enemies. Scarcely had he 
 swallowed the draught, when he sank to the ground in a fit of 
 apoplexy, and died within a few hours in the flower of his age. 
 The death of their cruel tyrant was celebrated with universal 
 rejoicing by the inhabitants of Sicily and Apulia. Six hundred 
 years afterwards his coffin was opened at Palermo, when the 
 corpse of the emperor was found to be so little decayed, that the 
 stern hard features of his face were as distinctly marked as they 
 had been in life. 
 
132 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XVIII. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 Richard Cceur de Lion — the Teutonic Order. — The banner 
 of Leopold, Duke of Austria, the only German prince who re- 
 mained in Palestine after the death of Barbarossa, waved proudly 
 on the highest tower of Acre, which had surrendered to the 
 united forces of the Germans and English. But this assumption 
 of superiority over his allies was an indignity which the haughty 
 spirit of Richard Coeur de Lion could by no means tolerate ; and 
 in a transport of indignation he caused the banner to be torn from 
 its staff, and trampled it under foot with many expressions of con- 
 tempt for the " Austrian swine." 
 
 For the present Leopold was too weak to avenge this insult, 
 but it rankled in his heart, and the following winter as Richard 
 travelled through Austria, he was seized and confined fourteen 
 months in the tower of Diirnstein, on the Danube, or more pro- 
 bably in the Castle of Triefels, on the Rhine. The tale of his 
 discovery by his minstrel Blondel is too well known to be re- 
 peated here. Richard was brought before the Diet at Worms, 
 and being accused of having wronged the Germans in the distri- 
 bution of booty taken in the Holy Land, was compelled to pay a 
 ransom of 150,000 marks, and swear fealty to the Emperor, be- 
 fore he could recover his liberty. The mean wretch who had 
 taken this unknightly revenge died shortly afterwards in conse- 
 quence of a fall from his horse. In this reign Styria was added 
 to Austria, and Vienna surrounded by a w^all, the expense of for- 
 tifying the city being paid out of the King of England's ransom. 
 During the siege of Acre a new order of cliivalry was added 
 to the two wliich already existed. Some merchants from Liibeck, 
 who had established at Acre a hospital for the relief of the sick 
 and wounded, being joined by a few knights, formed themselves 
 into a brotherhood, called the Marians, from their patroness the 
 Virgin Mary, or more commonly the Teutonic order, because 
 all its members were natives of Germany. The first president 
 or Grand Master of this society was a merchant named Walpot, 
 of whom an ancient chronicler says, that " howbeit of ignoble 
 birth, he was nevertheless right noble in life and character." 
 
 After the crusades the Knights of St. John established them- 
 selves in Rhodes, and were called knights of that island. Being 
 driven from their settlement by the Turks in 1522 they obtained 
 
A.D. 1198. nilLIP OF IIOHENSTAUFEN. 133 
 
 tlie island of Malta from Charles V., and employed themselves 
 in the extirpation of piracy until the French invasion in 1798. 
 
 Most of the Templars retired to France, where they continued 
 until 1313, when, a great number of them having been cruelly 
 nmrdered by Philip le Bel, and the rest excommunicated by the 
 Pope, the order soon ceased to exist. The Teutonic Knights 
 went into Prussia, which they conquered and ruled until the 
 year 1525, when their Grand Master, Albert of Brandenburg, 
 suppressed the order, and assumed the title and dignity of a 
 temporal prince. The costume of the Knights Hospitallers or 
 Ivnights of St. John was a black mantle with a white cross em- 
 broidered on the shoulder. The Templars and Teutonic knights 
 wore wliite mantles, the former with a red, the latter with a black 
 cross. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 PHILIP OF HOHENSTAUFEX. OTHO IV. 
 
 From A.D. 1198 to 1212. 
 
 Detestable as the character of Henry VI. had been, the whole 
 of Christendom was nevertheless struck with consternation at 
 the intelligence that the crown of the mighty Roman Empire 
 had now descended to a child of three years old, and feared, not 
 without reason, a recurrence of those scenes which had been 
 enacted under the weak administration of Henry IV. and his 
 mother Agnes. In the month of March, in the year 1198, the 
 Guelphic party, headed by the Archbishops of Cologne and 
 Treves, declared that a new election must take place, inasmuch 
 as their votes for the infant Frederick had been procured by in- 
 timidation, and were moreover invalid on the ground of their 
 having been taken whilst Frederick, being yet unbaptized, could 
 be considered only in the light of a heathen. " The government 
 of Germany," they added, " ought to be intrusted to a wise and 
 vigorous monarch, and not to a helpless infant." During these 
 debates Philip, the young king's uncle, called together the friends 
 of the Hohenstaufen, and implored them to support him in the 
 exercise of his functions as guardian of his nephew and regent 
 of the kingdom. Philip's friends would readily have acceded to 
 
134 HISTORY OF GERiSIANY. Chap. XIX. 
 
 this request, had they believed that by doing so they could have 
 coiiiirmed the Hohenstaufen line on the throne ; but as they 
 plainly saw, that in the event of such an arrangement the Guelphic 
 party would instantly proceed to the election of another king, 
 they determined to anticipate their adversaries by deposing tlie 
 young Frederick, and placing the crown on the head of his uncle. 
 Philip, although grieved at this decision, was constrained to 
 acknowledge its reasonableness, and consent to the election, 
 wliich took place at Miihlhausen, all the assembled nobles swear- 
 ing fealty to the new king. On the other hand the Guelphic 
 party offered the crown to Otho of Brunswick, third son of Henry 
 the Lion, v/ho was elected by them at Cologne, and in the follow- 
 ing July crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle, although that city had 
 for seven weeks resisted his entrance within its Malls. A short 
 time before the occurrence of these events Innocent III. had suc- 
 ceeded the weak and timid Celestin III. on the papal throne. 
 Since the days of Gregory YII. it had never been filled by a 
 pope of more energetic character or more ambitious views. His 
 favourite saying was, tliat " the priesthood was derived from 
 God himself, but that the imperial power had first been assumed 
 by Nimrod, the mighty hunter." The divided state of the em- 
 pire favoured his plans. Otho of Brunswick having thrown 
 himself at the feet of the Pope, and sworn to acknowledge him 
 as his liege-lord, and restore to the church all the rights and pos- 
 sessions of which she had been deprived by former emperors, 
 Innocent of course declared himself favourable to the claims of 
 a candidate who promised so fairly : and thus supported, Otho 
 boldly entered the lists against Philip, although he knew that his 
 rival was favoured by all the best and bravest of the German 
 nobles. Years passed away, and the event of the struggle was 
 yet undecided, when the death of one of the competitors brought 
 it suddenly to a close. It was on the feast of St. John, in the 
 year 1208, that King Philip was celebrating at Bamberg the 
 espousals of his daughter Beatrice with Otho of Meran. In the 
 dead of night a man with a drawn sword entered his chamber, 
 and, advancing to the bed on which the king lay, stabbed him to 
 the heart. The name of the murderer was Otho of Wittelsbach, 
 who was driven to this act of unmanly revenge by indignation at 
 being refused the hand of Philip's daughter; or, as other an- 
 nalists relate, by his wrath at discovering that a letter which 
 Philip had given him for Duke Henry of Silesia, purporting to 
 
Sup. Cuap. XIX. TUE MENDICANT ORDERS. 135 
 
 be a request that the Duke would grant hisxianghter in marriage 
 to Otho, contained iii reality a true but most severe account of 
 the suitor's real character. The vengeance of God was not slow 
 in overtaking the assassin. After being hunted from place to 
 place by tiie emissaries of Otho of Meran (who had sworn to the 
 Princess Beatrice to punish the murderer of her father), he 
 was at length found concealed in a cottage near Elrach, on the 
 Danube, and put to death. Otho of Brunswick was now re- 
 cognized as sole monarch of Germany. In the hope of con- 
 ciliating the Ghibelline party, he married the daughter of his 
 late rival, and at the same time made such concessions to the 
 Pope as he believed would procure for him the favour of that 
 ambitious pontiff. Tlie question of investiture was given up, 
 tlie Pope's right of nominating the German bishops without the 
 consent of their chapters was fully recognized, and the head of 
 the church acknowledged as supreme judge of the empire. The 
 Pope, overjoyed at these concessions, placed the imperial crown 
 on the head of Otho ; but scarcely was the ceremony concluded 
 when the Roman populace rose and expelled the emperor from 
 the city, whilst Innocent looked on without making any effort to 
 restrain their violence. Irritated by these insults, Otho declared 
 that he no longer considered himself bound by the conditions 
 which he had proposed to the Pope. Innocent at first was in- 
 clined to remonstrate, and warned him of the danger of disobeying 
 the church in these words, "Forget not that it is the church 
 which liath raised thee : think on King Nebuchadnezzar, who, 
 when he trusted in liis own might, was sent forth to eat grass like 
 the beasts of the field." Otho, however, persisted in his dis- 
 obedience, and the Pope, burning with wrath, excommunicated 
 him, and wrote to the German princes, granting them his per- 
 mission to elect Frederick of Sicily. Otho was in the act of 
 embarking for that island, with the intention of crushing his 
 rival, when he received intelligence (a.d. 1211) that the nobles 
 and states of Germany had chosen Frederick to be their king. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 The Mendicant Orders. — Amidst the priue, indolence, and 
 hvxity of morals which prevailed to a fearful extent among the 
 clergy of the thirteenth century, instances were not wanting of 
 men, pure in spirit and single-hearted, who, thinking they could 
 
 1 2 
 
136 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XIX. 
 
 best serve God by withdrawing from temptation, were contented 
 to renounce the world, in the hope of being able to work out 
 their salvation more effectually in the silence and solitude of the 
 cloister. Such were Francesco d'Assisi, an Italian, who founded 
 the order of Franciscans in the year 1210, and Domingo Guzman, 
 a native of Spain, who established the Dominicans in 1215. The 
 object of both was the same — to promote spirituality and purity 
 of life by rigid corporeal discipline : they were therefore bound 
 by their rules to content themselves with the barest necessaries 
 of food and clothing, and to observe the vow of poverty so 
 literally, that it was unlawful for them even to touch money. 
 For this reason they were generally called the mendicant monks : 
 and the Dominicans (or white friars, as they were sometimes 
 named from their robes of white flannel), who busied themselves 
 in preaching repentance to the people, were further distinguished 
 by the title of preaching-monks. There seems no reason to 
 doubt that the founders of the Franciscan and Dominican orders 
 were in the first instance actuated by a sincere desire of purifying 
 the church from those corruptions which had long been the 
 grief and the shame of her more pious members ; but unfortu- 
 nately for the cause of true religion, it soon happened that the 
 Pope, by craftily granting them unreasonable immunities and 
 privileges, succeeded in converting these reformers into tJie 
 mightiest supporters of the system which they had sworn to 
 destroy. As men of especial sanctity, and distinguished servants 
 of God, they took precedence of the secular clergy, in whose 
 parishes they were permitted to say mass, preach, hear confession, 
 absolve penitents, and found schools for the instruction of the 
 young. Thus in the character of friends and advisers they found 
 their way into the houses of the laity, to whom they were espe- 
 cially recommended not merely by tlieir reputation for sanctity, 
 but by the trifling cost at which they were supported, and the 
 total absence of haughtiness in their intercourse even with the 
 lowest of the people. Seated in his easy chair at the peasant's 
 fireside, with the little children of the family climbing round his 
 knees, the begging monk would talk to them in homely language, 
 of the papal power, derived by regular succession from the holy 
 fisherman, to whom Christ gave the keys of heaven ; and con- 
 firmed by a succession of miracles, some of them, perhaps, in- 
 vented for the nonce by the narrator himself. Then he would 
 tell them of the heretics, those raging monsters, lialf man and half 
 
Sup. Chap. XIX. THE MENDICANT ORDERS. 137 
 
 devil, who blasphemed God and his church, and whom every true 
 Christian was bound to smite, even as Michael and his ang-els 
 smote the dragon who stirred up war in heaven. By sucli con- 
 versations as these, the cliains of slavish superstition, which the 
 energetic attacks of the Waldenses and Albigenses had loosened, 
 were riveted as firmly as before ; and the people, whose faith 
 had been grievously shaken by witnessing the profligate lives of 
 tlieir spiritual guides, were gradually confirmed in their affec- 
 tionate veneration for a church which, instead of licentious and 
 bloated priests, now sent to them the humble, friendly, self- 
 denying mendicant friar. How miserably these men themselves 
 degenerated into the luxury and sensuality against which they 
 at first protested with so much vehemence, will be seen in their 
 subsequent liistory. At the period of which we are writing, they 
 formed a sort of spiritual police, under the immediate control of 
 the Pope himself, to whom they were enabled to render good 
 service by their influence over the affections and consciences of 
 the people. 
 
 I 3 
 
133 
 
 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 
 
 Chap. XX. 
 
 CHAPTEK XX. 
 
 FREDERICK II. 
 
 From A.D. 1212 to 1250. 
 
 Costume of a Knight -A.D. 1218-20. 
 
 Fredeeick was in his eig-hteenth year when the electors placed 
 him a second time on the throne. His fair hair betrayed his 
 German origin, whilst his firm and masculine disposition showed 
 him to be a Hohenstaufen ; but the fiery spirit and deep feeling 
 which he from time to time displayed indicated the Italian blood 
 of his mother Constance. Pope Innocent III. had been his 
 guardian since the decease of his mother, which took place the 
 year after her husband's untimely death. No pains had been 
 spared by the Pope to render his young charge accomplished in 
 
A.D. 1218. FREDERICK 11. 139 
 
 all the knowledge of those days ; and educated as he was amidst 
 tiie strife of contending' parties, he had already learnt and suffered 
 more than many princes in the course of along life. His journey 
 into Germany was not without danger, for he narrowly escaped 
 falling into an ambuscade, which some Milanese, the enemies of 
 his house, had laid for him. He arrived however safely at Mentz, 
 and received in that city the homage of most of the German 
 nobles. As Frederick owed his elevation to the Pope, he was 
 obliged to promise all sorts of concessions to tlie church; and 
 among the rest, that he would resign his kingdom of Sicily in 
 favour of his infant son Henry ; because the Pope could not 
 endure that the imperial crown and that of Apulia should belong 
 to the same individual. Otho of Brunswick at first offered some 
 resistance to the elevation of Frederick, whom he named in de- 
 rision the " priest's king," but at last found himself obliged to 
 abandon the contest, and retire to his dukedom. A defeat which 
 he experienced at Bovines in Flanders, where he was assisted 
 against the French by his cousin King John of England, de- 
 stroyed his little remaining influence over his countrymen ; and 
 the finishing stroke was given when Pope Innocent, in a council 
 of the church, at which delegates from almost all the Christian 
 states were present, pronounced that Otho had forfeited the 
 crown, and that Frederick, who in all respects had shown himself 
 an obedient son of the church, was rightful King of the Gennans. 
 Otho, thus deposed, retired to his patrimonial estates in the north 
 of Germany, refusing however to surrender the imperial insignia, 
 which consisted of the holy cross, the holy lance, the crown, and 
 one of the teeth of St. John the Baptist. He died in 1218, and 
 twenty weeks after his decease the jewels, according to his direc- 
 tion, were placed in the hands of the reigning sovereign. No 
 sooner had Frederick become sole monarch of Germany than he 
 resolved to visit Rome for the purpose of receiving the imperial 
 crown from the Pope ; and before his departure prevailed on the 
 electors to choose his young son Henry as his successor. From 
 Rome Frederick visited Apulia, which he had left at the age of 
 eighteen. Here he would gladly have remained for some time ; 
 but the Pope never ceased to remind him that, previously to his 
 coronation, he had promised to undertake a crusade to the Holy 
 Land ; and this appeal was rendered more persuasive by the cir- 
 cumstance of his having, after the death of his wife, Constance 
 of Aragon, married Joanna, daughter of the King of Jerusalem. 
 
140 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XX. 
 
 Accordingly, in the year 1227, he assembled as large a force as 
 possible, and was on the eve of embarking, when a terrible 
 pestilence broke out, and carried off the greatest part of his army. 
 To add to his embarrassment, Pope Honorius died at the critical 
 moment when Frederick, miable to fulfil his engagement, was at 
 the mercy of the papal see ; and the new Pope, Gregory IX., at 
 once published the sentence of excommunication against him. 
 Indignant at this act of unjust severity, Frederick no longer 
 thought it necessary to dissemble, but openly and in no measured 
 language gave vent to his feelings : " The blood-sucker," he said, 
 " hideth her venom in words of honied sweetness ; she sendeth out 
 her emissaries, as wolves in sheep's clothing, into all lands ; not 
 to spread the word of God, but to enslave the free, disturb the 
 peaceful, and extort money." It is by no means improbable that 
 he would have bidden defiance to the papal ban, and abandoned 
 the expedition altogether, had he not two years before pledged his 
 honour to undertake it. It was from no love to the Pope there- 
 fore that he collected the remnant of his forces, and in the fol- 
 lowing year embarked for Palestine. Humane and tolerant by 
 nature— attached to the literature of the East, which he had 
 studied with pleasure in his youth — as one of the race of Hohen- 
 staufen, the bitter enemy of the Pope, and now burning with 
 rage at the unjust sentence of excommunication ^ately passed upon 
 him it is scarcely matter of astonishment that Frederick should 
 have courted an alliance with the equally liberal leader of the 
 Mussulmans, Sultan Camel. Private communications had passed 
 between them before Frederick quitted Italy ; and wlien, on liis 
 arrival in the Holy Land, the Knights of the Temple and St. 
 John shrank from him as from an accursed thing, he treated them 
 with contempt, relied only on his faithful Germans, and in less 
 than a year had so far acquired the confidence of Sultan Camel, 
 that the gates of Jerusalem were thrown open to him, and the 
 barbarian leader with his own hand placed the crown on the head 
 of his Christian ally. It was agreed between the two sovereigns 
 that access to the Holy Sepulchre should thenceforth be free both 
 to the Mohammedans and Christians ; and that, when the city 
 was ffiven over into the hands of Frederick, the former should 
 be permitted to celebrate their worship without molestation. 
 This liberality on the part of the Christian leader was so dis- 
 tasteful to the Patriarch of Jerusalem, that, instead of thanking 
 God for the recovery of the holy city, he forbade his clergy to 
 
Sup. Chap. XX. THE CHILDREN'S CRUSADE. 141 
 
 officiate within it. Some of the Templars also were base enou<rh 
 to write to the Sultan, urging him to assassinate Frederick ; 
 but the noble-minded Mussulman, instead of following this sug- 
 gestion, put tiie letter into the hands of the emperor. Having 
 thus in some sort secured peace, at least for a time, Frederick 
 re-embarked for Italy. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER XX. 
 
 The Children's Crusade, — Since the year 1190 little had been 
 done for the recovery of the Holy Sepulchre. It is true that 
 Eichard Cocur de Lion had wrung an honourable peace from the 
 infidels ; but the conditions were soon violated ; and the un- 
 happy feuds continuing to rage as violently as ever among the 
 Christians, Saladin^ and after him Camel, the Sultan of Egypt, 
 obtained one advantage after another, until little remained in the 
 hands of the Europeans beyond a few places on the sea-coast. 
 They now became aware that it would be impossible to retain 
 their footing in Palestine, unless they could make themselves 
 masters of Egypt and Greece, the former being the granary 
 which supplied their enemies with corn, the latter lying on the 
 way between the regions of the West and East, and the treachery 
 of its inhabitants rendering the passage of an army through their 
 country at all times exceedingly hazardous. Accordingly in the 
 year 1204 Constantinople was taken, and Baldwin, Count of 
 Flanders, placed on the throne of the Eastern empire. During 
 this period the Venetians were put in possession of the whole 
 Peloponnesus or Morea, where they carried on no inconsiderable 
 commerce. The influence which these events exercised on the 
 progress of art in the West was naturally very great. In Flan- 
 ders especially, to which many works of Grecian art, particularly 
 pictures, were sent by the conquerors of Constantinople, the foun- 
 dation was laid of that school of painting which afterwards be- 
 came so renowned throughout Europe. The attempt in Egypt 
 totally miscarried, for the warlike Arabians who defended that 
 country were an enemy very different from tiie effeminate Greeks 
 of Constantinople ; and the Christian inhabitants of Palestine 
 had long since lost the courage which distinguished the early 
 crusaders. From this time little was attempted until the year 
 1212, when a scene of enthusiasm was enacted, so strange as to 
 be well nigh incredible. In the district of Vendome in France, 
 there appeared a sheplierd boy named Stephen, who exliibited a 
 
142 
 
 HISTORY OB' GERMANY. 
 
 CiiAr. XXI. 
 
 letter purporting to be a commission received from Jesus Christ 
 himself, autliorizing him to go forth and conquer the infidels in 
 Palestine. " None," he said, " but innocent children could hope 
 for success ; for Christ had declared that of such is the kingdom 
 of heaven." Accordingly 7000 urchins were led by him to the 
 shores of the Adriatic, where they were murdered by the pirate 
 inhabitants of that coast. These were followed by more than 
 30,000 boys and young maidens, who took ship at Marseilles, 
 and being wrecked on the coast of Africa, were either drov/ned 
 or carried off into slavery. There is a tradition that in later days 
 some of these children or their descendants, who resided as slaves 
 at the court of Bagdad, suffered death rather than renounce the 
 Christian faith. 
 
 CHAPTER XXT. 
 
 FEEDERICK II, 
 
 ^^_J- 
 
 t- 
 
 1^ 
 
 
 flFf 
 
 
 
 A Tournament. 
 
 During the Emperor's absence from Italy, the Pope had enlisted 
 a band of mercenaries, who were called "soldiers of the keys," 
 from their wearing as a badge the cross keys of St. Peter. 
 
A.D. 1234. FREDERICK IL 143 
 
 The command of these men was intrusted to the titular Kinj^ 
 of Jerusalem, John, father-in-law of the Emperor, but one of his 
 bitterest enemies. On his landing, Frederick found Apulia in 
 the hands of John's army ; but the mere terror of ids name was 
 sufficient to disperse them : and in a short time thej^ liad all dis- 
 appeared, leaving him in quiet possession of his native land. But 
 Frederick, although triumphant in this instance, understood too 
 well the dangerous power of the Pope not to desire a recon- 
 ciliation, and sent him proposals to that effect. Gregory, how- 
 ever, not only refused to hold any intercourse with one whom he 
 designated as a pestilent lieretic, but wrote with his own hand 
 a letter to the German nobles, urging them to throw off tlieir 
 allegiance ; a suggestion which was received so contemptuously 
 that the Pope, assuming a humbler tone, expressed his willing- 
 ness to remove the sentence of excommunication. 
 
 Frederick now led a life of luxurious enjoyment for many years 
 in his beautiful kingdom of Apulia. On every side the noblest 
 palaces and the fairest gardens bore witness to his exquisite taste. 
 His court, if not altogether free from the guilt of sensuality, ex- 
 hibited at least none of its coarseness, and was the resort of all 
 that v/as fair, and accomplished, and learned. The Emperor 
 himself was no mean proficient in the art of poetry, and was 
 among the first who composed verses in the vernacular dialect of 
 Italy. Sultan Camel had presented him with aji astronomical 
 clock or orrery, in which the motions of the heaveidy bodies were 
 represented by curious machinery : and his scientific studies were 
 zealously directed by Michael vScott, the translator of Aristotle's 
 treatise on natural history, whose reputation as a necromancer has 
 furnished his illustrious namesake with materials for the ' Lay of 
 the Last Minstrel.' The Emperor also collected a menagerie of 
 wild beasts, among which was a giraffe, an animal rarely seen in 
 those days ; and wrote with his own hand a treatise on the natural 
 history of birds, which is still extant. 
 
 During the fifteen years of his absence, Germany enjoyed 
 almost uninteiTupted tranquillity from without : and in the north- 
 east was considerably extended by conquests achieved by two 
 knightly orders — that of the Cross and Sword (founded in 1 198 
 by Albert of Apeldern, Bishop of Livonia), which subdued 
 Esthoiiia, and the Teutonic order, which conquered and civilized 
 the Prussians,* a wild tribe, whose food was horseflesh, and their 
 
 * The name of Prussia is a contraction of Po-Russia, which in the Sclavonic 
 dialect signifies "neai' Russia," as Poraerania (Po-morganic) "near the sea." 
 
144 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XXI. 
 
 chief pastime drinking to intoxication. When a chief died, his 
 slaves, his horse, and arms were buried with him, that they might 
 be ready for use in the other world. These savage marauders 
 having long disturbed their neighbours the Poles, the latter, un- 
 able to contend with so powerful an enemy, at length applied for 
 aid to Herman of Salza, Grand Master of the Teutonic order, 
 who sent a hundred knights to their assistance. In this manner 
 Prussia was gradually subdued, and became the possession of the 
 Teutonic knights, with whom those of the Cross and Sword were 
 incorporated about the year 1137. 
 
 Whilst the frontiers of the kingdom were thus extended by 
 conquest, its interior was agitated by the unceasing broils of the 
 nobles, and their cruel oppression of those who were too weak to 
 resist them. A terrible persecution was also carried on against 
 all who presumed to differ in opinion from the church of Rome. 
 Ever since the year 1170 the followers of Peter Waldus in the 
 South of France had preached against the ambition, tyranny, and 
 immorality of the clergy, and had endeavoured to place the Holy 
 Scriptures in the hands of the people. These Waldenses, as they 
 were called from the name of their founder, and the Albigenses, 
 who derived their appellation from the town of Albi, were cruelly 
 persecuted by ecclesiastical commissioners empowered by the Pope 
 to take cognizance of all heresies, and punish with tortures and 
 death those who were convicted of seeking to purify the Catholic 
 religion from the inventions of men. In Germany a similar 
 power was granted by Pope Gregory IX. to Conrad of Marburg, 
 a Dominican monk, the confessor of Elizabeth of Thuringia. 
 Many humble individuals were in consequence condemned to the 
 stake: but the inquisitor having at last ventured to degrade a 
 count of the empire by causing his head to be shaved, the offended 
 noble appealed to the diet, and Conrad, who was summoned to 
 answer liis complaints, was assassinated on the road by some 
 friends of his former victims. Since that time the popes have 
 attempted in vain to introduce the inquisition into Germany. 
 Such were the abuses which prevailed during the absence of the 
 Emperor Frederick. The flatterers of his son Henry, who admi- 
 nistered the government for his father, told him that the limited 
 power with which he was intrusted was the cause of these evils. 
 They reminded him that Frederick had promised the Pope never 
 to allow the governments of Germany and Apulia to be in the 
 hands of one person, and persuaded him that his younger brother 
 Conrad was the favourite of Iiis father. Yielding to the^e evil 
 
Sup. Chap. XXI. THE VEIIME. 145 
 
 counsellors, Henry, in the year 1234, formed an alliance witli 
 Frederick, the warlike Duke of Austria, ana assembliiij^ the Ger- 
 man nobles at Boppard on tlie Ehine, proposed that they should 
 throw off their allegiance to the Emperor. Finding, however, 
 that only a few were inclined to listen to him, he next turned his 
 e\es towards Italy, where he hoped to find willing coadjutors in 
 tiie Pope and the Lombards. The Milanese, it is true, were 
 ready to assist him, but the Pope rejected his unnatural proposal 
 with abhorrence ; declared all oaths of allegiance taken to him to 
 be null and void, and commanded all his adherents to abandon 
 nim on pam of excommunication. Frederick wrote to the German 
 nobles, condemning the conduct of his son ; and soon afterwards 
 appeared in Germany with a considerable army. Henry made 
 liis submissions to his father at Ratisbon m 1235, and received a 
 pardon ; but having afterwards attempted to poison him, was seni 
 into Calabria, where he ended his days in prison in the year 1242. 
 When the Emperor heard of his death, he wrote to all the nobles 
 of the empire to this effect : " I confess that the pride of the living 
 king could never bend me, but I am deeply touched by the death 
 of my son : nor am I the first who, having suffered from an un 
 dutiful child, hath nevertheless wept over his grave," 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER XXI, 
 
 The Vehme, or Secret Tribunals of Westphalia.— During the 
 residence of Frederick II. in Italy, the government of Germany 
 was committed (as we have seen) to his son Henry, who had been 
 brought up from infancy in that country. It would have been 
 too much to expect that the feeble arm of a boy could control 
 those turbulent nobles who were every day guilty of some fresh 
 act of atrocity ; nor was it safe openly to resist their violence. 
 Archbishop Engelbert therefore, whom Frederick had nominated 
 his lieutenant in Germany in the year 1220, revived, in that part 
 of the Duchy of \Yestphalia which belonged to the see of Cologne, 
 a dark and mysterious tribunal known by the name of the Vehme, 
 or Fehm-gericht, which was formed on the model of the Frey- 
 gericht, or open field court of Germany. 
 
 The schoppen, or scabini, who composed this court, were 
 
 divided into the "ordinary" and the " wissenden," or initiated, 
 
 who were intrusted with the trial of criminals at the secret meer- 
 
 incrs of the Vehme : the ordinarv members being empowered to 
 
 Gy " ^ 
 
146 HISTORY OF GERMAN' Y Chap. XXT. 
 
 decide civil causes at a public court held three times a-year. It 
 would appear also that the " wisseiiden " themselves were in the 
 habit of holding an open court called " das achte ding " {the 
 actual court), before wliich the accused was summoned to appear : 
 and it was only on his refusing or neglecting to obey the sum- 
 mons that sentence w^as passed on him in his absence by the 
 heimliches gericht {secret tribunal), from which all but the 
 initiated were excluded. The " wassenden " were divided into 
 four classes. First, the " Stuhlherr," chairman or president, 
 either a prince, the Archbishop of Cologne, or in later times even 
 the emperor himself. Secondly, the " Frei-grafen," counts or 
 nobles, elected by the chairman to be his deputies. Thirdly, the 
 " Frei-schoppen," or scab'mi (sheriffs), chosen by the Frei-graf, 
 who acted as jurymen. Fourthly, the " Frohnboten," messengers 
 or executive officers, who summoned the court, executed its 
 sentences, &c. Secrecy* was necessary, because the members of 
 the court would otherwise have been exposed to the revenge of the 
 numerous powerful criminals which then existed even in the 
 higher classes of society. No priest, except the spiritual lord, no 
 Jew, no woman, and no peasant or serf, could become a member 
 of this court, nor could those classes of persons fall under its 
 jurisdiction. It w^as destined only for the trial of free laymen, 
 and that only in such cases as had not been, or could not be, 
 decided by another tribunal. The proceedings of this secret 
 court were sufficiently solemn, although the circumstance of their 
 midnight meeting in subterraneous vaults, which imparts so fear- 
 ful an interest to the magnificent trial scene in Scott's ' Anne of 
 Geierstein,' never really existed ; the sessions of these courts 
 being held for the most part in the halls of the episcopal palace at 
 Cologne. 
 
 The members occupied benches, rising one above anotlier 
 according to the rank of the judges : the president, or his deputy, 
 being in front, supported by the grafs, representing the Sagiba- 
 rones or assessors of Charlemagne's courts ; and behind them were 
 the schoppen, who were always free citizens. On a table in front 
 of the president's throne lay a naked sword, having its hilt in 
 ^he form of a cross, and a coil of ropes ; the former indicating, 
 according to an ancient authority, "the cross on which Jesus 
 
 * This attribute, however, is not denoted, as is commonly supposed, by 
 the word Fehm, which means & sentence of condemnation ; and Fehm-gericht 
 is equivalent to ''the cnmhial court." 
 
►Sup. Chap. XXI. THE VETIME. 147 
 
 Christ did suffer, and also the stern justice of the court ; the cord 
 signifying the punishment of the wicked, whereby God's wratj- 
 may be appeased." The president having taken his seat, and 
 a-^certained by the answers of the frohnbot that the necessary 
 formalities had been duly performed, pronounced the court open, 
 and caused proclamation of silence to be thrice made. The new 
 members of the court (if any were present) then knelt down be- 
 fore tlie president, and each laying the two first fingers and thumb 
 of liis right hand on the sword and the cord, took a solemn oath of 
 secrecy and fidelity. The new schoppen then received the pass- 
 word and the grip or pressifre of the hand by which the members 
 recognized one another, together wdth other signs, one of w^hich 
 seems to have been a particular manner of placing the knife at 
 table, the point being turned towards the body of its owner, to 
 indicate probably the danger of violating his oath. Then he was 
 warned of the fearful punishment which would follow any disclo- 
 sure of the secrets imparted to him : that his tongue w^ould be torn 
 out through the back of his neck, and his body hanged seven times 
 higher than that of ordinary offenders. After these preliminary 
 proceedings, the accuser having been sworn on the sword and cord, 
 proceeded to give his evidence, and the accused, if one of the initiated, 
 v>\is allowed to rebut his charges on oath. The members of the 
 court then deliberated, and if the accused was declared guilty by a 
 majority of votes, sentence was pronounced, and a death-warrant, 
 sealed by the president and seven schoppen, was placed in the 
 hands of the accuser. The same punishment awaited those who 
 refused to appear at the summons of the court. 
 
 This charge having been confirmed by the oatlis of six free 
 schoppen, sentence was solemnly pronounced by the freigraf in 
 these words : — " Forasmuch as A. B. having been summoned 
 before this tribunal of the Holy Vehme, to give an account of 
 certain misdeeds witn which he standeth charged, doth wilfully and 
 obstinately refuse to appear before the same ; therefore do mt, 
 acting under the authority committed to us by the constitution of 
 the Holy Empire, pronounce the said A. B. ferfe/imed and con- 
 demned ; cast out of the number of the righteous into that of 
 the unrighteous, separated from all good men ; rejected by the 
 four elements, which God hath given unto man for his comfort ; 
 devoid of counsel, rights, peace, honour, safety, and love. And 
 we hereby permit and require all men to deal with him as witlj 
 one accursed. And we do accordingly curse his body and liis 
 
148 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XXI. 
 
 flesh, giving his carcase to the four winds of heaven, and to the 
 ravens and beasts of the field ; and his soul we commend to our 
 Lord God ; if peradventure he will receive the same." 
 
 This form was thrice repeated, the grafs and schoppen spitting 
 on the ground each time at the words, " We curse his body and 
 flesh." Then the president called on all kings, princes, lords, 
 knights, and esquires, together with all free grafs and schoppen, 
 to aid and assist the court in causing execution to be done on 
 the body of A. B., and therein not to fail for love or for hate, 
 for friend or for kinsman, or for anything else that the world 
 contained. Soon after the delivery of this sentence the body of 
 the condemned was sure to be found hanging on a tree, in the 
 trunk of which was stuck a dagger inscribed with the mystic 
 cypher of the Vehme, S. S. G. G. (stock, stein, gras, grein),* 
 words to which some secret meaning was probably attached 
 beyond their ordinary signification. The Schoppen were also 
 required to make constant circuits by day and night, and had 
 the right of executing robbers and other notorious criminals, 
 if caught in the fact, without waiting for the solemn decision of 
 the Yehme. All the Vehmic tribunals were subject to the juris- 
 diction of the general Chapter, which was composed of the 
 initiated members of the different courts. So great was the 
 celebrity of these societies, that they soon spread from the Red 
 Land (as the territory of Westphalia was called) over the greater 
 part of Germany, and in the fourteenth century numbered 
 100,000 members. In the following century, however, we find 
 princes, towns, and knights leagued against an institution which 
 was little in accordance with the spirit of the age ; and the secret 
 tribunals, although never formally suppressed, gradually sank into 
 insignificance. The last Freigericht, held at Gehmen, near 
 Minister, was superseded in the year 1811 by the introduction of 
 tne French code. 
 
 * Stick, stone, grass, groan. 
 
A.u. 1237. FREDERICK II. 149 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 FREDERICK II. 
 
 In the year 1235 Frederick contracted a third marriage with 
 Isabella, the beautiful sister of Henry III. King of England. 
 On the 22nd May the bride entered Cologne, where she was 
 received by crowds of people, who strewed her way with flowers ; 
 and for many days the richest presents were distributed among the 
 populace : but the exhibition which seems most to have delighted 
 and surprised the chroniclers of those times was a carriage in the 
 form of a ship, so contrived that, the persons who drew it being 
 concealed underneath, it appeared to sail on dry land. The 
 marriage was celebrated with great pomp at Worms. Among 
 tlie guests were seventy-five princes and 12,000 knights. The 
 Eastern style of the Imperial Court, especially the long trains of 
 camels, attracted great attention. After this marriage the 
 Emperor held a diet at Mentz, at which Henry was deposed, and 
 his brother Conrad elected Frederick's successor. A general peace 
 tliroughout Germany was proclaimed ; and all who felt themselves 
 aggrieved w^ere commanded to refer their complaints to judges 
 appointed for that purpose, instead of avenging themselves, as they 
 had hitherto done. Murder, which had always been expiated by 
 a fine, w^as now punished with death. The ordinance which con- 
 tains these provisions is the first public document extant in the 
 German language. The following year Frederick made active 
 preparations for carrying on the war in Lombardy, and 10,000 
 Saracens, wliom he retained in his pay, were marched towards the 
 north of Italy, where troops of Ghibellines joined the imperial 
 army. On the 27th November, 1237, an engagement was 
 fought at Cortenuova. The Milanese soon fled, with the exception 
 of a brave little band, which guarded the banner of the state. The 
 waggon in w Inch it was conveyed stuck fast in a sw^amp, and the 
 escort, unable to extricate the w^heels, tried to destroy it, that 
 their standard might not fall into the hands of the enemy ; but 
 Frederick's warriors soon cut the defenders in pieces, and having 
 harnessed an elephant to tlie waggon, conveyed the banner in 
 triumph to Rome, where it was lodged in the Capitol. The 
 Milanese, humbled by this defeat, now offered to recognize 
 Frederick as their sovereign, to deliver up to liim all the gold and 
 
150 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XXII. 
 
 silver in their possession, and furnish 10,000 men for the crusades, 
 on condition of his pardoning their former misdeeds. Frederick, 
 however, irritated by their obstinate resistance, required uncondi- 
 tional surrender. Whilst affairs were in this state, the Countess 
 Caserta, a lady who possessed considerable influence over the 
 Emperor, addressed him in these words : " My gracious lord, you 
 have already a fair empire ; you have all that can be desired to 
 make man happy. In God's name, why plunge into this fresh 
 quarrel ?" " You speak truly," replied the Emperor ; " never- 
 theless, for honour's sake have I proceeded thus far, and for 
 honour's sake I will not draw back." The Milanese, informed 
 of this decision, declared that they would rather die with swords 
 m their hands than be destroyed by famine, imprisonment, or the 
 axe of the executioner. Thus the war began afresh ; and although 
 Frederick obtained many important advantages, the Milanese 
 bravely defended their fortified cities, which in those days, when 
 the art of attacking towns was in its infancy, were more easily 
 defended than stormed. The Emperor, however, would at length 
 have attained his object, had not his attention been called off 
 by a fres}i misunderstanding with the Pope, who had long feared 
 the growing power of Frederick, and was by no means unwilling 
 to avail himself of the first reasonable excuse for breaking with 
 him. An opportunity soon presented itself. Sardinia, of which 
 the Pope claimed the sovereignty as part of St. Peter's patrimony, 
 had been seized by Frederick, who made his natural son Enzio 
 king of the island. The remonstrances of Gregory being treated 
 witli contempt, sentence of excommunication was passed on the 
 Emperor. " We deliver his body imto Satan," so ran the papal 
 bull, " that his soul may be saved ; and we hereby absolve all his 
 subjects from their oath of allegiance : for this pestilent heretic 
 hath maintained that the world hath been misled by three 
 deceivers, Moses, Mohammed, and Christ ; of whom two died in 
 honour, and the third was hanged on a tree." In vain did 
 Frederick vehemently deny having thus blasphemed the Saviour : 
 It was retorted on him that when he was in Palestine, he had one 
 day pointed to some ears of wheat, and remarked with a sneer to 
 his attendants, '^' There grows your god," in allusion to the doc- 
 trine of transubstantiation. 
 
 A general council being summoned to discuss these questions, 
 the Emperor, who well knew that none but his enemies would be 
 present, gave private instructions to his son the king of Sardinia, 
 
A.D. 1237. FREDERICK II. 151 
 
 to seize the vessels in whicli they sailed ; and no fewer than twenty- 
 two shiploads of cardinals, bisho})s, and prelates were in conse- 
 quence captured, so that no council could be held. The imperial 
 chancellor Peter de Vineis liad previously endeavoured to dissuade 
 them from undertaking the voyage to liome. " All the coasts 
 (says his circular), the harbours, and the roads are beset. But 
 i;ven suppose you were to reach Rome in safety, what have you to 
 lixpect there but fresh perils ? Broiling heat, putrid water, coarse 
 unwholesome victuals, air so thick tiiat you may grasp it in your 
 hands, myriads of mosquitoes, store of serpents, and a race of men 
 disgusting, beastly, ferocious ! The whole city is undermined, 
 and in the hollows of the earth lurk poisonous vermin, which will 
 spring into life with the first heats of summer. And what does 
 the Pope want of you ? He would wheedle you, and make you 
 his tools and a cloak for his evil deeds— the organ-pipes on which 
 he hopes to play to his heart's content. At first his commands 
 will be light and reasonable enough, but, unless you resist them, 
 he will go on increasing the burthen, until he breaks you like 
 bruised reeds. Your goods, your freedom, your bodies, your 
 souls are in jeopardy. God grant that neither vanity, nor hatred, 
 nor ambition, nor the hopes of preferment, nor any other passion 
 or error may plunge you into a gulf from which there is no escape. 
 In the hope of averting such calamity your friend the Emperor 
 sends you this warning." The Pope, who was nearly a hundred 
 years old, survived this mortification only a few months. 
 
 About the same time Germany was overrun by a barbarous 
 tribe named the Monguls, ^^■ho came from the same land which in 
 former days had sent forth the terrible Huns. These savages 
 were men of moderate height, but ill-proportioned and mis-shapen, 
 with thick blubber lips, high clieek-bones, flat noses, and small 
 deep-set eyes. They always appeared mounted on their little lean 
 but active horses. Their diet consisted of cats, rats, and the most 
 diso-usting garbage. In the year 1202 there had arisen among 
 them a chief named Temudschin, who assumed the arrogant title 
 of Zingis Khan (Lord of Lords) : this chief died in 1227, after 
 having conquered China. His sons, following up his .-onquests, 
 overran Russia and Prussia, and advanced into Silesia, where they 
 burnt the city of Breslau. Henry the Pious, Duke of Lower 
 Silesia, met them near Liegnitz, and, although liis force did not 
 exceed 30,000 men, offered battle to the inmiense army of the 
 barbarians, which according to simie writers was 450,000 strong 
 
152 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XXII. 
 
 For two days the fight raged with great fury, and the brave duke, 
 with most of his followers, fell in defence of their country ; but 
 the barbarians had received such a check that they did not ven- 
 ture to advance any farther into the land of those men of iron, as 
 they termed the Germans. They carried off, however, from the 
 field of battle nine sacks full of ears, which they had cut from the 
 heads of the slain. The place where they fought is still called 
 the Wahlstatt or battle-field. Then they marched southwards, and 
 committed the most horrible cruelties in Moravia and Hungary ; 
 but were at length utterly defeated by the imperial forces on tne 
 banks of the Danube. 
 
 In the year 1243 Innocent lY., although a Ghibelline Pope, 
 solemnly renewed the sentence of excommunication passed on 
 Frederick by his predecessor, the assembled members of the 
 council raising the hymn " Te Deum laudamus," " whilst the 
 prelates standing around extinguished the torches which they had 
 held during the ceremony, praying that thus the emperor's glory 
 and happiness might be extinguished on the earth." As soon as 
 the news of this violent proceeding reached Frederick, he com- 
 manded all his crowns to be brought to him, and exclaimed, as he 
 laid his hands on them, " Now let us see whether Pope or council 
 hath power to take these from me." The Pope now expended 
 laro-e sums of money in procuring the election of the Landgrave 
 Henry of Thuringia ; but he died in the following year, and 
 William of Holland, who succeeded him, found but little support 
 during the emperor's lifetime. Frederick's remaining years were 
 an unbroken series of misfortunes. His favourite plan of ren- 
 dering Austria an hereditary possession of his house was rendered 
 abortive by the Pope and Ottocar King of Bohemia. His na- 
 tural son Enzio was condemned to perpetual imprisonment by tne 
 people of Bologna. His chancellor, Peter de Vineis, whom he 
 had treated as a friend and almost as an equal, attempted his life 
 by poison, and, being imprisoned by order of the emperor, de- 
 stroyed himself by dashing his head against the walls of his cell. 
 On the 1.3th of December, 1250, Frederick, who had avoided the 
 city of Florence, because it had been foretold that he should die 
 among flowers, expired at Firenzuola in the arms of his favourite 
 son Manfred. During his lifetime he ]iad worn seven crowns, 
 viz., the Imperial, the German, the iron croAvn of Lombardy, and 
 those of Burgundy, Sicily, Sardinia, and Jerusalem. 
 
Sup. ClIAl". XKII. THE IIANSEATIC LEAGUE. 153 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 Tlie Hanseatic League. — In 1241 was formed tlie league of 
 the Ilaiise * towns, the most powerful commereial confederacy 
 ever known ; and we shall therefore take this opportunity to 
 give a short sketch of its history. Since the Crusades the 
 population and conmierce of the towns on the North Sea 
 and on the Baltic had increased enormously. Their fleets, 
 visited the Mediterranean and the East, and often fought with 
 tliose of Genoa, Pisa, and Venice. The rich merchants 
 who inhabited them had long been united by their common 
 interests; but in the year before mentioned this merely casual 
 union was converted into a formal league, for the purposes of 
 protection as well against the pirates who infested the northern 
 seas, as against all other enemies whether foreign or domestic. 
 The first alliance was concluded between Liibeck and Hamburg. 
 It was soon afterwards joined by Bremen, and subsequently by 
 most of the towns of northern Germany. 
 
 In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries the Hanse League 
 increased to such an extent that it once embraced as many as 
 seventy cities. It could send to sea a fleet of 300 sail, manned 
 by upwards of 12,000 seamen. This powerful navy rendered the 
 league masters of the northern seas, and a match for the greatest 
 sovereigns. Its aim was a commercial monopoly ; for the sake 
 of which it waged bloody wars with the Scandinavian kingdoms 
 and with England. It was not till the fifteenth century that the 
 latter country succeeded in shaking off the commercial yoke of 
 the Hansa. Soon after the establislmient of the league, viz. in 
 1249, we find Alexander von Soltwedel, a citizen of Liibeck, at 
 the liead of the Hanseatic fleet, plundering Copenhagen and burn- 
 ing Stralsund, then a Danish settlement. Towards the close of 
 the same century the Hanse towns blockaded and plundered the 
 coasts of Norway, seized King Eric's fleet, and forced him by the 
 peace of Calmar, in 1285, to grant them a commercial monopoly. 
 In 1361 they again waged a bloody war with Sweden and Den- 
 mark, and committed such ravages in those kingdoms that they 
 were ultimately driven to conclude a disgraceful peace. On this 
 occasion the Hanse towns prevented the incorporation of Sciiles- 
 wick and Ilolstein with Denmark, and forced the Danes to con- 
 
 ♦ Tlie old German word Hansa denoted " an alliaucc," or "confederacy.'* 
 
 K 3 
 
154 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XXII. 
 
 sent that they would choose no king without the concurrence of 
 the Hansa. At the same time Queen Margaret of Sweden was 
 compelled to confirm all their ancient privileges, and to place 
 Stockholm in their hands for three years, as a pledge for her 
 observance of the treaty. 
 
 The Reformation produced a great revolution in the Hanse 
 towns. In the year 1528 the works of Luther were publicly 
 burnt in Lubeck by the hangman ; but two years afterwards the 
 people rose against the J)urgher aristocracy, and accused them of 
 oppression and waste of the revenues, of wliich they demanded an 
 account. The town council now permitted freedom of religion ; 
 but the people, not content with this, prohibited in their turn the 
 exercise of the Roman Catholic worship, and proceeded to such 
 other acts of hostility towards the higher classes, that the burgo- 
 master, Nicholas Bromser, left the town to seek assistance. His 
 flight was followed by the expulsion of the whole council ; and 
 the mechanics, having seized upon the government, appointed 
 Jurgen Wullenweber, a poor trader, to be burgomaster. Wullen- 
 weber, who by virtue of this office became president of the entire 
 Hansa, was a man of large views and determined courage, whose 
 chief aim it was to extend and confirm the power of the Hansa. 
 Being joined by the Baltic towns of Stralsund, Rostock, and Wis- 
 mar, he determined on effecting a revolution in Denmark, and 
 restoring Christiern II., who had been deposed and imprisoned 
 by the nobles. He also entertained the idea of dethroning Gus- 
 tavus Wasa, King of Sweden, whom the Hanseatic League had 
 helped to ascend the throne, but who had afterwards openly mani- 
 fested his hostility towards that confederacy. For the latter pur- 
 pose he sent Marx Meyer into Sweden, to stir up the people, and 
 induce them to place Sture, a youth of royal race, upon the throne. 
 This Meyer, originally a furrier, and one of the handsomest men 
 of his day, had fought under Schartlin against the Turks, and was 
 now captain of the city-bands of Lubeck. A little previously he 
 had sailed out against the English and Netherlanders, who were 
 threatening the Sound ; but, being driven to the coast of England 
 by a storm, was taken, and imprisoned as a pirate in the Tower 
 of London. By his address and eloquence, however, he persuaded 
 Henry YIIL, who was at that tune embittered against the pope 
 and emperor, and jealous of the northern kingdoms, to conclude 
 an alliance with Liibeck. Meyer, instead of being hanged, was 
 dubbed a knight by Henry, who placed a heavy cnam of gold 
 
Sup. Chap. XXll. TTTE IIAXSEATIC LEAGUE. 155 
 
 round his neck, and dismissed him with the greatest honour. He 
 did not, however, succeed in liis designs agamst Sweden. Wul- 
 ienweber was at first more successful in his attempts in Denmark, 
 where Meyer was also employed. Christopher, Count of Olden- 
 burg, received from Wullenweber's hands the appointmenl; of 
 general, and conducted an army of ITanseatic and other German 
 mercenaries into the Danish islands. Wullenweber's plans agamsi 
 Denmark were, however, finally defeated by the treachery of tlie 
 Hanseatic aristocrats serving on board the fleet. Liibeck was now 
 threatened with the ban of the empire if it did not put down its 
 democratic government. Wullenweber was denounced as an 
 anabaptist, his person treacherously seized in the domains of the 
 Bishop of Bremen, and handed over to the cruel Duke Henry of 
 Brunswick ; by whom, after undergoing dreadful tortures, he was 
 ultimately beheaded. A like fate overtook Meyer, who was be- 
 neaded by the Danes, contrary to their promise when he sur- 
 rendered. 
 
 The assembly or congress of the Hanse towns was held at 
 Liibeck, where the archives and public chest w^ere kept. The 
 allied towns were ultimately divided into four circles, with a 
 metropolis and alderman at the head of each. In the fifteenth 
 century, the most flourishing period of the league, these circles 
 were composed as follows : — 1. The Wendish towns, with Liibeck 
 at the head, including Hamburg, Bremen, Rostock, Kiel, Greifs- 
 wald, Stettin, Wisby in Gothland, &c. 2. The AVestcrlings, 
 embracing the principal towns of Plolland and Westphalia, under 
 Cologne as the principal city. 3. The Saxon circle, of which 
 Brunswick w^as the chief town, including Magdeburg, Halle, 
 Hanover, Erfurt, Brandenburg, Frankfort on the Oder, Breslau, 
 &c. 4. The Easterlings, embracing Thorn, Konigsberg, Riga, 
 &c., under Dantsic. 
 
 The Teutonic order was in close alliance with the league, and 
 sent its deputies to the assembly. These variously situated towiis 
 had, however, very different interests, which often clashed ; and 
 hence a want of union frequently prevailed, and deprived the 
 league of that strength which its extent seemed otherwise to 
 promise. 
 
 Out of its own circles the Hanseatic League possessed four 
 grand emporia, or commercial depots, each forming the market 
 of a large extent of country. The town of Novogrod in Russia 
 was the emporium for that country, as well as for Poland, Prussia, 
 
156 lUSTOliY OF GERMANY. Chap. XXIII. 
 
 Livonia, Asia IMiiior, and Persia. London was the market for 
 England, Scotland, and Ireland. Here the Hanse towns had a 
 factory in Thames Street, governed by a body of their merchants, 
 and enjoyed many exclusive privileges, which often excited the 
 jealousy and hatred of the Londoners, who in the reign of Henry 
 Vll. succeeded in getting their privileges curtailed, and soon 
 afterwards entirely abolished. Bergen was the emporium for 
 Denmark, Sweden, and Norw^ay ; and Bruges that for the Nether- 
 lands, Germany, and the South of Europe. In these foreign 
 factories the Hanse merchants lived in community, and were 
 bound like monks by a vow of celibacy, for fear that marriage 
 might connect them too closely to the country in which they 
 were settled, and cause them to forget the interests of their own. 
 The confederacy was broken up in 1630, when Liibeck, Hamburg, 
 and Bremen formed a new league. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 CONRAD IV. — WILLIAM OF HOLLA^^D. — RICHARD OF CORNWALL AND 
 ALFONSO OF CASTILLE. — THE INTERREGNUM. 
 
 From A.D. 1250 to 1273. 
 
 Frederick II. had settled by will that his son Conrad should 
 inherit the sovereignty of Germany and the imperial crown, and 
 that Manfred, the son of his last wife Bianca, should be viceroy 
 of Apulia. The rest of his possessions were divided among other 
 members of his family ; it being expressly stipulated that the 
 Pope should receive back all that had at any time been withdrawn 
 from the Holy See. By these concessions he hoped to appease 
 the anger which had burned so fiercely during his lifetime ; but 
 the Pope, far from being propitiated, no sooner received the intel- 
 ligence of Conrad's accession to the throne than he pronounced 
 his title null, and sent out mendicant monks to preach a crusade 
 against him as an unbeliever and a heathen. After sustaining a 
 defeat at Oppenheim, where William of Holland, the rival king, 
 fought against him in person, Conrad fell sick and died, not with- 
 out suspicion of having been poisoned by his enemies. He left 
 behind him one son, called by the Germans Conrad the younger, 
 and by the Italians Conradino. Meanw hile AVilliam of Holland 
 made little progress. So lightly indeed was he esteemed, that on 
 
,u. 125G. 
 
 CONRAD IV. 157 
 
 one occasion he was pelted with stones by the citizens of Utrecht, 
 and soon afterwards was in danger of being burned in his palace 
 by tlie Archbishop of Cologne. In the year 1256 lie perished in 
 a frozen morass, which he was attempting to cross on horseback 
 during an expedition against the people of Friesland. The con- 
 dition of Germany was now so degraded that the crown was 
 actually ofiered for sale to the highest bidder; and Richard of 
 Cornwall, brother of Henry III., King of England, purchased 
 the votes of the Arclibishop of Mentz and his adherents with a 
 large sum of money, of which the archbishop received 12,000 marks 
 and each of the other electors 8000. Thirty-two waggons, if ue 
 may believe the historians of that period, followed the candidate 
 into Germany, each drawn by eight horses, and laden v/ith a 
 hogshead of gold. These disgraceful transactions are bitterly 
 censured by Reinraar of Zweter, a German satirical poet. 
 
 Die Venediger hau vernommen, 
 Dasz das Romsche Reich fell sey. 
 Da sind sie mit Briefen kommen, 
 Sie wollen geni auch ihre Steuer geben, 
 Dasz es komme in ihre Gewalt. 
 
 Komm du selber, Antichrist, 
 
 Komm, es braucht weiter keiner Frist — 
 
 Du findest feile Fiirsten, feile Grafen, 
 
 Gibst du ihnen Silber uud Gold, so werden alle dein. 
 
 And when the men of Venice heard 
 The cro'svn was to be sold. 
 They sent right trusty messengers, 
 With bags well fill'd with gold. 
 
 Nay, had th' accursed Antichrist 
 His coffers open'd wide, 
 Full many a prince and counts enow 
 Had voted on his side. 
 
 On the Other hand the Archbishop of Treves and his faction 
 entered into negotiations with Alfonso of Castille, surnamed the 
 Wise, who offered 20.000 marks to each of the electors. Alfonso 
 and Richard were both elected at the same time ; the former in 
 the city of Frankfort, the latter outside the gates. The Pope had 
 always promised to settle the claims of these two candidates ; but 
 his decision was postponed from year to year, whilst Germany, 
 torn by factions, and without a recognized governor, seemed on 
 the eve of losing for ever tlie glorious name which she had enjoye<l 
 during so many centuries. 
 
158 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XXill. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 Conradin. — In the year 1258 the regent Manfred was crowned 
 King of Apulia, the nobles rightly judging that to allow Conradin, 
 a child of six years old, to continue on the tlu-one, would be an 
 abandonment of their resistance to the arrogant pretensions of 
 Rome. On the other hand, the Pope declared the throne of 
 Apulia vacant, and, after offering it to several foreign princes, at 
 length found one who was willing to accept it in the person of 
 Count Charles of Anjou, brother of Lewis IX. of France, gene- 
 rally known in history by the title of St. Lewis. TMs prince 
 was in every respect the opposite of his pious brother. Of un- 
 doubted courage and extraordinary talents, but ambitious, stern, 
 and cruel, his conduct never failed to justify the alarm which liis 
 dark scowling visage excited in the minds of those who beheld 
 him. His wife, the Countess of Provence, was, if possible, more 
 ambitious than himself. Once at a solemn festival, where her 
 sisters took precedence of her, she was so irritated that the Count 
 could only pacify her by promising that he would make her a 
 greater queen than either of them. He had long carried on secret 
 negotiations with the Pope, and at length concluded a treaty by 
 which it was agreed that he should be put in possession of the crown 
 of Apulia and Sicily, on condition of paying down immediately 
 50,000 marks of silver ; and 8000 ounces of gold yearly, besides 
 sending every three years a white palfrey to Rome, in token of 
 homage for his fief. 
 
 In 1266 the Count of Anjou encountered and utterly defeated 
 the army of Manfred, near Benevento. When all was lost, 
 Manfred rushed furiously into the midst of the enemy, and died, 
 bravely fighting to the last. Two days after this battle his 
 body was found amidst a heap of slain, and privately buried by 
 the high-minded chivalry of France; who paid to a brave war- 
 rior the honours refused to his memory by their leader, each 
 knight casting a stone on the humble grave of his enemy, and 
 thus raising a tumulus or barrow, which was called the *' Mount 
 of Roses." 
 
 In the year 1267 Conradin, having been invited by a deputa- 
 tion from the patriotic party in Apulia to resume the crown of 
 which he had been unjustly depriA'ed, entered Italy at the head of 
 10.000 men, and established his head quarters at Yerona, where 
 
Stp. Chap. XXIir. CONRADIX. 159 
 
 he remaiiieti three months, in order tliat liis friends, the Gliibel- 
 lines, niiglit liave time to collect their forces. His youth, the 
 surpassing beauty of his person, and his eloquence, won all 
 hearts ; the Italians, almost to a man, receiving him with accla- 
 mations, and joining his standard. Battle after battle was fought, 
 in all of which the French were beaten, and Conradin at length 
 entered Rome in triumph, and was conducted to the Capitol by 
 a troop of young maidens who strewed the way with flowers. 
 But the star of Hohenstaufen had reached its highest elevation, 
 and was soon to sink for ever. Near Sarcola, in Apulia, Con- 
 radin's army, after obtaining some advantage over the French, 
 dispersed in search of booty, and falling into an ambuscade was 
 utterly routed, 23rd August, 1268. Conradin and his faithful 
 friend, Frederick of Austria, escaped through the swiftness of 
 their horses, but were afterwards betrayed by Frangipani of 
 Astura, and delivered up to Charles. A commission, consisting 
 of the most renowned jurists, was immediately appointed to try 
 the unfortunate captives. The act of accusation stated that Con- 
 rad had '' taken up anns against Charles, the rightful king of 
 Apulia ; had vexed the church, and profaned and desolated 
 churches and convents." The commissioners, when called on to 
 deliver their sentence, maintained a gloomy silence: at length 
 Guido of Sucaria rose and addressed the court : " Conrad," said 
 this fearless judge, " came not as a robber or a rebel, but to re- 
 cover his hereditary kingdom : he was not taken prisoner in tlie 
 battle, but captured whilst attempting to fly ; and mercy to the 
 captive is enjoined by the laws both of God and man." All the 
 other judges expressed the same opinion, except Robert de Bari, 
 Charles's chancellor ; but the voice of this perjured wretch pre- 
 vailed against those of his colleagues, and sentence of death was 
 pronounced on Conradin and Frederick, and communicated to 
 them whilst they were playing at chess in their prison. On the 
 22nd October, 1268, two months after the battle of Sarcola, the 
 last of the Hohenstaufen was led out from his dungeon to a scaf- 
 fold erected close to the city of Naples, and facing the blue waters 
 of the Mediterranean, as if his enemy had desired to aggravate 
 the bitterness of death by settmg before the eyes of his victim all 
 the glories of that beautiful scene on which they were about to 
 close for ever. A deep sullen murmur ran through the crowd, 
 as their rightful prince ascended the scaff^old. Even the French 
 vvere moved by the spectacle ; and when Roljert of Bari advanced 
 
160 HISTORY OF CtFRMANY. Chap. XXIll. 
 
 to read the sentence, he was instantly felled to the ground by 
 Count Robert of Flanders, the usurper's son-in-law, and carried 
 senseless from the place of execution. Charles of Anjou, who 
 stood at one of the palace windows, observed with ill-concealed 
 rage and apprehension that this generous action was applauded 
 by the French : but no attempt was made to rescue the condemned ; 
 and the executioner completed his ghastly preparations without 
 further interruption except from the groans of the Neapolitans, 
 and here and there the muttered execration of a French soldier. 
 Conradin now addressed the crowd, who listened in breathless 
 silence to his last words : " I summon," he said, " my judges be- 
 fore the tribunal of the Most High. My innocent blood, shed on 
 this scaffold, will cry to Heaven for vengeance : nor do I liold my 
 Swabians and Bavarians, or my German people, so base and de- 
 generate but that they will wash out in French blood this insult 
 to their land." Having spoken thus he threw down his gauntlet, 
 which a German knight, Truchsesz of Waldburg, took up and 
 conveyed to Conradin's brother-in-law, Peter of Arragon. Con- 
 radin then took off his upper garment, embraced his friends, and 
 murmuring some words about his mother, which were not very 
 distinctly heard, laid his head on the block. As the blood spouted 
 up under the axe of the executioner, his fellow-sufferer, Frederick, 
 uttered a dismal shriek, and at the same moment, if we may be- 
 lieve tradition, an eagle descended, and having bathed its right 
 wing in the crimson pool, mounted again to the sky. Frederick 
 of Austria was then executed with several others. Thousands of 
 the speculators melted into tears at the sad spectacle, and gave vent 
 to their sorrow in low and dismal murmurs. But, though Charles 
 obtained Apulia, Sicily was snatched from him, and the murder 
 of Conradin was at length fearfully avenged. In the night of 
 the 30th March, 1282 (called the Sicilian Vespers), the Ghibel- 
 lines rose and put all the Frenchmen in the island to death. 
 Peter of Arragon was called to the throne in right of his 
 wife Constance, and, in spite of all the resistance of Charles of 
 Anjou, continued to retain possession of the island. In the year 
 1285, amidst all the horrors of a guilty conscience, the murderer 
 of the last Ilohenstaufen ended his miserable life. 
 
 Condition of Germany in the Thirtec7ith Century. — We have 
 now concluded another period in the history of Germany. From 
 tiie earliest times the monarchy had been elective, and the right 
 of election had resided in the people generally ; but the obvious 
 
Sup. Chap. XXIII. CONDITION OF GERMAN \^ 1(31 
 
 impossibility of so many hundreds of thousands assembling in one 
 place to give their votes, compelled the people to abandon their 
 "ight in favour of the richer and more powerful, who appeared 
 with their vassals at the place of election. For a considerable 
 time a few princes of the greatest power and authority had been 
 allowed to name the person whom they wished to be elected em- 
 peror ; and this nomination, which was called the right of prcB- 
 taxation, was confirmed or rejected by the people. In the period 
 we are considering this right of nomination passed into an absolute 
 right of election ; but at M'hat precise time this change took place 
 cannot be determined. It must, however, have been either in or 
 before the time of Frederick II., since the seven electors are men- 
 tioned by a writer of that reign. Three of these were spiritual 
 nobles, viz., the Archbishop of Mentz, arch-chancellor of the 
 Empire ; the Archbishop of Treves, chancellor of Burgundy ; 
 and the Archbishop of Cologne, chancellor of Italy— and four 
 temporal, viz., the Palatine of the Rhine, Grand-sewer of the em- 
 pire, who bore the orb in the coronation procession, and placed 
 the dishes on table at the banquet ; the King of Bohemia, chief 
 butler, who presented the cup; the Duke of Saxe- Wittenberg, 
 grand marshal, who bore the sword of state before the emperor, 
 and superintended the arrangement of the stables ; and the Mar- 
 grave of Brandenburg, grand chamberlain, who carried the 
 sceptre, superintended the household, and presented water to the 
 emperor at the conclusion of the banquet. In virtue of these 
 offices, the seven electoral princes, having chosen the emperor, 
 crowned him at Aix-la-Chapelle. But their delegated authority 
 extended no farther, for at the diets (the first of which was usually 
 held at Niirnberg) a crowd of nobles, bishops, abbots, knights, 
 and even citizens attended, and claimed the same right of voting 
 as electors of the empire. 
 
 From the time that the greater as well as smaller fiefs became 
 hereditary, surnames began to be added to the single Christian name 
 by which the nobles had hitherto been designated. These names 
 were for the most part derived from the fortresses or possessions 
 of their owners : thus one who had before been distinguished only 
 by the title of Count Frederick or Count Henrj-, would assume 
 the appellation of Frederick of Schonberg, or Henry of Ehrenburg, 
 which was handed down from father to son. As all who had any 
 pretensions to gentle birth were desirous of serving on horseback 
 ui the wars, degrees of chivalry were instituted, by which the 
 
162 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XXIIi. 
 
 aspirant ascended to the rank of knigiit. The noble youth began 
 his career as page, then he became esquire {ecuyer, or shield- 
 bearer) : and lastly, after having given proofs of his bravery and 
 prowess in the field, received the golden spurs of knighthood, and 
 swore to defend the right, and to protect religion, innocence, the 
 widow, and the orplian. If he broke this vow, his spurs were hewn 
 from his heels, his horse's tail cut off, and his shield, after having 
 had its bearings erased, was dragged through the mud at the tail 
 of a sorry hack. With much that was noble, and great, and vir- 
 tuous, chivalry introduced fearful evils. Many a knight, forgetful 
 of his vow to protect the weak, sallied forth from his mountain 
 fortress on the defenceless traveller, robbed him of his property, 
 and returning to his stronghold, laughed to scorn the feeble 
 powers of the law. The only protection against these acts ot 
 violence was to be sought in the arm of some more powerful noble, 
 or in confederacies of several cities. Hence arose the Faust-recht 
 {fist-right^ or right of the strong-hand, which supplied in a very 
 imperfect degree the want of well-administered laws, and a vigo- 
 rous police. 
 
 " In the houses of the nobles," says an old annalist, "' you may 
 see store of silver and gold ; but the most prominent articles of fur- 
 niture are swords, and coats of mail, and battlemaces, which they 
 love to display, as badges of their dignity, and tokens of their 
 noble descent. Nor is the common man without a supply of good 
 serviceable weapons, which he is ready to snatch from the wall at 
 the first alarm of danger." So universal indeed was the necessity 
 of self-defence, as well as the taste for military glory, that even 
 the clergy frequently bore arms. Christian, Archbishop of 
 Mentz, who commanded the armies of Frederick I. in Italy, was 
 no less celebrated as a warrior than as a statesman. He spoke 
 six languages, — German, Latin, the dialects of Brabant and Lom- 
 bardy, Greek, and French. In the field he appeared mounted on 
 a battle horse, which he managed with knightly skill and grace, 
 his violet-coloured robe thrown over a coat of mail, a gilded hel- 
 met on his head, and a mace in his right hand ; and so eflfectually 
 did he handle his weapon, that in various engagements he is said 
 to have struck down nine enemies with his own hand. Instruction 
 in the art of war seems in fact to have been the only education 
 bestowed on the youthful Germans. " Their boys," says an an- 
 cient writer, " learn to ride before they can speak ; and let the 
 iiorses leap and plunge as they may, my young gentlemen sit on 
 
StJP. Chap. XXIII. LITERATURE. 163 
 
 iheir backs as firm as rocks. I think the bearing of weapons 
 conies as naturally to the Germans as the use of their own limbs ; 
 for it is astonishing-, and well nigh incretlible, how skilful they are 
 in the management of horses, as well as in the use of bow, lance, 
 sword, and shield." 
 
 Literature. — The sciences were almost exclusively in the hands 
 of tlie clergy, until the first German university was founded in 
 1349. Since the days of Charlemagne no emperor had done so 
 nmch for the advancement of learning as Frederick II. ; but in 
 the turbulent days of the interregnum all was again darkness. 
 Poetry could not but flourish among a people full of imagination 
 and enthusiasm, at a period when the crusades, the exploits of 
 knights, the gorgeous ceremonies of the church, all furnished 
 ample matter for the exercise of the minstrers art. 
 
 From the earliest times two leading dialects had prevailed in 
 Germany ; the Swabian, or High-German, and the Saxon, or 
 Low-German. It was in the former dialect, and consequently in 
 tlie southern parts of Germany, that the " Kitter-poesie " or chival- 
 rous poetry appeared. It flourished from the 12th to the begmning 
 of the 14th century, and is therefore bounded by the dynasty of 
 the Ilohenstaufens. All the princes of that house were them- 
 selves poets, not only in the Sw^abian, but also in the Italian dia- 
 lect, and their court formed the assembly and the school of poets. 
 The Minne-lieder ^ or songs of love, were indeed much older tlian 
 this period, but they were first brought to perfection hi it. This 
 species of poetry no doubt received an impulse from the Trouba- 
 dours and Trouveres of France ; but in Germany it assumed its 
 own peculiar tone from the deeper and more earnest feeling of the 
 people. Among the most renowned of tlie Minnes'anger were 
 Hartmann von der Aue, Wolfram von Eschenbach, Walter von 
 der Vogelweide, Heinrich Frauenlob, and others. The last, a 
 canon of Mentz, who, as his name imports, excelled in praising 
 the ladies, was carried to his grave by the most beautiful women 
 of Mentz, w Jio saturated the sod with libations of wine, not un- 
 mingled with tlieir tears. The Wartburg, the castle of the 
 counts of I'huringia, afterwards celebrated as Luther's place of 
 confinement, was much frequented by the Minnesingers; and here 
 Count Hermann of Thuringia held a kind of poetical tourney or 
 contest, which was attended by the most famous poets in GeiTnany. 
 
 The greatest literary monuments of this period are, however, 
 the " Niebelungenlied " and the " Ileldenbuch," or " Look of 
 
164 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XXII I. 
 
 Heroes." The former of these works is a kind of German lliaa, 
 which, though the action is laid in the time of Attila, contams a 
 series of German legends from the age of heathenism to that of 
 the Hohenstaufen dynasty. They were strung together by some 
 unknown poet towards the end of the twelfth century. 
 
 The Arts. — In painting, Henry of Bavaria was distinguished 
 m the twelfth century, and Jacob Kern, of Niirnberg, in the 
 thirteenth. The art of painting on glass was not introduced 
 until the fourteenth. The Netherlands, and the city of Cologne, 
 the latter especially, were the chief schools of painting. In 
 architecture an extraordinary revolution took place at the begin- 
 ning of the eleventh century. At the first establishment of 
 Christianity in Germany, the missionaries of Byzantium and 
 Rome would naturally build their churches after the ecclesiastical 
 models of their native countries : a taste which continued to be 
 fostered by the close connection of the Othos with the Byzantine 
 court ; but under the Hohenstaufens, or a little before the acces- 
 sion of that line, a new style was introduced, which emulated the 
 light and elegant architecture of the Saracens, and was called the 
 Gothic, probably because it was derived from the Gothic Chris- 
 tians of Spain, whose daily intercourse with the Arabians led 
 them to adopt many of their customs. The peculiarities which 
 distinguish this style seem to be the result of a deeply devotional, 
 but somewhat fantastic, spirit, which impelled the architects of 
 those days to embody in stone their glowing conceptions of reli- 
 gious mysteries. Thus, the building must be lofty, because it is 
 the temple of the Most High. All its parts must be perpendi- 
 cular, springing like plants out of the ground, without any indica- 
 tion of the labour employed on them, and the whole must be 
 terminated by a lofty and pointed spire — because faith, which 
 springs up by God's free grace in the soul, continues to ascend 
 until it gazes steadfastly into heaven. The ground plan must be 
 in the form of a cross, because the cross is the groundwork of the 
 Christian faith ; the altar placed at the east end, because the 
 Saviour will come from the east at the last day — and raised three 
 steps above the body of the church as a symbol of the blessed 
 Trinity. The same intention was carried out in the minor details 
 of the church ; as for instance, in the rose and cross ; the former 
 indicating the world, or human life — the latter, faith. Thus, the 
 cross in the centre of a rose was the universal symbol of the God- 
 head in the middle ages. Until the thirteenth century each con- 
 
Sup. Chap. XXIII. THE ARTS. 1G5 
 
 vent had its own masons, sculptors, architects, and painters ; but 
 at tliat period there arose a guild, whose members enjoyed the 
 exclusive privilege of building churches on account of their 
 exquisite architectural skill. These men, who were bound to- 
 gether by oatlis and signs, known only to the initiated, were called 
 " Free Masons," and their art the " Royal Craft." The minster 
 of Strasburg was begun in 1015, the foundation of its famous 
 tower laid in 1276, and completed by John Hiilz, of Cologne, in 
 1439. Architects have here displayed their satirical wit in a 
 variety of forms. In one groupe a bear holds the vessel of holy 
 water and sprinkling brush, a wolf the cross, a hare the taper, a 
 hog and ram a box of reliques, in which lies a sleeping fox, whilst 
 a donkey reads the mass resting his book on the back of a cat. 
 The cathedral of Cologne was begun in 1248, and the choir 
 finished in 1320. A wild legend, in which the devil is repre- 
 sented as giving the plan of the minster to an architect in 
 exchange for his soul, accounts for the incompleteness of the work 
 in the following manner: — The parties had met, according to 
 appointment, at midnight in a lone spot, without the city walls. 
 The architect (as he had been instructed by a priest) stretched 
 forth his left hand and seized the parchment on which the plan 
 was drawn, whilst with his right he held before the eyes of the 
 tempter a reliquary containing a portion of the bones of the eleven 
 thousand martyred virgins. The baffled fiend, uttering a loud 
 cry, strove to repossess himself of his drawing ; but the architect 
 held it firmly, shielding himself with his reliquary, and the parch- 
 ment being torn in the struggle, a small portion of the working 
 plan was for ever lost. 
 
166 
 
 HISTORY OF GERMA^^Y. 
 
 Chap. XXIY. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 RUDOLPH OF HAP.SBURG. 
 
 From A.D. 1273 to 1291. 
 
 / '^ :^ 
 
 J 
 
 
 Castle 01 Hubsburg, Switzerland. 
 
 Had a foreign army iuvaded Germany during the interregnum 
 which succeeded the Death of Frederick II., the empire must have 
 fallen almost without a struggle, since few of the nobles would 
 have been inclined to imite for its j)rotection. The electors, 
 therefore, when Eichard of Cornwall died, agreed to set aside the 
 claims of his rival Alfonso, and forgetting their party feuds for a 
 season, to elect one who should be something more than the 
 shadow of a sovereign. With this view they consulted the Pope, 
 who, since the death of Frederick, had exercised almost unlimited 
 control over the affaii-s of the empire. To find a suitable can- 
 didate was by no means easy. It was necessary that the future 
 Emperor should be a warrior of some reputation, that he might 
 be able to resist the encroachments of Ottocar, the powerful King 
 of Bohemia ; he must be, to a certain extent, a favourite of the 
 
A.D. 1278. RUDOLPH OF IIAPSBURG, 167 
 
 poople, but at the same time a zealous promoter of aristocratic 
 interests, and blindly devoted to tlie papal see : one, in sliort, wlio 
 would use his imperial power only in the manner which the nobles 
 and Tope might prescribe. After considerable delay an indivi- 
 dual was found, who more than any other seemed to possess the 
 requisite qualifications. Count Rudolph of Habsburg had fought 
 under Ottocar in Hungary, and received knighthood from his 
 sword ; subsequently, he had served the nobles against Strasburg 
 and Basle, then the citizens of Strasburg against their Bishop, and 
 latterly had been carrying on a petty war on his own account 
 against the Abbot of St. Gall. In all these affairs, whether 
 fighting for the interest of others or for his own, he had been dis- 
 tinguished as a brave and successful warrior. Two passages of 
 his life are mentioned, which had conciliated for him the favour 
 of the clergy. He was one day following the chace, when he saw 
 a priest preparing to ford a small river which had been swollen 
 by the sudden descent of a mountain torrent. Accosting him 
 with many expressions of kindness, Rudolph offered him )iis own 
 charger for the purpose of crossing the stream. The priest, who 
 was carrying the sacrament to a dying man, gladly accepted this 
 offer, and having visited his penitent, led the horse back to its 
 owner. " Now, God forbid," said the count, " that I should 
 ever again mount the beast which hath borne Him from whom I 
 hold body and life, honour and estate." The other adventure 
 was with the Archbishop of Mentz, whom he escorted, not with- 
 out considerable personal risk and inconvenience, across the Alps 
 to the frontier of Italy. On the 21st October, 1273, Rudolph of 
 Habsburg was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle, in presence, we are 
 told, of twenty thousand knights and an immense concourse of 
 people. During the troublous times which followed the death of 
 Frederick II., the insignia of the empire had been removed, none 
 knew whither ; but Rudolph turned this losr, to account, by taking 
 the crucifix from the high altar and administering on it the oath 
 which had been usually sworn on the imperial sceptre : " The 
 symbol of our redemption," he said, "might well supply its 
 place." The sanction of tlie holy see to his election was easily 
 obtained, tlie Archbishop of Cologne having already recom- 
 mended him to Gregory X. as a " sound Christian, a true friend 
 of the church, a lover of righteousness, mighty in his own strength, 
 and allied with the mighty." Gregory came in person to meet 
 him at Lausanne, and there, knedi ng at the Pope's feet, Riidolph 
 
168 HISTORY OF GERMANY. CllAP. XXIV. 
 
 s^yo^e unconditional obedience to the see of Rome. In after life 
 he sought to justify this act of self-abasement. " I saw the marks 
 of many footsteps going into the lion's den ; but none returning 
 thence : therefore did I hold it for the truest wisdom to serve the 
 lion of the church rather than to fight v/ith him." One of the 
 conditions imposed on Rudolph at his election was, that he should 
 humble the pride of Ottocar, of Bohemia. Accordingly, he took 
 the field in 1276, and Ottocar, conscious of a bad cause, yielded 
 without striking a blow ; surrendering Austria, Styria, Carinthia, 
 and Carniola to the empire, and retaining Bohemia and Moravia 
 to be held as fiefs, for which he was to do homage. For this 
 purpose he appeared in great pomp on the island of Lobau. in the 
 Danube, where Rudolph, dressed in an old grey doublet and hose, 
 received him under a tent, which he caused to be withdrawn, 
 whilst Ottocar was in the act of kneeling before him.* Stung by 
 this insult, and the persevering reproaches of his wife, Ottocar 
 again rose against the Emperor ; and meeting him in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Vienna, was slain, after fighting bravely against 
 overwhelming numbers, by the two sons of a Bohemian noble, 
 whom he had cruelly put to death many years before. The 
 enemies of the empire being thus humbled, Rudolph next directed 
 his attention to the establishment of internal tranquillity; and 
 with this view travelled into every part of Germany, listening to 
 complaints and redressing grievances. It contributed not a little 
 to his popularity, that instead of Latin (the language hitherto 
 employed in judicial proceedings) he invariably delivered his 
 decrees in German. During these progresses the countiy was 
 gradually cleared of the robber nobles, sixty-six of their castles 
 being demolished in Thuringia alone, and twenty-nine of the 
 most notorious freebooters hanged in chains at Erfurt. Rudolph 
 died on the loth of July, 1291. His death was universally 
 lamented by the people of Germany, who still listen with delight 
 to tales of his prowess, and the impartial justice with which he 
 vindicated the rights of the oppressed. In the words of an old 
 chronicler of that day, " He was the best warrior of his time : he 
 was the truest man that ever judge's oflSce wan." t 
 
 * This incident, however, is qixestioued by modern critics. 
 f Er war der best Urlugsman siner Zyt j er war der tiirest Mann, der 
 Ricliters Amt je gewann. 
 
Sup. Chap. XXIV. THE GERMAN N015LES. 109 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 The German Nobles. — The proud and ancient families ^^ ho liatl 
 oreserved their allodial estates would acknowledge no lord but 
 the Emperor, and were the sworn enemies of the princes of the 
 empire, the bishops, and the cities. The more powerful of them 
 enuilated the princes, and availed themselves of the disorders of 
 the times to extend their power. It was thus that noble families 
 arose which at first possessed nothing but a small castle, as those 
 of Habsburg, Luxemburg, Wiirtemberg, Hohenzollern, Nassau, 
 and others. The weaker of them were either overthrown and 
 compelled by the more powerful to do feudal service, or else 
 maintained themselves by imitating the confederated cities, and 
 forming brotherhoods. The way of life of these bold cavaliers 
 was romantic enough. If the labour of their serfs did not suffice 
 to maintain them and their armed followers, they attacked the 
 wealthy convents, or the goods of the merchants wliilst on their 
 passage from town to town. The cities, and sometimes even the 
 Emperor himself, were obliged to take the field against them. 
 On these occasions their castles were destroyed, and they them- 
 selves, when they could be caught, were hanged up in their armour 
 and spurs to the next tree. 
 
 Several poor knights dwelling in the same neighbourhood fre- 
 quently built a castle at their joint expense, and left it in common 
 to their children. Such were called " Gauerben." In Suabia 
 five knightly families once lived together in one of these castles, 
 and had amongst them 100 children. The bold spirit of these 
 castled lords remained unbroken even down to the time of the 
 Reformation, as we see from the history of the Sickingens and 
 Grumbachs. In the songs of the Minnesanger the bitter 
 complaints of these knights are often recorded, who, though 
 equal to the princes in birth, were so far below them in power. 
 The four castles, or rather robbers' nests, of the celebrated Land- 
 schaden von Neckar-Steinach are still to be seen on the banks of 
 the Xeckar. Having been placed under the ban of the empire, 
 Landschaden clothed himself in black armour, and keeping his 
 visor always down, joined the crusaders and distinguished himself 
 by his extraordinary valour. For these deeds the Emperor, sur- 
 rounded by his kniglits, wished to reward him ; his visor was 
 drawn up and discovered the well-known face of the old ml her. 
 
 G V. L 
 
170 HISTOKY OF GERMANY. Chap. XXIV 
 
 It IS told 111 ancient chronicles thai a whole band of these knig-hts, 
 led by the lords of Bibra, Ebersberg, Thiingen, and Steinau, 
 concealed themselves in wine-casks and caused themselves to be 
 conveyed into the little town of Briickenau, for the purpose of 
 plundering it ; but as they were too long in packing up their 
 booty, they were surprised by the citizens and driven out of the 
 t()v\Ti. The Baron Von Kreukingen received the Emperor Bar- 
 barossa at his estate of Tengen near Constance without rising 
 from his seat ; not that he wished to show any personal disrespect 
 to his sovereign, but because, as he asserted, he held his estate in 
 fief from nobody but the sun. Every traveller on the Rhine will 
 have observed the numerous ruined castles which crown its banks 
 between Bingen and Bonn, once the strongholds of those lawless 
 barons, and the terror of the surrounding country. 
 
 Others of the nobles joined the different orders of knights, who, 
 when tlius associated, were able to maintain their independence, 
 and possessed a power equal to that of the princes. The first of 
 these were the Knights of St. John ; but the Teutonic order was 
 more peculiarly German. As, however, it emigrated into Prussia 
 it became estranged from the affairs of the empire, though its 
 ranks were continually recruited from the German nobility. 
 
 A third class of the nobles held their lands in fief under the 
 princes and more powerful nobility and clergy, and generally 
 took service in the different courts. Many of these fiefs were in- 
 separably connected with offices at court. The baron who was 
 unable to maintain himself in his mountain fortress, or unwilling' 
 to enter some spiritual order, had indeed no other method of grati- 
 fying his ambition and his love of show and adventure but by 
 attaching himself to the court of a prince. 
 
A.D. 1291. 
 
 ADOLniUS OF NASSAU. 
 
 171 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 ADOLPIIUS OF NASSAU — ALBERT OF AUSTRIA, 
 From A.D. 1291 to 1308. 
 
 Kaufhaus of Mentz, pulled down at the beginning of the present century. 
 
 The Emperor's eldest sou, Rudolph of Suabia, died early, leaving 
 a son named John, whose claim to the crown was set aside with- 
 out discussion. The standard of morality v.as still so low among 
 the electors that Gerard, Ai'chbishop of Mentz, whose character 
 is pronounced by a German historian to have been so " utterly 
 corrupt and wicked that the devil might have envied him," did 
 not scruple to offer to each of them a large siun of money, in 
 order to secure the nomination of his cousin, Adolphus of Nassau, 
 whom he had selected as a manageable instrument for carrying 
 out his own ambitious schemes. As a warrior the new sovereign 
 was by no means inferior to his contemporaries ; but his character 
 was ferocious, even beyond the wont of those barbarous times, 
 and unlimited indulgence in the pleasures of the table had ren- 
 dered his body bloated and imwieldly. In order to increase the 
 hereditary possessions of his house he piu'chased Meissen and 
 Tliiu:ingia from Albert the Degenerate, with a large simi of 
 
 L 2 
 
172 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XX \^. 
 
 money given to him by Echvard I. of England, on condition of 
 his invading France, a promise which he did not scruple to violate 
 as soon as the gold was safe in his coffers. This Albert had 
 married Margaret, a daughter of Frederick IL, whom he perse- 
 cuted with the most unrelenting hatred. Being compelled to 
 separate from her children, the mother bit the eldest, Frederick, 
 severely in the cheek, that the scar might always remind him of 
 the debt of vengeance which he owed to his unnatural father. 
 Soon afterwards she died at Frankfort, and the sons escaped from 
 their persecutor ; but after a short time they were retaken, and 
 would have perished in prison had not the compassionate servants 
 brought them bread, and at last supplied them with the means of 
 escape. The brave young men were no sooner free than they 
 took up arms against the King of Germany and their father, and 
 were universally supported by the people, who groaned under the 
 iron yoke of Adolphus, whose troops were continually perpetrating 
 the most wanton outrages. On one occasion they daubed two 
 women all over with pitch, then feathered them, and exhibited 
 them in the camp as a couple of uncommon birds. The Count of 
 Hohenstein, who complained to Adolphus of this outrage, was 
 rudely driven from his presence. At JMiihlhausen, where they 
 had been kindly received, the soldiers committed such excesses 
 that the citizens rose in a body and drove them out of the town ; 
 and at Freiburg, which Adolphus besieged a whole year, a great 
 namoer ol nis soldiers having perished through a sudden sinking 
 of the ground, the people compared the calamity to the judgment 
 that fell on Korah and his company, who were swallowed up 
 quick on account of their enormous wickedness. After a long 
 resistance the tv.o Thuringian brothers were obliged to fly from 
 the country ; but the triumph of the king was short-lived. His 
 fonner patron. Archbishop Gerard, finding him by no means so 
 tractable a puppet as he had expected, a second time had recourse 
 to bribery, and persuaded the electors assembled in diet at Mentz 
 to declare the throne vacant, and elect Albert Duke of Austria. 
 This prince had already strengthened himself by an alliance with 
 the King of Hungary, and recruited his coffers by receiving a 
 large sum from France on condition of his making war on England 
 and the King of Germany. Assembling a large army, he met 
 Adolphus near Worms, and by a counterfeit flight induced him 
 and his cavalry to follow, imtil they were a considerable distance 
 in advance of the infantry, when Albert's forces rallied, and aim- 
 
A.I). 1298. ALBERT OF AUSTRIA. ITlj 
 
 lag chiefly at tlie norses, brought the knights to the grouiul, wliere 
 they lay lieli)le.ssly in tlieir heavy armour, and were easily de- 
 spatched. Adolphus, wounded, and without his helmet, fought 
 with the most desperate courage, seeking his enemy in every part 
 of the field. But Albert, like Richmond in the battle of Bosworth, 
 liad dressed a number of men in armour similar to his own ; so 
 liiat, although many of Ids counterfeits were slain, the real general 
 escaped unwounded ; and Adol})hus later in the day fell by his 
 hand, or by the sword of one of his officers. The new sovereign 
 was a man of cold, heartless temper, and singularly ill-favoured 
 physiognomy. He had once been poisoned, and the physicians 
 could devise no better mode of cure than hanging him up by the 
 heels and plucking out one of his eyes, in order that the poison 
 might escape through it. This loss gave his face, in addition to 
 Its natural ugbness, a mean and sinister expression. 
 
 As the great object of Albert was to govern absolutely, in 
 imitation of the King of France, one of the first measures of his 
 reign was to depress the bishops and free cities by the withdrawal 
 of their ancient privileges, and to render as many of the nobles 
 as possible dependent on the crown, by compelling a hundred 
 knights to reside constantly at his court, where they were required 
 to act as a bodj-guard. An attempt to possess himself of Holland 
 failed through the interference of the French king ; nor was he 
 more successful in the plans which he had formed to make himself 
 master of Burgundy and Bohemia. On the other hand he sought 
 and obtained support from the burghers of the Rhenish and 
 Suabian cities against Archbishop Gerard of JMentz, and tlie 
 Count Palatine Rudolph, who had almost annihilated the com- 
 merce of their subjects by the imposition of heavy tolls on all 
 articles of merchandise conveyed along the Rhine ; an act whicn 
 is designated by an English chronicler as "mira Germanorum in- 
 sania," the unaccountable folly of the Germans. The Archbishop 
 it appears had offended his haughty master by telling him tliat he 
 could at any timci by one blast of his liorn call up a new Emperor. 
 Gerard appealed to the Pope, but could obtain no redress. Mean- 
 while the Thuringian prince Frederick " with the bitten cheek,'* 
 whose gigantic suit of armour is still exhibited in the Wartburg, 
 had returned from exile, and falling in love with his beautiful 
 step-sister Elizabeth, bore her off to that fortress. But the armies 
 of Albert had overrun Thuringia, and he was compelled to aban- 
 don this place of refuge, bearing with him his newlv-born child. 
 
 ' J. 3 
 
1 74 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XXV. 
 
 Hearing it cry, he ordered the troops to halt, and hard pressed as 
 he was, kept the enemy at bay until the nurse had pacified his 
 infant. After twice defeating the imperial forces, he obtained 
 undisturbed possession of liis hereditary dominions in the year 1307. 
 During these feuds the three Swiss cantons of Uri, Schwyz, and 
 Unt'erwalden, having thrown off their allegiance to the Dukes of 
 Austria, and declared themselves an independent state, Albert 
 swore bloody vengeance for the insult offered to his authority. 
 But before he could follow up this intention an event occurred 
 which put an end to all his projects. John of Bohemia, the son 
 of his deceased brother Rudolph, had often implored his uncle to 
 restore the hereditary possessions of which the younger branch of 
 the family had been unjustly deprived; but his remonstrances 
 were generally answered by the most galling sarcasms, and on 
 one occasion Albert placed a garland of flowers on the young 
 man's head, telling him that such a crown was best suited to his 
 tender years. The youth, hitherto patient and gentle, became 
 irritable and morose after receiving this insult, and did not hesitate 
 to communicate his angry feelings to some of the discontented 
 nobles, M'hom, in accordance with the policy already mentioned, 
 Albert compelled to reside at his court. Five of these persons 
 swore that they would never rest until they were revenged on the 
 tyrant, and had restored John as well as themselves to the rights 
 which were unjustly withheld from them. An occasion soon pre- 
 sented itself. On the first day of May, 1308, Albert rode with a 
 few attendants towards Rheinfelden, not far from Habsburg ; the 
 ferry which the travellers were to cross was already in sight, and the 
 Emperor paused to admire the beautiful scene before him ere he de- 
 scended into the valley of the Reuss. Even the swelling heart of 
 John seemed to have been soothed, and his plan of revenge for a 
 moment abandoned ; when the Emperor, as if urged on by an evil 
 spirit to his destruction, repeated the insult which had already cost 
 his nephew so many tears. They had now reached the ferry, where 
 a small boat waited to convey them across the river at two trips. 
 John and his fellow^ conspirators rushing forward succeeded in 
 getting into the boat with the Emperor and one solitary attendant. 
 Having crossed the ferry they re-mounted, and proceeded at a 
 brisk pace until they reached a sort of dingle, the thick bushes 
 of which screened them from the eyes of their companions, who 
 w^ere waiting on the other side foi the return of the boat. Tiie 
 opportunity was too favourable to be lost ; John seized his uncle's 
 
Sup. Chap. XXV. THE SWISS CONFEDERACY. 175 
 
 bridle-rein, and shouted in a voice wliich trembled with passion, 
 " Let us now see whether the possessions of my father will be 
 restored to me." The Emperor started, but immediately recover- 
 ing his presence of mind, tried to soothe his nephew by fair pro- 
 mises ; but the conspirators had gone too far to recede. " How 
 lon<>- will ye suffer this carrion to sit on horseback ? " shouted 
 Hudoph of Wart, and followed up the words by rushing on the 
 Emperor and stabbing him with his dagger, whilst at the same 
 moment another of the conspirators clove his skull with the blow 
 of a sword. Albert sank to the ground, where he lay biting the 
 dust in agony, and rolling over and over in the blood which 
 streamed from his wounds. A poor woman of the most degraded 
 class, who happened to be passing that way, laid the head of the 
 wounded man in her lap, and tried to staunch the blood ; but the 
 assassins had done their work so surely that in a few moments the 
 struggles of the Emperor were over. The vengeance of God 
 pursued the murderers. John fled into Italy ; but his remorse 
 was so great that he threw himself at the feet of the Pope, who 
 sentenced him, at the request of the Emperor, Henry VII., to 
 perpetual seclusion in an Augustine convent at Pisa. Wart was 
 sentenced to be broken on the wheel. At first he denied his 
 guilt, but being confronted with the attendant who had vritnessed 
 the murder, he attempted no further defence. His crushed and 
 mangled limbs were transferred to another wheel, which was set 
 up on a pole by the way-side, where he was left to die a lingering 
 death ; but his sufferings were in some degree alleviated by the 
 affectionate care of his wife, who sat day and night beneath the 
 wheel moistening his parched and swollen tongue with a sponge 
 clipped in water. After his death she retired into a convent at 
 liasle, where she passed the rest of her life in prayer and peni- 
 tence. 
 
 SUPPLEMEXT TO CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 The Swiss Confederacy.— William 2e//.— Switzerland at the 
 beginning of the fourteenth century consisted of several small 
 provinces or cantons, some of them hereditary pos.sessions of the 
 House of Habsburg, others dependencies of the empire. Amon^ 
 the latter were the three forest cantons of Uri, Schwyz, an(/ 
 Unterwalden, which Albert wislied to annex to tiie dukedom of 
 Austria. His attem})ts, however, were vehemently resisted by 
 
176 HISTOKF OF GERMANY. Chap. XXV. 
 
 the sturdy Swisj--, who were at length driven to open rebellion by 
 a series of insults offered to them by Gessler, the Austrian 
 bailiff of Uri. This Gessler (says an old Swiss chronicler), who 
 was bailiff of Uri and Schwyz, had built a fortress in Uri for the 
 purpose of overawing- the inhabitants of that canton, and had 
 given it -the offensive title of Zwing-Uri {Force- Uri), which 
 exasperated the people to such a degree, that insurrections broke 
 out in different parts of the country. Indignant at these symptoms 
 of insubordination, Gessler resolved to offer them a yet more 
 atrocious affront. On St. James's day in the year 1307, some of 
 the inhabitants of Altorf, who were early abroad, discovered in 
 the market-place of their town a hat conspicuously displayed on 
 a lofty pole. Whilst they were debating among themselves what 
 this strange apparition could mean, a herald advanced into the 
 midst of them, and proclaimed with a loud voice, that all and 
 each of the inhabitants of Uri and of Schwyz w^ere required and 
 commanded to pay to the said hat the same honour, respect, and 
 reverence, as they would pay to the Emperor's Majesty being per- 
 sonally present, and this under pain of forfeiting goods and gear, 
 and of punishment in life and limb. About the same time Gessler 
 nappened to be riding through the country, and seeing a newly- 
 built house, enquired of its proprietor, one Werner of Stauffach, 
 to whom it belonged ? The Swiss, suspecting from his manner 
 that all was not well, answered evasively, " It belongs to my 
 lord the Emperor, and to your honour ; and is my fief." " I 
 will not that peasants build houses without my permission," was 
 the stern reply ; " nor that they should live independently as if 
 they were lords." Werner, a shrewd, cautious man, communi- 
 cated these expressions to his wife, who advised him at once to 
 take counsel wdth the other malcontents, and endeavour to devise 
 some plan for liberating their country from the slavery under 
 which it groaned. Full of these thoughts, Werner consulted 
 with Walter Fiirst, a man of reputation and influence in Uri, 
 who introduced him to his friend Arnold of Melcthal : and the 
 three made a solemn compact that they ^\'ould endeavour to raise 
 a force sufficient to drive the tyrannical Austrian from the land. 
 Their place of meeting was on the Rlltli, a small meadow on the 
 banks of the lake of Lucerne, where they swore to observe the 
 conditions of tliis covenant. 
 
 There was an honest, courageous peasant in Uri, who was also 
 a party to the convention. This man, William Tell by name, 
 
Sui>. CiiAl'. XXV. WILLIAM TELL. 177 
 
 proceeded on the IStli of November to Altorf, and several times 
 ])assed before tlie hat without making the required obeisance. 
 This was soon reported to Gessler, who sent for the recusant, and 
 demanded why he had disobeyed the proclamation. " i\[y lord," 
 said Tell, " what I have done Jias been done in ig-norance. Tar- 
 don me, I pray thee. Had I more wit, I should not be called 
 Toll."* IJeing celebrated for his skill in shooting with the cross- 
 bow, Tell was commanded by the governor, as a punishment for 
 his insubordination, to shoot an apple from the head of his own 
 son, who was placed at a considerable distance. The Swiss 
 declared that he would rather die. " Die then, thou shalt," 
 exclaimed the tyrant, " both thou and thy child, if thou refusest 
 to obey me." Tell, seeing that there was no May of escape, pre- 
 l)ared his bo\»' : the child, who was only six years of age, himself 
 held the apple on his head ; the bolt whizzed through the air and 
 split the apple without injuring the boy. Shouts of applause 
 burst from the crowd at this display of skill, and even Gessler 
 himself praised Tell's dexterity. " But tell me," he added, " why 
 tiiou hast yet another bolt in thy belt." Tell would have ex- 
 cused himself by saying that it was the ordinary custom of 
 archers ; but Gessler, seeing him confused, pressed him to dis- 
 close the real reason, promising that whatever he might say, his 
 life should be safe. " Well then," replied William Tell, " I will 
 speak the truth — If I had slain my son, the second arrow^ should 
 have pierced thy heart." " I promised thee thy life," replied 
 Gessler, " but since thou art thus evil disposed towards me, I 
 will send thee to a place where thou shalt never see sun or moon 
 more." He then commanded Tell to be bound and thrown into a 
 boat, which was to convey him to the castle of Kiissnacht, Gessler 
 himself accompanying his prisoner. As the boat proceeded on 
 her course, one of those tremendous squalls, to which the Swiss 
 lakes are liable, suddenly arose and rendered the little vessel 
 unmanageable. At this crisis one of the attendants, remember- 
 ing that Tell was an experienced boatman, implored Gessler to 
 give him the helm. This request being granted. Tell seized the 
 tiller and steered the boat in safety towards the shore ; but as it 
 neared a flat rock (which now bears the name of " Tell's Flat"), 
 tlie prisoner suddenly snatched his cross-bow, and leaping ashore 
 pushed back the boat with his foot, leaving Gessler and liis 
 
 * lu the S\viss dialect ''tell" has the same signification as "toll," mad. 
 
178 HISTORY OF GERMANY. CiiAP. XXV. 
 
 attendants to extricate themselves from the clanger as best thej^ 
 might. He himself ran to the high road which leads from Art 
 to Kiissnacht, and concealed himself in a hollow among the trees. 
 Gessler, having landed with difficulty at Brunnen, proceeded in 
 search of Tell, who, watching his opportunity, took a steady aim 
 at the tyrant from his place of concealment and sent an arrow 
 through his heart. On receiving intelligence of their oppressor's 
 death, the Swiss immediately resolved to make themselves masters 
 of the strong fortresses of Sarnen and Rotzberg. 
 
 Among the confederates was a young man wlio liad long been 
 on terms of intimacy with a female servant in the castle of Rotz- 
 berg. At midnight a rope was lowered from tliis maiden's 
 window for the purpose of admitting her lover ; but great was 
 her surprise and horror wlien not one, but twenty Swiss, sprang 
 into her chamber ; and with little noise and no bloodshed, made 
 themselves masters of the castle. 
 
 On the folloAving morning (January 1st, 1308), twenty Swiss, 
 each with a dagger concealed in his bosom, entered the castle of 
 Sarnen under pretence of offering a new year's present to the 
 governor: but no sooner were they all within, than they dis- 
 played their weapons, and opening the gates admitted thirty of 
 their companions who had lain concealed in an alder grove in the 
 neighbourhood. The garrison offered no resistance, but quietly 
 abandoned the place. As soon as these exploits were known, the 
 men of Uri levelled to the ground the newly-built fortress of 
 Zwing-Uri, and drove the whole of the Austrian force across 
 the frontier. On the 6th of January the Swiss confederacy was 
 solemnly formed at Brunnen, the members pledging themselves 
 to defend the liberties of their country, as far as this could be 
 done consistently with their duty to the Emperor. This con- 
 federacy, with certain modifications, has lasted for more than five 
 hundred years. 
 
A.i). 1308. HEXRY Vir., OF LUXEMBOURG. 
 
 179 
 
 CHAPTEK XXVI. 
 
 HENRY VII., OF LUXEMBOURG. 
 From A.D. 1308 to 1313. 
 
 The Konig', Stuhl at 1 Liibt tn tht I lime. 
 
 As soon as the death of Albert was known, Philip lY. of 
 France (surnamed le Bel, the handaome) claimed the imperial 
 crown on behalf of his brother Charles ; but his pretensions were 
 at once rejected by the electors. Still less were they inclined to 
 choose another prince of the house of Habsburg ; for Albert 
 had taught them that a sovereign who possessed extensive here- 
 ditary dominions of his own was not likely to be a very con- 
 scientious respecter of those rights which his independent 
 resources gave him the means of violating. They determined 
 therefore to look around them for some knight of high military 
 
180 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XXA^. 
 
 reputation, but small possessions : and in order to conciliate the 
 favour of the Holy See, agreed that the election should fall on 
 him who obtained the greatest number of votes among the spi- 
 ritual electors. It happened at tliis time that the city of Treves 
 was on terms of close friendship and alliance M'ith its neighbour 
 Count Henry of Luxembourg, an instance of amity not very 
 common in those disturbed days. The family castle of Luxem 
 bourg (or Liitzel Burg, the little fortress) lay embosomed in 
 deep forests, little known to the world in general, but famous 
 in its own neighbourhood for the wild legends which were related 
 of its possessors. The founder of the family had brought home 
 to his castle a beautiful bride who bore him many children ; the 
 only interruption to their happiness was a mysterious stipulation 
 of the countess, that once in seven days she should be allowed to 
 remain in her own apartments without being seen by any one. 
 For some years the count restrained his curiosity, but at last in 
 an evil hour he watched her narrowly, and found that his wife 
 was one of those water-demons called Nixies, who every seven 
 days are compelled to resume the form of a fish. The descend- 
 ants of this ill-assorted pair are often mentioned in German 
 history as engaged in disputes with the neighbouring house of 
 Brabant, and at the period of which we are now speaking, Henry, 
 the reigning count, had made an alliance with the city of Treves 
 in the hope of recovering certain possessions which the Count of 
 Brabant had wrested from his father. His brother Baldwin was 
 archbishop of Treves, and Peter Aichspaller (who had once been 
 his body physician) filled the see of Mentz, so that of the three 
 spiritual electors only the archbishop of Cologne voted against 
 him ; and the temporal princes, true to their promise, confirmed 
 the election. Few of the German sovereigns have done such 
 credit to the choice of the electors as Henry VII. ; from the 
 moment of his ascending the throne he took Charlemagne, Bar- 
 barossa, and Frederick II. for his models ; the mean selfish policy 
 of his predecessors was entirely discarded, and instead of aiming 
 at the aggrandizement of his hereditary dominions, he thought 
 only how he could best strengthen and consolidate the empire. 
 Being fully aware of his present weakness in Germany amidst a 
 crowd of ambitious nobles, each of whom sought only his own 
 interest, he resolved on first gaining for himself a glorious name 
 abroad by freeing Italy from French usurpation, and then re- 
 turning to Germany, he would strain every nerve to render the 
 
A.D. 1311. IIEXRY OF LUXEMBOURG. 181 
 
 empire as united as it liad been under the Hohenstaufen dyna?<ty. 
 Tne Italians were themselves weary of French domination, 
 and the Pope, who resided at Avignon under the protection of 
 Pliilip, wished to be something- more tlian a mere puppet in tho 
 hands of liis powerful ally. But before the expedition into Italy 
 could be undertaken, affairs nearer home required his inn:nediate 
 attention. Bohemia, where Henry of Carinthia had been elected 
 king in defiance of the late Emperor Albert, was re-annexed to 
 the German crown by the marriage of Henry VII. 's son John, a 
 youth of fourteen, to Elizabeth, second sister of the last native 
 Bohemian sovereign, the people zealously uniting to expel tiie 
 usurper and his Carinthians from their country. The murderers 
 of the late emperor were placed under the ban of the empire, and 
 an alliance formed with his two sons Frederick and Leopold. 
 The Swiss cantons of Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden were de- 
 clared to be independent of Austria, as they had always been 
 before the ill-advised attempt of Albert to annex them to his 
 hereditary dominions. In the year 1310 Henry crossed tlie Alps, 
 The Ghibellines of Italy crowded to his standard, and amongst 
 them Dante, the great Florentine poet, who has celebrated Henry 
 in his immortal verses. But in spite of their remonstrances, 
 Henry lingered too long in northern Italy. Having made him- 
 self master of the principal Lombard cities, he M^ent into winter 
 quarters at Genoa in 1311, where the Empress Margaret died. 
 Here, or as seems more probable at Pavia, an Augustine monk 
 entered whilst he was at table, and throwing himself at the king's 
 feet, prayed for mercy : this monk was Prince John, the assassin 
 of the Emperor Albert. Henry drove the murderer indignantly 
 from his presence. Meanwhile Robert, King of JSTaples, taking 
 advantage of his enemy's tardiness, had sent a considerable force 
 to Rome. On receiving intelligence of this movement, Henn' 
 marched southwards at the head of only 2000 men, and attempted 
 to carry the Capitol by assault, but was repulsed with terrible 
 slaughter. To one of his knights who bemoaned this disaster he 
 angrily replied, " Go home to thy mother, coward !" and endea- 
 voured to repair the calamity by making himself master of St. 
 Peter's church ; but here too he was unsuccessful, and was 
 obliged to celebrate the ceremony of his coronation in the church 
 of St. John Lateran, which was surrounded by his enemies, some 
 of whose arrows fell on the high altar before which the Emperor 
 knelt. [Nothing now remained for him but to abandon Rome ; 
 Gv. M 
 
182 IIISTOKY OF GERMANY, Chap. XXVI. 
 
 yet so little was Henry discouraged by these disasters that he 
 made preparations in Sicily, Genoa, and Germany, for renewing 
 the war on all sides. At the same time he became a suitor for 
 the hand of Catherine of Habsburg, daughter of the late Em- 
 peror, and sent his son, John of Bohemia, to bring the bride and 
 a large army into Italy. But in the midst of all these antici- 
 pations his course was prematurely cut short by poison, which a 
 monk administered to him in the sacrament of the Lord's supper. 
 As soon as this treachery was discovered, he exclaimed, " In the 
 cup of life thou hast offered me death, but fly, save thyself before 
 my followers arrest thee." It is said that he might have been 
 saved if he would have consented to employ the usual remedies, 
 but his superstitious piety revolted from disgorging the sacred 
 elements, and he died at Buonconvento on the 24th of August, 
 1313. His destined bride arrived at Pisa just in time to receive 
 his corpse ; she was afterwards compelled to marry John, son of 
 the king of Naples, and died in a few years of a broken heart. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 Proclamation of Henry VII. — Henry was proclaimed at the 
 Konigsstuhl (king's throne), a small building at Eense, near 
 Braubach, on tlie left bank of the Rliine, where subsequently 
 emperors were frequently elected and dethroned. The situation 
 was chosen from its vicinity to the dominions of the four Rhenish 
 electors, Mentz, Cologne, Treves, and the Count Palatine, all of 
 whom possessed towns in the immediate neighbourhood. The 
 building (which was destroyed in 1807 and rebuilt after the 
 original model in 1843) is of an octagon form supported by 
 pillars, -with seven stone seats round the sides for the electors, and 
 one in the centre for the emperor. 
 
A.D. 1313. 
 
 LEWIS OF LAVARIA. 
 
 183 
 
 CHArTEE XXVII. 
 
 LEWIS OF BAVAEIA A^'D FREDERICK OF AUSTRIA, JOINT EMPERORS. 
 
 From A.D. 1313 to 1347. 
 
 Lewis the Bavarian in his imperial robes. 
 
 After Henry-s death, the empire was again distracted by the 
 Guelphic and Ghibelline factions ; the latter party choosing Lewis 
 of Bavaria, the former, Duke Frederick of Austria, surnamed, 
 from iiis personal beauty, Frederick the Fair. The contest 
 
 M 2 
 
Cl^ HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap, XXVII. 
 
 between the two candidates for the imperial throne continued 
 until the year 1322, when a battle was fought at Miihldorf, near 
 Salzburg, where Frederick, Avithout waiting for the succours 
 which his brother was bringing up, rashly attacked the enemy. 
 The struggle was desperate, for both parties knew that the im- 
 perial crown was the prize for which they fought. Towards the 
 close of the day another army was seen in the distance advancing 
 rapidly towards the spot where the Bohemians were closely en- 
 gaged with the Hungarians. Frederick falling into an error 
 similar to that of Napoleon at the battle of Waterloo, would not 
 believe that the fresh army was not the detachment of his brother 
 Leopold, until it was too late to repair his mistake, and the Aus- 
 trians and Hungarians, attacked on all sides, were mown down 
 like grass. The bravest of the Austrian nobility fell in this 
 murderous engagement: of one family alone twenty-three knights 
 lay dead on the field. Frederick himself was taken prisoner. 
 The army which thus decided the fate of the day turned out to be 
 a force commanded by Sey fried Schweppermann, a citizen of 
 Niirnberg, who had deceived the enemy by causing the standards 
 of Habsburg to be displayed in front of his line. Lewis (who 
 was not personally present in the field) acknowledged that he was 
 indebted for victory to this courageous citizen; and when a 
 basket of eggs, the only provision that could be procured, was 
 divided among the officers after the battle, he presented two to 
 Schweppermann, with the words, " An egg for each man's sliare, 
 to worthy Schweppermann a pair." * These words were engraved 
 on Schweppermann's tomb, and an egg was ever afterwards borne 
 in the escutcheon of his family. 
 
 Frederick was received by the conqueror with the taunting 
 words, " Sir cousin, you are welcome," and sent a prisoner to 
 Trausnitz, in the Upper Palatinate. But brilliant as this victory 
 was, Lewis had other enemies to encounter more powerful than 
 those whom he had overcome. The following year he was cited 
 to plead before the Pope at Avignon ; and on his refusal to 
 appear, the whole empire was placed under an interdict. But 
 Lewis found friends and supporters in the Franciscan friars or 
 Minorites (Fratres minores), as they modestly termed themselves; 
 who warmly defended him in their sermons and writings, and in 
 
 * " Jedein eiu Ei, demfrornmen Schweppermann zwei," 
 
A.D»]338. LEWIS OF BAVAKIA. 185 
 
 defiance of the papal interdict, provided for the celebration of 
 divine service within his dominions. On tlie other hand, tlie 
 Pope was zealously supported by the King of France. Lewis 
 now visited Frederick in liis prison, reminded him of theif youth- 
 ful friendship, spoke of their duty to the empire, and at length 
 persuaded the well-meaning but somewhat silly prince to consent 
 that the imperial authority should be divided between them, 
 each bearing the title of Roman King and Augustus, Their 
 signatures were to change places every day, so that one might 
 not seem in any respect to take precedence of the other, and for 
 tiiis purpose each had a seal engraved, on which the name of his 
 colleague was placed above his own. Having made these ar- 
 rangements, Lewis, in 1327, proceeded into Italy, assumed the 
 iron crown at Milan, pronounced the ban of the empire against 
 the King of Naples, and deposing the Pope, placed on the papal 
 throne a Minorite monk, Nicholas V., by whom he was crowned 
 at Rome. In the year 1330 Lewis became sole emperor by the 
 death of his colleague ; and in 1338 summoned a diet at Reuse 
 on the Rhine, where the electors pledged themselves to the fol- 
 lowing resolution, viz., "that the German Emperor was the 
 highest power on earth, and dependent for his election on none 
 but the princes of Germany." In Frankfort and other places, 
 all the clergy who refused to acknowledge Lewis were deprived 
 of their cures. Even the Minorite monks, whose cause he had 
 abandoned, forgot the recent treachery of their emperor, and 
 wrote and preached for him as they had done at the beghming 
 of his reign But Lewis now committed an act which lowered 
 him irretrievably ui public estimation. Edward III. of Eng- 
 land was engaged in a bloody war with France, and Lewis at first 
 embraced his cause, but soon with unaccountable fickleness de- 
 serted the alliance, and attached himself to the French, the ene- 
 mies of his country and of freedom, and sent his own son Lewis 
 with an army to act against England. His family possessions 
 were soon afterwards increased by the acquisition of Holland, 
 which he inherited in right of his wife, Margaret, sister of the 
 late Count AVilliam. He succeeded also in obtaining for his 
 son the hand of Margaret, surnamed Widemoiith (Maultasch), 
 and thus added the Tyrol to his other dominions. But the only 
 effect of this aggrandizement was to increase the number of his 
 enemies, who at length prevailed on the electors to set him aside. 
 
186 
 
 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 
 
 Chap. XXYII. 
 
 and place on the throne Charles, son of the King of Bohemia. 
 The poor old emperor soon afterwards died suddenly during a boar 
 hunt, not without suspicion of having been poisoned by his rival 
 Charles. 
 
 Lewis the Bavarian. 13-17. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER XXVII. 
 
 TJie Franciscans. — The Franciscan order of Minorites, or, 
 as they were still more modestly designated in Germany, the 
 " Nobody Brethren " (Nulbriider), has produced many learned 
 men, such as Bonaventura, Roger Bacon, and Duns Scotus, who 
 distinguished himself by his defence of the immaculate concep- 
 
Sup. Chap. XXVII. EXCOMMUNICATION OF LEWIS. 187 
 
 tion against the Dominicans. His followers were called Scot'isrs 
 — their adversaries Thomists, from their leader, Thomas Aqui- 
 nas. The Franciscans have been split into various distinct bro- 
 therlioods, among which the most remarkable is that of the 
 Capuchins, founded by Matthew of Bassi in 1528, and professing 
 to be what the Franciscans were at the first establishment of their 
 Older. 
 
 Excommunication of the Emperor Lewis.— l^ewis was tlie last 
 Emperor who suffered the sentence of excommunication. The 
 papal bull ran thus : — " May the Almighty God cast Lewis 
 down and give him into the hands of his enemies and pursuers ! 
 ISIay he fall into an unforeseen snare ! Cursed be his going out 
 and his coming in ! May the Lord smite him with folly and 
 blindness ! May heaven blast him with its lightning ! May 
 the wrath of God, and of the blessed apostles Peter and Paul, 
 burn against him like fire in this world and the next ! May the 
 wliole earth ann itself against him ! May the deep open and 
 swallow him up quick ! May his name be clean forgotten, and 
 his memory perish from among men ! May all the elements op- 
 pose him ! May his house be left desolate, and all his children 
 be driven from their dwellings, and slain by his enemies before their 
 father's 'eyes ! " 
 
188 
 
 HISTORY OF GEPJMAN'Y. 
 
 Chap. XXYIII. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 
 CHARLES IV. 
 
 From A.D. 1347 to 137& 
 
 Giinther von Sebwartzijurg. A.D. 1319. 
 
 Philip of France and the Pope had given Germany a new Em- 
 peror, whom they intended to use as the instrmnent of their will. 
 The great obstacles to their ambitious views were the war with 
 England, and the dogged determination of the great Flemish 
 cities, which had lately wrested important privileges from their 
 
A.D. 1347. CHARLES TV. 189 
 
 lords, and under James van Artevelde, a brewer of Ghent, had 
 formed an alliance with England against France. Charles IV. 
 the creature of the French papistical party, and in a great mea- 
 sure dependent on his father, who still lived, had no choice but to 
 join the French. At the battle of Crecy his behaviour, accord- 
 ing to some historians, was far from heroic, for he was among the 
 first who fled, whilst his brave old father, King John of Bohemia, 
 ])lind as he was, caused his horse to be led by two knights into 
 the thickest of the fight, and fell covered with wounds. II is 
 shield came into the possession of Edward the Black Prince ; and 
 its motto, " Ich dien " (I serve), has been that of the Princes of 
 AVales ever since. Probably Charles had little inclination to risk 
 his life in a cause to which he could hardly have wished success. 
 Kotliing could be more opposite than the characters of Charles 
 IV. and his predecessor. The first wish of Charles's heart was to 
 add to the possessions and power of his own family, an object for 
 the attainment of which he did not scruple to employ the most 
 disgraceful means. But he had to contend with a party who, 
 viewing him as a creature of the Pope, were not inclined to 
 acquiesce quietly in his election. A majority of the electors 
 therefore offered the crown to the King of England, but parlia- 
 ment very wisely interfered to prevent his acceptance of so peril- 
 ous a gift. Their choice then fell on a brave warrior. Count 
 G iinther of Schwartzburg, who had distinguished himself in tlie 
 Thuringian wars. They also persuaded the Poles, the ancient 
 enemies of the House of Luxembourg, to join their league. 
 Charles, on the other hand, having strengthened his party by an 
 alliance with England, proceeded to rid himself of the rival 
 King by bribing the physician of G iinther to poison his master. 
 One benefit the crafty policy of Charles conferred on the empire, 
 which the straightforward opposition of his predecessors had failed 
 to achieve— he put an end to the alliance between the Pope and 
 France. In his youth he had lived much at the court of France 
 and also at Avignon, and was in consequence well acquainted 
 with the feelings which the King and the Pope entertained to- 
 wards each other. The most anxious wish of the latter was to l)e 
 delivered from his state of discreditable bondage ; but the recol- 
 lection of the Hohenstaufens, and of the tyranny wliich they liad 
 exercised over the Roman pontiffs of their times, made him cau- 
 tious lest he should only exchange French for German domina- 
 tion, by putting himself under the protection of Charles. It 
 
 M 3 
 
190 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XXVIII. 
 
 required therefore the greatest hypocrisy and the most untiring 
 patience to accomplish this object. In pursuance of his plans, 
 Charles crossed the Alps and was crowned at Rome, for the pur- 
 pose of proving how lightly he esteemed the declaration of inde- 
 pendence made by the electors when they established the " first 
 electoral union," as it was called, at Rense ; and even humbled 
 himself so far as to enter the city in the character of a private 
 individual, and to quit it on the very day of his coronation. In 
 the absence of the Pope at Avignon, the Roman people had risen 
 against the nobility and established a republic. Cola di Rienzi, 
 its head, hastened to meet the emperor, in the hope that he would 
 restore the ancient Roman empire ; but Charles used the oppor- 
 tunity to seize Rienzi, and deliver him up to the Pope. Petrarch, 
 the celebrated poet, entertained the same expectations from Charles 
 as Dante had from Henry VII. for the liberty of his country ; 
 but the emperor contented himself with answering the poet's 
 letters with politeness, and only laughed at his enthusiastic pa- 
 triotism. He made no attempts to re-establish German influence 
 m Italy, but allowed the princes of that country to purchase their 
 independence. Thus, although he quitted Rome (1355) amidst 
 the contemptuous laughter of the Italians, he was amply consoled 
 by the consciousness that he had made considerable progress to- 
 wards removing the fears of the Pope ; and what was, if possible, 
 still more agreeable to him, had filled his own coffers with gold. 
 At length his patient manoeuvring was crowned with success. In 
 the year 1367 the Romans were surprised by the return of the 
 Pope, Urban V., to his capital : Charles himself attended him, 
 walking by his side in his imperial robes, and leading the mule 
 on which the Pontiff' rode. Urban, it is true, returned to his 
 native country at the end of a year, but his example so en- 
 couraged his successor that he again transferred the papal chair 
 to Rome ; and as, after his death, there were two popes, one at 
 Rome and the other at Avignon, the empire had little more to 
 dread from papal encroachments. Charles now issued tlie famous 
 " golden bull," by which the number of electors was definitively 
 fixed at seven. This instrument, deriving its name from the knob 
 of gold (bulla aurea) in which its seal is enclosed, was drawn up 
 in a diet at Niirnberg in 1356, and published on Christmas-day 
 in the same year. It contains thirty chapters, in which the pri- 
 vileges of the Kings of Bohemia are defined, rules laid down for 
 the election and coronation of the emperors, the cities restrained 
 
AD. 135(3. CHARLES IV. I'Jl 
 
 from making any further encroachments on the riglits of tije 
 nobles, and salutary regulations establisiied for the levyinf>' and 
 collection of taxes. Until the dissolution of the empire this bull 
 was always considered tiie groundwork of the Germanic constitu- 
 tion. The three spiritual electors continued, as before, to be those 
 of Mentz, Cologne, and Treves. Of the temporal principalities, 
 Bohemia was Charles's hereditary kingdom, Brandenburo- was 
 about to fall into his hands, and the remaining two, Saxe AVitten- 
 berg and the Palatinate of the Rhine, were comparatively weak. 
 By the golden bull it was provided that each elector should be 
 thenceforth in his own state sovereign and independent, and that 
 no appeal should be made from his decisions. By this master- 
 stroke of policy Charles attained two objects — he gave to his own 
 family immense weight in the election of an emperor, and secured 
 his hereditary dominions against future inteiference. The weak 
 principalities of Saxe Wittenberg and the Palatinate (those " duo- 
 decimo princes," as a shrewd German writer styles them) were 
 allowed to remain on the list as being more manageable than the 
 powerful electorates. Charles IV. has been called the step- 
 father of the empire, but the father of Bohemia. His personal 
 appearance betrayed his Bohemian origin, for he resembled his 
 mother rather than his father, being short, but strongly built, 
 with high cheek-bones and coal-black hair. The King of France 
 having provided him, in his youtli, with the best instructors, he 
 spoke several languages, and was in most respects infinitely better 
 informed than the other princes of his time. In 1348 he gave 
 to his hereditary kingdom of Bohemia a constitution of the most 
 liberal character. The beautiful city of Prague was built almost 
 entirely under his auspices ; architects, sculptors, and painters 
 being encouraged by his patronage to reside there, and vicing 
 with each other in their exertions to adorn his capital. The 
 baths at Carlsbad, it is said, were discovered by Charles, and 
 named after him. In order to encourage and improve manu- 
 factures in Silesia he persuaded a number of Flemish weavers, at 
 tliat time the best in the world, to come and settle there. He 
 also founded a university at Prague, after the model of that of 
 Paris, tlie first that ever existed in Germany. This example was 
 soon followed by the Habsburgs and the Count Palatine of the 
 Rhine, who established similar institutions at Vienna and Heidel- 
 berg. Universities were also founded by the spiritual princes at 
 Cologne, Erfurt, and Wiirtzburg. But wliile Charles was doin-r 
 
192 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XXVIII 
 
 SO much for Bolieuna, the German empire in general was miser 
 ably disorganized. Bands of robbers swarmed in all parts of the 
 country, and the Emperor, after one or two feeble attempts to 
 put them down, was content to let the cities form alliances among 
 themselves for that purpose. In the towns generally a spirit of 
 independence among the middling classes was making rapid 
 strides ; unfortunately their efforts were too insulated to be of last- 
 ing service ; but they fought bravely and often successfully against 
 the princes who oppressed them, or against the pri\'ileged fami- 
 lies. Nor were the rights of the spiritual nobles uniformly 
 respected. Urban V. had sent to Hildersheim, as bisnop, his 
 grand inquisitor, John Schadland, a man whose character for in- 
 tolerance preceded him into Germany. But he had been accus- 
 tomed to combat heresy only with the weapons of theological 
 warfare, and was ill qualified to rule the turbulent subjects of a 
 German bishopric. Y/hen he desired to see the library at Hil- 
 dersheim the canons of the cathedral led him into a large vaulted 
 gallery, the walls of which were furnished, not with book-cases, 
 but with coats of mail and stands of arms arranged with great 
 regularity. " Behold, my Lord," said they, " the books out of 
 which we draw our arguments ! " His successor wished to act 
 with more vigour ; but his measures excited the indignation of the 
 people to such a degree that they actually hunted down all the 
 priests in his diocese, paying the peasants a fixed price for every 
 head of clergy brought in. The Emperor's anxious wish had 
 always been that his son Wenzel, or AYenceslaus, should succeed 
 him on the imperial throne. He was now old, and felt that no 
 time was to be lost ; in defiance therefore of his own golden bull, 
 which strictly prohibited all bribery, he expended 700,000 flo- 
 rins in corrupting the electors, and thus secured his son's election. 
 Charles died in 1378, on his return from France, whither he had 
 gone for the purpose of establishing peace between that country 
 and Germany. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 
 Literature and the Arts. — In addition to the Latin chronicles 
 of the monks, this century produced several written in the Ger- 
 man language ; among which the most remarkable is the metrical 
 chronicle of Ottocar of Horneck. Gunpowder was invented in 
 the reign of Charles IV. by Berthold Schwartz, a monk of Frei- 
 
Sur. Chap. aXVITI. BRAVERY OF THE GER:\rANS. 193 
 
 burg ill Breisgau, who was himself blown up by an unexpected 
 e\})losion. The first powder-mill was erected at Liibeck in 13G0, 
 the first cannon cast for the town of Augsburg- in 1372, and the 
 first iron balls used bytheHanse Towns in 1387. This invention 
 Mas destined to destroy the power of the nobility, by depriving 
 them of the peculiar advantage which they previously derived 
 from their arms. 
 
 The Universities. — Each of the universities founded in the 
 fourteenth century was a corporation of masters and scholars, 
 governed by its own laws and enjoying peculiar privileges. 
 
 The whole body of academics was divided into "nations" (as 
 in the Scotch universities), each of which had its own officers. 
 The Rector of the university was chosen by these nations col- 
 lectively, the scholars enjoying an equal right of voting with the 
 masters. All students were allowed to \vander from one univer- 
 sity to another, and not unfrequently they supported themselves 
 on these excursions by begging. The course of instruction was 
 divided into four faculties, of which the first three. Theology, 
 IMedicine, and Law, were termed sciences. Those who liad com- 
 pleted their studies in any of these sciences were admitted to 
 the degree of Doctor. The fourth faculty comprehended the 
 liberal arts, seven in number, viz., Grammar, Rhetoric, Logic, 
 Mathematics, Physics, Metaphysics, and Moral Philosophy. 
 Proficients in these studies were termed Masters. The new 
 lecture-rooms were soon crowded, not only by citizens, but by 
 many of the young nobles. In Prague alone the number of stu- 
 dents amounted, soon after the institution of the university, to 7000. 
 
 Bravery of the Germ-ins. — Several troops of German auxili- 
 aries served in the English army during the siege of Calais in 
 1347. An old chronicler tells us that one of these men, a Swiss 
 from the Bernese Oberland, having accepted the challenge of a 
 French knight to meet him in single combat, fell asleep whilst 
 awaiting the arrival of his antagonist, and snored fearfully. 
 This phlegmatic indifference to danger so astonished the Frencli- 
 man that he refused to encounter an adversary whom not even 
 the anticipation of a bloody conflict could keep awake. Another 
 German, Prince Henry of Holstein, who had also fought on the 
 English side at Crecy, was so highly favoured by Edward III. 
 as to excite the envy of his courtiers. " A mercenary soldier," 
 tliey said, " wlio was willing to shed iiis blood for strangers, 
 could scarcely be called noble." Finding that tiiis and siinihir 
 
1^*4 HISTORY OF CxERMANY. CnAP. XXVIIT. 
 
 taunts made little impression, they resolved to adopt more active 
 measures of annoyance, and, taking the opportunity of his walk- 
 ing without arms in the court-yard of the To^ver of London, sud- 
 denly let loose a large lion on the prince ; who coolly walked 
 up to the formidable intruder, and, setting his own hat on the 
 beast's head, called out to his cowardly enemies, " Let the man 
 wdio is more noble than I take off that hat." 
 
 The Black Death. — At the beginning of Charles's reign fear- 
 ful signs m the heavens indicated, as men believed, the approach 
 of some terrible event. An earthquake of uriprecedented violence 
 desolated Cyprus, Greece, Italy, and the Alpine valleys as far as 
 Basle. In Carinthia thirty townships v/ere laid in ruins. The 
 air v>^as thick and f(»tid, fiery meteors appeared in the sky at night, 
 and a pillar of flame \\as seen by hundreds resting on the roof of 
 the Pope's palace at Avignon. These horrors were almost imme- 
 diately followed by a deadly pestilence. It seems to have 
 originated in China and thence to have found its way across Asia 
 into Europe. Like the plague, of which it was probably an un- 
 usually malignant type, it first manifested its presence in the 
 human frame by excassive lassitude, followed \vith astonishing 
 rapidity by swellings of the groin and armpits, which in a short 
 time became large boils. But the most deadly symptoms of all 
 were large black or deep-blue spots, which, in a great proportion 
 of cases, showed themselves in different parts of the body ; hence 
 the pestilence was commonly called the '• black death." Its 
 effects on different constitutions were various : some became 
 sleepy and stupid, and continued in a lethargic state until their 
 death ; others could rest neither day nor night ; the tongue and 
 throat were black, as if filled with coagulated blood, and they 
 were tormented by an insatiable thirst. In addition to these 
 symptoms, which were its characteristics in Asia, the disease 
 in Europe attacked the lungs, which sent out a noisome breath, 
 filling the whole air with infection. Medical aid was unavailing, 
 nor could it indeed be easily obtained ; for, as the disorder was 
 undoubtedly contagious, not only physicians, but even the nearest 
 and most affectionate relatives fled from the house of death, 
 leaving the sick to expire alone and unassisted. AYhole villages 
 and towns were thus left without a single inhabitant, or even a 
 domestic animal, for the plague was as fatal to dogs, cats, and 
 swine as to the human race. It has been calculated that one- 
 fourth of the population of Europe fell victims to this terrible 
 
Sup. Chap. XXVIII. THE BLACK DEATH. 195 
 
 scourge. The Franciscans, or Minorites, numbered their di'ad 
 and found that they had lost 124,434— a proof both of tl)e vio- 
 lence of the plague and the immense increase of their order since 
 its first establishment. AVomen also formed themselves into 
 societies for the purpose of attending on the sick and dying. These 
 were called Beguinos,* probably from the old Saxon word began, 
 to serve. Tiie nucleus of such societies had existed ever since 
 the eleventh century, but they were called into more especial 
 activity by the unhappy circumstances of the times. Thus for 
 they acted on the purest and most Christian principles ; but the 
 superstition of the age being dissatisfied with the plain duties of 
 practical piety, and deeming it necessary to propitiate the Deity 
 by some extraordinary sacrifice, another sect arose, who believed 
 that the infliction of tortures on their own persons would be tlie 
 surest mode of turning aside the wrath of the Almighty. These 
 fanatics were called the Flagellants, or Scourgers. The brother- 
 liood had existed since the year 1260, but the horrors of the 
 present eventful time called tliem into more vigorous action. 
 The flame of superstition spread as if by magic. Hundreds of 
 men, and even of boys, paraded the streets bearing heavy crosses 
 and lashing their naked shoulders with scourges. They marched 
 in regular parties, with banners, keeping time to the melody of a 
 rude hymn, which they chanted in chorus. 
 
 The Pope viewed these irregular proceedings with alarm, 
 especially as the brethren spoke freely of the necessity of reform 
 in ecclesiastical affairs. A sentence of excommimication being- 
 issued against them, one of their leaders, who pretended to be 
 the Messiah, was burnt at Erfurt. Whilst the plague was at its 
 lieight the Germans thought to appease the wrath of God by a 
 persecution of the Jews, who were accused of having occasioned 
 it by poisoning the wells. Nothing could restrain the fury of the 
 populace. The persecution began in Bern, where the magistrates 
 themselves sanctioned it. In all the cities of the Hhine and 
 Danube the Jews were cruelly massacred. At Strasburg two 
 thousand of them were burnt on one pile. At length the plague 
 began gradually to subside, and towards the end of the year 1349 
 ceased altogetner. 
 
 * Societios iinder this name still exist in Belgium: but they are bound by 
 no vows, theij; convents being merely a sort of almshouse, where decayed 
 women of good character are provided with food and lodging. Their largest 
 establishments ai-e at Ghent and Brufics. 
 
196 
 
 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XXIX. 
 
 CHAPTEE XXIX. 
 
 WEXCESLAUS — EUPERT — JODOCUS — SIGISMUND. 
 
 From A. D. 1878 to 1437. 
 
 Castle Hall, Constance. 
 
 Wenceslaus was in character and manners the reverse of his 
 father. The Germans, about whom he gave himself little con- 
 cern, thought him a fool : the Bohemians felt him to be a tyrant, 
 and hated him because he trampled on their rights, and gave all 
 the great offices of state to Germans; whilst the latter were in- 
 dignant because he never once came into Germany, never held a 
 diet, and made the confusion into which his ou n criminal negli- 
 gence had thrown the empire, the subject of his daily jests. In 
 lioliemia he committed acts of almost insane cruelty. On one 
 occasion the nobles whom he had invited to an entertainment 
 found three tents pitched, of different colours, black, white, and 
 red. The king himself occupied the black tent, into which the 
 
A.D. 1378. WENCESLAUS. 197 
 
 o-ueyts were marshalled one by one, and required to declare wliat 
 possessions of the crown were m their occupation. Those who 
 readily surrendered their lands were then ushered into tlie wliite 
 and sumptuously feasted ; while the recusants were hurried away 
 to the red and beheaded by the common executioner. At another 
 of his entertainments the guests beheld with dismay a man of 
 ferocious appearance, who stood leaning on an axe, as if in ex- 
 pectation of some command from the King. " Wait until after 
 dinner," said the tyrant to this grim functionary ; " thou wilt 
 have work enough then." The unfortunate visitors, who were 
 persons of no less importance than the burgomaster and town 
 council of Prague, were fain to laugh at this sharp jest, as the 
 only means of saving their lives, and after eating and drinking 
 with what appetite they might, to make all the concessions which 
 their sovereign demanded. At table he was generally surrounded 
 by a pack of bloodhounds, which in his drunken fits he would 
 set on his guests, or even on his wife, who was repeatedly torn 
 by the ferocious animals, as she lay in bed. Even the ministers 
 of religion were sometimes exposed to the fury of his ungovern- 
 able temper. His second wife had a confessor named John of 
 Xepomuk, from whom Wenceslaus had often tried to extort the 
 secrets of the confessional, but the priest, faithful to his ordina- 
 tion vow, had always refused to gratify this unjustifiable curiosity. 
 At length, wearied out by the importunities and threats of the 
 tyrant, he boldly declared that he would rather die than commit 
 so deadly a sin. " Sayest thou so, sir priest ?" was the retort ; 
 '' then by the heaven above us thou shalt have thy wish. — Bind 
 this monk hand and foot and throw him into the Moldau." He 
 was sainted in the Roman calendar, and became the patron of 
 ]:>ridges. Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg, the second son 
 of tJie late Emperor, fearing lest these continued extravagances 
 should bring disgrace and ruin on their house, placed the person 
 of his brother under restraint : but the cunning madman con- 
 trived to elude the vigilance of his keepers by plunging into the 
 Moldau under pretence of bathing, and swimming to a boat 
 rowed by a young girl named Susanna, he was conveyed safely 
 to the opposite bank. Had Wenceslaus been a man of sense, no 
 time could have been more favourable for consolidating and 
 strengthening the empire. The power of Rome, hitherto so 
 overwhelming, had been reduced almost to nothing by the elec- 
 tion of two rival popes, one of wiiom resided at Rome, tlie othor 
 
198 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XXIX. 
 
 at Avignon ; whilst the temporal sovereigns whose crowns had 
 often in former days depended on the papal will, were now called 
 on to act as arbitrators between the two candidates for the throne 
 of St. Peter. France, too, of all the European powers tJie most 
 dangerous to Germany, whether as an ally or an enemy, had for 
 the present sufficient occupation in her war with England. But 
 Wenceslaus had neither ability nor inclination to take advantage 
 of these circumstances. The beer of Prague, and the scenes of 
 low sensuality which surrounded him, were more the objects of 
 his regard than either the honour or the safety of the German 
 empire. The incapacity of Wenceslaus became at length so 
 evident to all eyes that the electors determined to set him aside ; 
 and in 1400 a majority of them chose the Count Palatine Rupert, 
 a few voting for Frederick of Brunswick : but the chance of a 
 dispute was removed by the assassination of the latter on his re- 
 turn from Frankfort, by the servants of the Archbishop of Mentz. 
 The cities of Upper Germany, far from acquiescing in the new 
 election, saw in it only an intrigue of the nobles against them- 
 selves, and offered their services to Wenceslaus to replace liim on 
 the imperial throne : but that indolent prince preferred remain- 
 ing quietly in Bohemia, where he could indulge without restraint 
 in the petty household tyranny which best suited his mean but 
 ciiiel character. Among other mad pranks, he is said to have 
 punished a cook who had sent up an ill-dressed capon, by roasting 
 him on a spit before his own fire, and to liave beheaded the public 
 executioner, in order to give him an experimental acquaintance 
 with the sufferings which he had so often inflicted on others. Of 
 his epistolary talents there is a curious specimen still extant in 
 the form of a letter to the citizens of Rotenburg, written in 
 answer to their refusal to advance him 4000 florins. " To our 
 unfaithful men of Rotenburg, who are disobedient unto the Em- 
 pire. The devil began to shear a hog, and spake thus, ' Great 
 cry and little wool.'— Rex." 
 
 Rupert, the new Emperor, was a man of courage and action, 
 but being coldly supported even by the nobles who had elected 
 him, possessed little more than the shadow of imperial power. 
 An attempt which he made, in conjunction with Leopold of 
 Austria, to force his way through Italy to Rome, ended in a dis- 
 graceful defeat at Brescia, where Leopold was taken prisoner. 
 Rupert, returning to Germany, resided there until his death in 
 1411. Wenceslaus survived him, but made no attempt to regain 
 
A.D. 1411. 
 
 SIGISMUXD. 199 
 
 his rights. His brother Sigismund was now elected, by one party, 
 and Jodocus of Moravia by anotlier. The two rival Popes hud 
 both been set aside by a council held at Pisa in 1409, and a new 
 pontiff elected : but the others refused to resign, so that in the 
 year 1411 Germany had three Emperors, and the Christian world 
 witnessed the unedif;,ing spectacle of three Popes, each claiming 
 for himself the infallibility supposed to reside in the legitimate 
 successor of St. Peter. 
 
 The difficulty however with regard to the empire was removed 
 within a few montlis by the death of Jodocus, and Sigismund re- 
 mained undisputed occupant of the imperial throne. Sigismund 
 gave at his election a specimen of his arrogant character. " There 
 is no prince in the empire," said he, " with whose merits I am so 
 fully acquainted as with my own. I am surpassed by none — 
 either hi pov/er or in the prudence with which I have ruled, 
 whether in prosperity or adversity. Therefore do I, as Elector 
 of Brandenburg, give my vote to Sigismund, King of Hungary, 
 and will that he be elected King of Germany." Sigismund's 
 character was an epitome of the dispositions of his immediate 
 predecessors. Like Charles lY. he was crafty and politic, but 
 resembled Wenceslaus in Ms love of sensual gratifications. 
 Handsome, eloquent, and lively, he possessed no steadiness of 
 purpose, seeming to act on the hnpulse of the moment, and with 
 a view to present expediency, rather than on any settled plan. 
 At the beginning of his reign, the great object of his ambition 
 was to play the part of a reformer m church affairs. The spirit 
 of the times was by no means unfavourable to sucn an attempt. 
 In England the illustrious Wiclif had in the latter part of the 
 fourteenth century promulgated doctrines which had spread far 
 and wide on the continent : and many martyrs had proved the 
 sincerity of their convictions by giving their bodies to be burned 
 at the stake. In Augsburg alone two hundred persons were put 
 to death as heretics. During the disgraceful contests of rival 
 Popes, the papal see lost so much of its authority (each candidate 
 beino- compelled to flatter the priesthood and the universities in 
 order to . strengthen his party) that an assembly of bishops and 
 doctors presumed to set aside both the reigning Popes, and elcKJt 
 a new one. This pontiff, dying the year of his election, was suc- 
 ceeded by John XXIII., a man who had once been a pirate, and 
 whose life was stained by the grossest and most revolting crimes : 
 but the clergy were universally so corrupt tliat his character oaused 
 
200 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XXIX. 
 
 little scandal ; one of them, Cardinal Peter d'Ailly, even declaring 
 that none but a scoundrel could now rule the church. Sigismund, 
 in furtherance of his favourite design, acted at first with sound 
 policy and discretion ; he summoned a general council to meet at 
 Constance, and in order to give its members the character of re- 
 presentatives of all Europe, he proclaimed that not merely the 
 clergy, but distinguished laymen from diiferent countries should 
 assist at its deliberations ; the Emperor himself waiving the right 
 of supremacy which the Romano-Germanic empire had hitherto 
 assumed over other kingdoms, although its pretensions were little 
 more than a name. But all these fair plans were ruined by his 
 own want of self-control. During the sitting of the council 
 Sigismund gave himself up entirely to low debauchery ; and the 
 only effect of his condescension was to make liimself the laugliing- 
 stock of the church, and give foreign nations encouragement to 
 encroach still farther on the privileges of the empire. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 Frederick vo?i Hohenzoller7i. — In the year 1411 the Emperor 
 Sigismund pledged the Mark of Brandenburg to his friend Fre- 
 derick V. Hohenzollern, burgrave of Nuremberg, for 100,000 
 ducats, and shortly afterwards made it over to him entirely. The 
 nobility of the Mark would not submit to this new master, and 
 formed a confederacy against him ; but Frederick succeeded in 
 t-aking their castles by means of a great cannon, then a novel 
 engine of warfare. His posterity has continued to enjoy the in- 
 heritance ever since ; ana he thus became the founder of the present 
 royal house of Prussia. 
 
 Frederick, the new elector of Brandenburg, distinguished 
 himself at the council of Constance by the part which he took in 
 endeavouring to obtain a reformation of the abuses in the church. 
 He was supported by most of the English and Germans present 
 at the council, who were not, however, agreed as to how fa^r they 
 should go. The French, Italians, and Spaniards, on the contrary, 
 wished to dispense with all discussions of this sort, and to confine 
 their attention to the election of a pope. The English supported 
 the Germans a long while, but at last joined the majority ; when 
 the Germans were also obliged to yield, after drawing up a 
 strongly- worded protest. 
 
A.D. 1414. 
 
 SIGISMUND. 
 
 201 
 
 CHAPTEE XXX. 
 
 SIGISMUND THE MAIITYKDOM OF JOHN IIUSS AND JEROME OF PRAGUE. 
 
 A.D. 1414 and 1415. 
 
 Room ill \\hich the Council of Constance met. 
 
 The council of Constance commenced its session on the 28tli 
 November, 1414. It had been decided that this assembly should 
 consist of bishops, doctors of the universities, and temporal princes 
 or their ambassadors; the secular power being represented by 
 the emperor, all the electors, and a crowd of nobles, who ap- 
 peared as the plenipotentiaries of foreign sovereigns. The 
 spiritual representatives were 3 patriarchs, 33 cardinals, 47 arch- 
 bishops, 145 bishops, 124 abbots, 1800 priests, 750 doctors, and 
 many monks. Of the three rival popes John XXIII. alone 
 came in person. In one of the rugged passes of the Alps his 
 carriage was overturned in a snow-drift ; and the peasants of the 
 neighbourhood who ran to offer him assistance and receive his 
 blessing, were astounded at hearing the Holy Father curse and 
 swear at his attendants in a style of which a trooper would hava 
 been ashamed. Independently of those immediately engaged in 
 the council, the number of persons whom curiosity or the love 
 of gain attracted to Constance is reported to have been at least 
 150,000, among whom were mountebanks, buffoons, and women 
 
202 HISTORY OF GERMANY. ChaP. XXX. 
 
 of bad character in shoals. There were also actors brought from 
 Eng-laiid who represented mysteries^ or scenes from Scripture 
 history, an exhibition which seems to have given the Germans 
 the first taste for dramatic performances. The nations whose 
 representatives appeared at Constance are thus described by a 
 contemporary Avriter ; " The Germans are enduring as well as 
 impetuous, the French boastful and arrogant, the English prompt 
 and sagacious, the Italians subtle and intriguing." The northern 
 party (that is to say the Germans, French, and English) with 
 the Emperor at their head, and supported by the talent of the 
 French Cardinal d'Ailly, and of Gerson, the celebrated chancellor 
 of the university of Paris, having carried a resolution that the 
 votes should be taken according to nations (an arrangement 
 v/hich deprived the Italian cardinals and bishops of the weight 
 which their suffrages would have possessed if the spiritual and 
 temporal deputies had voted in separate bodies), now went a step 
 farther, and declared that the council was superior to the popes, 
 who were all called on to resign their usurped dignities. Gre- 
 gory XII. submitted to this decree of the council, and became a 
 simple cardinal. John, who after laying down his insignia had 
 attempted to recover his rights by force, was condemned to im- 
 prisonment in the castle of Heidelberg, where he remained until 
 the year 1418. The third pope, Benedict XIII. , who was in 
 Spain, continued to bid defiance to their proclamations. Having 
 thus humbled the popes, the council of Constance proceeded to 
 take cognizance of those heresies which liad lately disturbed the 
 peace of the church. The university of Prague had been cele- 
 brated ever since its establishment in 1348 for the learning and 
 talent of its professors. Among these was John Huss, who had 
 read the writings of Wiclif, which the marriage of Anne, the 
 sister of Wenceslaus with Richard II. of England, had been the 
 means of introducing into Bohemia. As early as the year 1401, 
 Huss had maintained that the Pope was no greater than any other 
 bishop, that useless holidays ought to be abolished, that the doc- 
 trine of purgatory had no foundation in Scripture, that confirma- 
 tion and extreme unction were not sacraments, that auricular 
 confession was a vain thing, that altars, priestly vestments, images 
 and consecrated vessels were useless, and that prayer needed not 
 be offered up in churches, for the whole earth being the Lord's 
 any spot of it might be used as his temple. He also contended 
 that the sacrament of the Lord's supper ought to be received in 
 
A.D. 1415. MARTYRDOM OF JOHN IIUSS. 203 
 
 both kinds by the laity, and that the bread and wine in the 
 Eucharist were not transubstantiated into the body and blood of 
 Christ, but that the real body and blood were received after a 
 spiritual and mysterious fashion. In the dissemination of these 
 doctrines he was assisted by his friend and pupil Jerome Faul- 
 fisch, commonly called Jerome of Prague ; and, in spite of oppo- 
 sition, these two courageous men continued to lecture and preach 
 at Prague and elsewhere, until they were summoned to appear 
 before the council at Constance and give an account of their 
 doctrine, a safe-conduct from the Emperor being at the same 
 time promised to them. Immediately after the assembling of the 
 council, the Bishops of Augsburg and Trent and the burgomaster 
 of Constance were sent to require the attendance of Huss, who 
 had already been some days in the city. As he entered the 
 council-hall and respectfully saluted the company, one of the 
 cardinals said, " Master Huss, we have manifold complaints 
 against you, that you have taught and propagated gross, palpable, 
 fearful errors against the orthodox church, for which cause we 
 have summoned you before us that we may hear from your own 
 mouth how the matter standeth." To this address Huss replied, 
 *' Reverend Father, rather would I die than avow myself guilty 
 of one, much less of so many acts of heresy ; wherefore I appear 
 before you this day with the determination, whatever errors can 
 be proved against me, to retract and abjure the same." Huss 
 was then removed into an ante-chamber, and the council ad- 
 journed, but assembled again in the afternoon, and before night 
 decided on arresting him : tliis resolution was announced to Huss 
 by his enemy Philip Palitz, in the following words : " We have 
 thee now, and verily I say unto thee, thou shalt not come out 
 thence until thou hast paid the uttermost farthing." He was 
 then thrown into a narrow and filthy dungeon, the pestilential 
 air of which soon brought on a raging fever. In spite of re- 
 peated petitions he could not obtain a hearing until the 7th 
 June, 1415, and even then was so often interrupted by the out- 
 cries of the assembly, that at last he said, " I had hoped that you 
 would have heard me ; but inasmuch as this clamour is raised to 
 drown my voice, it remaineth only for me to be silent." The 
 articles of accusation were then read ; some of them were absurd 
 enough, and even Huss himself could not forbear smiling at the 
 charge brought against him of maintaining the existence of four 
 Gods, but he was not allowed to reply to this or any other of the 
 
204 HISTORY OF GERMANY. " Chap. XXX» 
 
 articles. This mock enquiry lasted until the 6th of July, when 
 Huss was condemned to the flames, the Emperor Sigismund pro- 
 nouncing- sentence in these words : "If John Huss will not ab- 
 jure his heresies, we condemn him to be burnt ; if he will abjure 
 them, he shall nevertheless be forbidden again to preach or 
 return to Bohemia. His followers, and especially Jerome, shall 
 also be severely punished." Against this sentence the friends of 
 Huss vehemently protested as inconsistent with the safe-conduct 
 which the accused had received from the hands of the Emperor 
 himself; but Sigismund coldly replied that such a safe-conduct 
 could have no reference to a heretic, since neither the laws of 
 God nor of man required that faith should be kept with one who 
 obstinately opposed himself to the true belief. Day was just 
 beginning to dawn on the morning of the 6th of July, when tlie 
 Bishop of Riga, attended by four men-at-arms, entered the prison 
 and commanded Huss to follow him to the cathedral, where he 
 was detained a long time at the door, lest his presence should 
 desecrate the mass which they were performing within. The 
 church had been prepared for the occasion ; on a magnificent 
 throne sat the Emperor with the imperial sceptre in his liand and 
 the crown on his head, surrounded by princes of the empire, 
 cardinals, and bishops. In the midst of this assembly, on a high 
 table, lay a surplice and other robes, wliich were to be employed 
 in the ceremony of degrading Huss from the priesthood. The 
 business of the day was opened by a bishop, who preached a long 
 sermon from Romans vi. 1: "What shall we say then? Shall 
 we continue in sin that grace may abound ?" Another bishop 
 then mounted the steps of the reading-desk and read from 
 a paper the articles of accusation ; but whenever Huss attempted 
 to speak, he was silenced by cries of " Peace, heretic !" When 
 however in conclusion he was charged with having treated the 
 ban of the Pope with contempt, he raised his voice, exclaiming, 
 " That is false ; I publicly apj^ealed to a higher tribunal, and 
 came before this council to defend myself, trusting to the 
 Emperor's promise that no evil should befal me :" here he fixed 
 his eyes sternly on Sigismund, whose face was instantly covered 
 with the blush of conscious guilt. The papal commissary, 
 an old bald-headed man, then read the sentence by which John 
 Huss was condemned to the flames ; and the martyr, kneeling 
 down, prayed that God would forgive his murderers. Se^en 
 bishops, who were to perform the ceremony of degradation, next 
 
A.D. 1415. MARTYRDOM OF JOHN HUSS. 205 
 
 advanced, and put the robes on him, as if he were about to cele- 
 brate mass, placing at the same time the clialice in his hands. 
 The first act of degradation was the taking from him the chalice 
 with these words, "Thou accursed Judas! we take from thee 
 this cup, wherein the blood of Christ is offered up for the for- 
 giveness of sins, because thou hast abandoned the counsel of 
 peace." To which Huss meekly replied, " I trust that to-day I 
 sluiU drink of this cup in the kingdom of God." Then they 
 took from him tlie priestly vestments one by one, pronouncing a 
 curse as each portion was removed. "When they were about to 
 destroy his tonsure, a difference of opinion arose among tlie 
 bishops, whether it should be done with a razor or scissors. — 
 " See," said Huss, " they cannot even settle how I am to be 
 mocked." These ceremonies being completed, the bishops re- 
 conmiended his soul to the devil ; to which Huss rejoined — 
 " And / commend it to my Lord Jesus Christ." He was 
 then delivered over to the secular authorities, who placed 
 on his head a paper cap, half an ell in height, ornamented in 
 front with a representation of three devils, and the inscription — 
 " This is an arch heretic." On arriving at the place of execu- 
 tion, where a stake had been already fixed in the ground, Huss 
 fell on his knees, and lifting up his eyes to heaven, recited the 
 30th and 50th Psalms, often repeating the words, " Into thy 
 hand I commend my spirit, for thou hast redeemed me, O Lord, 
 thou God of truth." Many of the spectators who heard this 
 exclaimed, " What this man's former doctrine may have been we 
 know not, but surely these which we hear are holy words." Others 
 said, " Why is not a confessor allowed him ?" This last question 
 was addressed more immediately to a priest who sat close to the 
 stake, feasting his eyes on the preparations for execution. Start- 
 ing as if from a dream, the churchman stared angrily at the 
 crowd, and raising his voice to a pitch which made him distinctly 
 audible even to those who stood farthest from the prisoner, 
 shouted out, " Listen not to the heretic, there is no need to send 
 him a confessor." The paper cap having fallen from Huss's 
 head during his prayer, this man replaced it, saying, " Let the 
 devils and the devil's servant burn together." The executioner 
 then bound him with an old rusty chain and several cords : but 
 the faggots had yet to be brought : and Huss stood chained to 
 the stake whilst the attendants piled them around him. All 
 being at length ready, and the executioner about to apply his 
 Gy. n 
 
206 HISTORY OF GERMANS Y. Chap. XXX. 
 
 torch to the pile, the Duke of Bavaria rode up and promised 
 the prisoner that his life should be spared, if he would recant 
 his errors. To this Huss replied in a loud voice, " I call God to 
 witness that I have never either taught or written those things 
 with which false men have charged me ; but in all my teaching 
 I have sought only how best I might turn the people from their 
 sins, and lead them to the kingdom of God. The truth which I 
 nave taught I am now ready to seal with my blood." The exe- 
 cutioner then set fire to the pile, which was instantly enveloped 
 in flames : and the martyr, standing in the midst, was distinctly 
 heard to say, "O Christ, thou Son of God, have mercy upon 
 me." This he repeated twice, but at the third attempt the 
 flames caught his face, and only the words " Christ — Son of God" 
 were distinguishable. His lips continued in movement a few se- 
 conds longer, and then he bowed his head and died. As the fire 
 declined, the executioner and his men raked out his heart, which 
 was still entire, from the midst of the ashes, and fixing it on a 
 stake, held it in the flame until it was consumed. That nothing 
 might remain to be used as a relic by his disciples in Bohemia, 
 the Duke of Bavaria ordered his cloak, girdle, and other gar- 
 ments to be burnt, and the ashes of the whole pile, and even the 
 soil on which it stood, to be scraped together and thrown into the 
 Rhine. The putrid carcass of a mule was also buried on the 
 spot, and the vulgar taught to believe that the soul of the arch 
 heretic had parted from the body in a cloud of sulphur, leaving 
 this unsavoury odour behind it. Thus died Jolm Huss on his 
 forty-second birth-day. His disciple, Jerome of Prague, had fled 
 from Constance as soon as he found that there was no hope of 
 saving his friend ; but was soon arrested and thrown into prison, 
 where the pangs of hunger and sickness so wrought upon his 
 spirit that he recanted. When brought before the council, how- 
 ever, his courage returned, and he boldly declared that he would 
 not retract a tittle of what he had taught. So heroic was his 
 bearing, that Cardinal Poggio called him a second Cato. "I 
 will not abjure my belief," continued Jerome, " for my sainted 
 master hath wdth reason and justice written against your false 
 doctrines, your shameless lives and evil practices. Slay me, if ye 
 list, but in this belief will I live and die." When the executioner 
 was proceeding to light the faggots behind him, he called out, 
 *' Light them before my face : for if I had been afraid of fire, I 
 had not stood here this day." Having thus settled the question 
 
Sup. Chap. XXX. WICLIF. 207 
 
 of heresy, tlie council proceeded to the election of a Pope, an(i 
 chose an Italian cardinal, Martin V., who soon succeeded in re- 
 placins: the veil of thick darkness which had been in some mea- 
 sure witiidrawn from the abuses of the church. 
 
 Door of IIuss's Cell, Constance. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER XXX. 
 Ignorance of the Emperor Sicjhmund.—M the opening of this 
 council, Sigismund gave a singular proof of his ignorance and ar- 
 rogance. In his first address to the members he used this expres- 
 sio^'n, " Date operam, ut ilia nefanda schisma eradicetur ;''^ and 
 when one of the cardinals ventured to remark that " Schisma " was 
 of the neutei gender, the Emperor coolly replied, " Ego sum Rex 
 Roman us, et super grammaticam "— T am a Roman King, and 
 above the rules of grammar. 
 
 WicUf.—:So\m Wiclif was born about the year 1324, near 
 Richmond in Yorkshire. He seems first to have distmguislied 
 himself, during his residence at the university of Oxford, by a 
 controversy with the mendicant friars, wlio claimed tlie riglit ot 
 
 N 2 
 
'208 
 
 HISTOKY OF GERMANY. 
 
 Chap. XXX. 
 
 appointment to all academical offices. In the year 1 365 he pub- 
 lished a defence of the king's refusal to pay the tribute commonly 
 called "Peter's pence," a service which obtained for him the 
 friendship and protection of the famous John of Gaunt, to whose 
 influence he was more than once indebted for escape from the 
 machinations of his enemies. On his return from Bruges, whi- 
 ther he had been sent by the king in 1374 to discuss the question 
 of tribute with the Pope's legate, he published his " Trialogus," 
 in which the abuses of the papacy are powerfully attacked. His 
 views respecting the divine presence in the Eucharist seem not to 
 have been very different from those of Luther. He held also 
 that deadly sin in a bisliop or priest absolved the people from 
 their spiritual allegiance, and made the sacraments which he ad- 
 ministered of none effect ; that the possession of worldly goods 
 was not permitted to the clergy ; and that confession to a priest 
 ^vas unnecessary, provided men sincerely repented of their sins, 
 and sought forgiveness from God. In the year 1384 he was sud- 
 de-iily seized with mortal sickness, whilst performing mass in his 
 church at Lutterworth. Many years after Wiclif's death his 
 bones were disinterred and burnt by his enemies. Wiclif s most 
 impoi'tant work was a translation of the Bible into English, which 
 the authority of John of Gaunt prevented the bishops from sup- 
 pressing. His doctrine was carried into Bohemia by one of his 
 disciples, a nobleman, who had come to England in the suite 
 of Richard II.'s first wife, Anne of Bohemia. The followers 
 of Wiclif were called Lollards ; a name derived from the old 
 Flemish verb lollen or lullen * (to sing softly), and given origi- 
 * Hence the English word " lullaby." 
 
 Pope's Chair— Council uf Const-ance. 
 
1418. 
 
 THE HUSSITE WAR 
 
 209 
 
 nallv to a brotherhood established at Antwerp, for the purpose of 
 visiting the siek and burying the dead. It seems subsequently 
 to have been a common term of reproacli for all who resisted 
 tiie authority of Kome. One of these early reformers, Sir John 
 Oldcastle, Lord Cobham, suffered death for his religious opiiiions 
 in 1417. 
 
 CIIAPTER XXXI. 
 
 SUIISMUND— THE HUSSITE WAR. 
 Fn.m A.D. UlS to U.'5?. 
 
 Old P.ilace or To\vi,-HaU at Prague. 
 
 "When the ashes of John Huss were thrown into the Rhine, the 
 rulers of the church believed tliat his name had perished with his 
 body. But the people thought far otherwise. In Bohemia the 
 spirit of his teaching had spread far and wide, and would probal)ly 
 have extended into Germany, had not its progress been cliecked 
 by the estrangement between the two nations, which the unhappy 
 partiality of "Wenceslaus had produced some years before, and by 
 the inability of IIuss to preach in the German language. The 
 states of Boiiemia, having protested in strong terms against the 
 
 N 3 
 
210 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XXXI. 
 
 monstrous acts of the council, proceeded to pass a law, authori- 
 zing all landed proprietors to permit the preaching of Huss's doc- 
 trines on their estates. Many availed themselves of this permis- 
 sion, and gave public encouragement to the followers of the 
 Martyr, who were now called Hussites and "brethren of the 
 chalice," because their master had taught that the laity ought to 
 recei\'e the communion in both kinds. Pope Martin, immediately 
 after the breaking up of the council, had issued a bull of excom- 
 munication against all who should adhere to the heretical doc- 
 trines of John Huss. This proceeding, which was intended to 
 silence eifectually those who were discontented with the abuses in 
 the church, had a directly contrary effect. Scarcely had the bull 
 reached Prague, when crowds of men were seen parading the 
 streets in gloomy silence, or collected in groups discussing, in low 
 murmurs, some subject of deep interest, whilst their fierce coun- 
 tenances and menacing gestures showed that they contemplated 
 deeds of violence. They had not long to wait for an opportunity. 
 At the court of Wenceslaus there lived a tried warrior, named 
 John Ziska, who had fought with distinction in Poland, and was 
 now chief favourite of the king. To this knight the priesthood 
 were particularly hateful, because one of them had seduced and 
 abandoned his favourite sister. As a true Bohemian, too, he 
 detested the Germans. Since the execution of Huss, the man's 
 demeanour had undergone a total change : his frank, blunt man- 
 ner had given place to moody silence ; or he would wander for 
 l:ours about the palace with eyes fixed on the ground, muttering 
 from time to time words which were but imperfectly understood 
 by those who heard them. At length Wenceslaus himself en- 
 quired the cause. " They have burnt Huss," he replied, in a 
 hollow tone, " and Me have not yet avenged him." " I cannot 
 help it," said the King ; " you must try yourselves what you can 
 do." These words, which were spoken jestingly, Ziska pretended 
 to understand in sober earnest, and immediately called the Huss- 
 ites to arms. This was going further than Wenceslaus had in- 
 tended ; and, terrified at the prospect of an insurrection, he ordered 
 the citizens to bring all their weapons into the castle of Wisherad, 
 where he was then residing. The injunction was literally obeyed, 
 except that, instead of bringing their weapons in piles for the 
 purpose of depositing them in the castle, the burghers appeared, 
 armed to the teeth, and marching in military order, headed by 
 Ziska, who thus addressed the king : — " Here we are, most illus- 
 
A.D. 1410. THE HUSSITE WAR. 211 
 
 tiious and gracious sovereign, waiting to know against wliat 
 enemy it is your royal will that we should march." U lie wliole 
 city was now in confusion. The Hussites, bearing a chalice as 
 tlieir standard, marched in procession through the streets. As 
 they passed the town-hall, a stone was thrown at them : enraged 
 at this affront, they burst into the council-chamber, and threw 
 thirteen German counsellors out at the windows. Ziska at the 
 same time gave orders for storming the house of a priest (pro- 
 bably the seducer of his sister), and hanging him up at his own 
 door. Amidst these horrors the unfortunate King sat listening 
 to the roar of the enraged multitude ; and when it seemed to ap- 
 proach the castle, was seized with a fit of apoplexy, which put an 
 end to his life on the 16th of August, 1418. His death removed 
 the only restraint on the fury of the mob. They burst into con- 
 vents and churches, dashed the images in pieces, and tore the 
 clerical vestments into shreds, of which they made flags. Mean- 
 Avliile a priest, named Matthias Toczenicza, had erected in the 
 middle of one of the streets a sort of rude altar or table, and em- 
 ployed himself the whole of the day in administering the commu- 
 nion in both kinds to all who chose to receive it. But the more 
 substantial burgesses of Prague soon recollected how much they 
 Jiad to lose, and how little prospect there was of any advantage 
 adequate to the danger incurred. They therefore treated with 
 the widow of Wenceslaus, Queen vSophia, who still held out in 
 the castle of Wisherad, and sent a deputation to the Emperor to 
 propose an accommodation : but Sigismund dismissed the envoys 
 with insult, and swore a bloody revenge. Ziska, meanwhile, far 
 from countenancing these pacific measures, had led out the more 
 determined men of his party into the country, in order to raise 
 the peasantry. He called on all who could only throw a stone or 
 wield a staff, to unite and arm themselves against the enemies of 
 God. This appeal was answered by the assembling of an im- 
 mense crowd at Whitsuntide, 1419. They called themselves 
 God's people, named the hill on which they assembled Mount 
 Tabor, and pledged themselves to exterminate the Moabites and 
 Amalekites ; for by this name they designated the adherents of 
 the Pope. Ziska was chosen their leader, and thenceforth as- 
 sumed the title of " John Ziska of the chalice, Commander in the 
 hope of God of the Taborites." At the head of an irregufer 
 rabble of men, women, and children, he marched through the 
 land, plundering and burning churches and monasteries and com- 
 
212 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XXXI, 
 
 mitting the most wanton aggressions. Among other acts ol 
 cruelt}^, he is said to have confined several priests in pitched 
 barrels, and setting them on fire, to have exclaimed, as the un- 
 fortunate wretches screamed in the agonies of death, " Hark to 
 my sister's bridal song ! " The widow of Wenceslaus despatched 
 a force to destroy the insurgent army before their numbers should 
 increase ; but Ziska ordered the women who followed his camp 
 to take off their petticoats and veils, and throw them on the ground, 
 by v/hich manoeuvre the feet of the horses became so entangled, 
 that the insurgents gained an easy victory. In the month of 
 June, 1420, the Emperor entered Prague, threw twenty-four 
 Hussites into the river, and being reinforced by an army under 
 Frederick of Austria, attacked with 100,000 men a high hill near 
 the city, on which Ziska had entrenched himself. Here the pas- 
 sa"-e of the army was for a long time disputed by three heroic Bo- 
 liemian maidens, who refused to give way until they, were borne 
 down by numbers. After a long and fierce engagement the Ger- 
 mans were compelled to retire, leaving the enemy in possession 
 of their camp. This success of the Taborites drew crowds to 
 their standard. In all parts of the countr^^, the peasants, armed 
 with flails, which they wielded with terrible force and effect, were 
 formed into companies, and constructed a temporary barricade 
 wherever they halted, by chaining their waggons together. A 
 fresh rabble also appeared in a mountain near Ledecz, which 
 they named Mount Horeb, and themselves Horebites. In ]Mo- 
 ravia a sect arose, who professed to emulate the simplicity of 
 Paradise, walking about stark naked, and committing such gro^s 
 acts of folly as contributed not a little to bring the Hussite 
 doctrines into contempt. In the year 1421 Ziska made a 
 progress through the country, burning all the convents, and put- 
 ting to death hmidreds of these fanatics, who were known by the 
 title of Adamites. The discipline of his army was cruelly se- 
 vere. It was forbidden to quit the ranks, on pain of death, to 
 plunder or burn v/ithout orclers, or to appropriate even the smallest 
 portion of booty before the general distribution. The same pun- 
 ishment was inflicted on liars, gamblers, and unchaste persons. 
 Ziska, who had many years before lost an eye in the Polish wais, 
 was this year reduced to total blindness by an accident which 
 befell him as he was besieging the town of Eaby. He had 
 climbed a tree, the better to observe the enemy's operations, when 
 a cannon-ball struck the branches, and forced some of the splinters 
 
A.D. 1422. THE HUSSITE WAR. 213 
 
 into his remaining* eye. Yet he still commanded his army ^ith 
 as much courage and vigour as before, travelling in a carriage, 
 which was always stationed near the great standard. His progress 
 was like that of the destroying angel ; wherever he marched his 
 course might be tracked by heaps of dead bodies and the light of 
 blazing towns ; for if admittance into any place was refused him 
 lie slew and burnt without mercy. The man's constitution seems, 
 like his heart, to have been of iron. Night and day he compelled 
 liis troops to march without taking any rest, until, wearied out 
 and fainting with fotigue, they complained that darkness and light 
 might be the same to him, as he was blind, but that it was not so 
 with them. " What !" exclaimed he in affected surprise, " cannot 
 you see ? Light up a couple of villages, then." Meanwhile the 
 moderate party in Prague, and the nobles of the country, scan- 
 dalized and terrified at these disorders, and anxiously longing for 
 peace, assembled a diet and agreed on the following articles : — 
 " 1. Freedom of preaching; 2. The communion in both kinds; 
 3. Poverty of the priests, and appropriation of all ecclesiastical 
 property ; 4. The extirpation of all sins, namely, those of a moral 
 kind, as well as those more directly punishable by law." This 
 last article seems to have been added for the sake of conciliating* 
 the Taborites. It was also proposed by the moderate party to 
 offer the crown to Coribut, son of the Duke of Lithuania ; but the 
 wild Horebites and Taborites, who had been accustomed to live in 
 their waggon fortresses in a sort of republican equality, had no 
 inclination to become the subjects of a king, or allow the inter- 
 ference of nobles in their affairs. Finding how hopeless their 
 cause was, the nobles abandoned the insurgents, and repaired to 
 Tglau, where the emperor was then residing ; whilst the burghers 
 of Prague, seeing no prospect of assistance from any other quarter, 
 were constrained to open their gates to Ziska, who entered the 
 city in solemn procession, the host being borne before him in a 
 golden pyx, and the whole population of Prague falling on their 
 knees as it passed. In January, 1422, the emperor put his army 
 in motion against Ziska, who marched out of Prague to meet him. 
 Both parties acted with the greatest circumspection ; but the 
 Hussite army was at length surrounded by a skilful manoeuvre of 
 the imperialists. With desperate courage the Hussites cut their 
 way by night through the enemy, a great number of whom were 
 drowned in attempting to cross tiie river Sazewa, which was im- 
 
214 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XXXT. 
 
 perfectly frozen. Ziska attacked the survivors, overthrew them 
 with great slaugliter, and under the shadow of the imperial ban- 
 ners, which he had captured, conferred knighthood on the bravest 
 of the Taborites. The emperor now endeavoured to gain over 
 Ziska by presents and flattering messages ; but the veteran leader 
 remained inflexible, and soon afterwards died of the plague, in the 
 month of October, 1424. On his death-bed he commanded that 
 his body should be flayed after his decease, and a drum covered 
 with the skin, that his followers might still hear as it were the 
 voice of Ziska whenever they went forth to battle. The appear- 
 ance of this extraordinary man v/as as remarkable as his actions. 
 A bald bullet head, seamed with a deep crooked furrow across the 
 brow, surmounted a pair of shoulders of preposterous breadth as 
 compared with the shortness of his legs and body ; whilst an ex- 
 pression of fierceness was given to the face by a nose like the beak 
 of an eagle, and a fiery red moustache on the upper lip. Many 
 years after his death, when the Emperor Ferdinand I. visited his 
 burial-place at Cyazlow, and saw the massive iron mace which 
 was Ziska's favourite weapon, he is said to have recoiled in horror, 
 exclaiming, " How terrible must this man have been in life, when 
 even after death the sight of his arms can inspire such dread !" 
 After Ziska's death the majority of the Horebites chose Procopius 
 Holy for their leader, whilst the minority, styling themselves 
 " Ziska's orphans," vowed never again to submit to the nde of 
 mortal man, or sleep under a roof. Pope Martin V. published a 
 crusade against them, and sent Heniy Beaufort, Cardinal of Win- 
 chester, to rouse the Germans. But in the year 1431 the imperial 
 army was totally and disgracefully defeated by the Hussites, all 
 their artillery and baggage falling into the hands of the enemy. 
 Sigismund now offered them the right hand of fellowship, but his 
 proposals being received coldly, he left the prosecution of the 
 afifair to the council which had lately assembled at Basle. To this 
 council the Bohemians were invited, and on the 9th July, 1433, 
 three hundred of them entered the city on horseback, where they 
 were received with all honour, and the four articles of Prague 
 conceded to them under certain modifications : the Bohemians 
 consenting to receive Sigismund as th.eir king, and he on his part 
 eno-aging to procure the sanction of the Pope to the establishment 
 of their national religion in Bohemia. Still the Taborites and 
 " Orphans " were discontented, but were finally overthrown in a 
 
Sup. Chap. XXXI. THE REFOllMEIlS OF PRAGUE. 215 
 
 tremendous battle near Prague on the 20tli ^lay, 1434. In tlie 
 year 1438 the emperor died, and with him ended the Luxembourg 
 dynasty. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER XXXI. 
 
 The Tteformers of Prague. — The support which the Bohemian 
 reformers received from Wenceslaus was the result of avarice 
 rather than of religious conviction. Large sums of money had 
 been witlidrawn from the kingdom for the purchase of indulgences 
 (warrants for remission of sin), which the Pope freely promised 
 to all who were willing to pay for them. To the Archbisliop of 
 Prague, w^ho urged the necessity of checking the heretical pro- 
 ceedings of Huss and his disciples, Wenceslaus bluntly replied, 
 " What, kill the goose * that lays golden eggs ! it were a better 
 deed to wring the necks of yon capons who are crowing and cack- 
 ling about us :" a reply which seems to have been vehemently 
 applauded by the citizens, who had just witnessed the disgraceful 
 spectacle of an indulgence-monger dragged by Jerome of Prague 
 out of a wine-house, w^here he had been drinking in company with 
 two women of the town. 
 
 * In the Bohemian language '' Huss " signifies '' goose," and " Luther" 
 ''swan." Hence the prophecy asc}ibed to the Bohemian reformer : — " Ye 
 are now roasting .a goose, but a hundred years hence ye will have to deal 
 with a swan." 
 
2ia 
 
 HISTORY OF GERMANY, 
 
 Chap. XXXII. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXII. 
 
 ALBERT II. FEEDERICK III. 
 
 From A.D. 1438 to 1493. 
 
 Investiture of Duke John of Bavaria, a.d. 1417. 
 
 Sigismund's son-in-law, Albert, was elevated by the electors in 
 1438 to the throne of Germany, which from that period to the 
 dissolution of the empire continued to be filled in an almost un- 
 interrupted succession by princes of the house of Austria. After 
 a short reign of hardly two years Albert died, universally honoured 
 and regretted, on his return from an expedition against the Turks 
 in Hungary. Shortly after his death the Empress Elizabeth bore 
 a son named Ladislaus, who was placed under the guardianship 
 of his cousin, Frederick of Styria, a prince of whom little was 
 known except that he had once made a pilgrimage to the holy 
 sepulchre and roamed about among the mountains of Palestine. 
 Being, however, the eldest representative of the mighty house of 
 Ilabsburg, it was deemed expedient to elect him emperor. A short 
 time was sufficient to show how injudicious the choice had been. 
 
A.D. 1439. FREDElllCK III. 217 
 
 It wiis not until after eleven weeks' deliberation tnat Frederick 
 eoiisented to accept tlie imperial crown. A man of quiet, indo- 
 lent, harmless character, he mi^^ht have vegetated in a cloister 
 without discredit, or fulfilled unblameably the limited duties of a 
 citizen ; but as an emperor he was not only ridiculous, but mis- 
 chievous. His wliole time was spent in the study of astrology, 
 the cultivation of his garden, and the scholastic amusement of 
 cap[)ing verses.* Yet this incapable being was destined to reign 
 over the empire for fifty-three years, at a time when the affairs 
 both of church and state required a vigorous and steady hand at 
 tlie helm. During the long peace which followed his election the 
 enqnre liad indeed time to undergo some improvements in its 
 internal machinery ; but the constant struggles between tlie sj)!- 
 ritual and temporal powers, and the disputes of princes, great and 
 small, were exhausting the energies of the whole body, and ren- 
 dering it incapable of exertion. 
 
 The council of Basle still continued its session. After settling 
 the r)ohemian question, it was debated whether something might 
 not be done towards reforming the more crying abuses of tlie 
 cluu-ch ; for the example of the Hussites had warned the assembled 
 fathers that unless some change were made, discontent would pro- 
 bably spread itself through the empire. They therefore took 
 measures to restrain the profligacy of the clergy, the desecration 
 of churches by wakes and fairs, and some of the more notorious 
 acts of corruption on the part of the papal see. These resolu- 
 tions of the council were confirmed by the diet of Mentz in 1439 ; 
 but the Pope refusing to ratify them, the council superseded him, 
 and elected Felix V. Had all this happened in the days of the 
 Hohenstaufens, the Emperor would probably have profited by 
 such a beginning ; " but," to use the language of an excellent 
 German historian, " the imperial crown had now become a night- 
 ctip ;" and while Frederick went dozing on, Rome bade defiance 
 to public opinion. At his first diet at Frankfort-on-the-Main 
 Frederick had solemnly crowned with laurel an Italian poet 
 
 * On the covers of his books and almost every piece of furniture were 
 the letters A. E. I. 0. U., a riddle on which men exercised their ingenuity 
 in vain during the Emperor's lifetime. After his death the explanation wag 
 found among his papers in his own handwriting : — 
 
 Anstritc Est Tmpei'are Orbi Universo. 
 Alles Erdreich 1st Uesterreich Untei-than. 
 
 The whole world is subject to Austria. 
 
 Gv. 
 
2l8 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XXXII. 
 
 named JEneas Sylvius Piccoluomini, who had acted as secretary 
 to the council of Basle, and been commissioned by them to treat 
 with the Emperor. Entering into Frederick's service as private 
 secretary, he was sent to Pope Eugenius IV., with a proposal that 
 he should submit himself to the decision of the council. But the 
 crafty Italian again changed masters, became a priest, and wrote 
 both against the c^^uncil and the Emperor. Caspar Schlick, his 
 ancient friend, seconded his arguments at the imperial court; 
 Frederick, naturally a bigot, soon took the part of the Pope ; and 
 the council, wearied out, at length gave up the contest, with the 
 exception of the temporal princes, who protested against a return 
 to the abuses of the church, and sent George of Heimburg to re- 
 monstrate with the Pope. But while this rough envoy was linger- 
 ing at Rome, and thinking, for lack of better argument, that he 
 did good service in abusing the Pope, the wily -3Sneas Sylvius 
 sent his emissaries into every part of Germany, and by dint of 
 bribery overcame the feeble resistance of the council. Eugenius 
 died soon afterwards, and his successor Nicholas V. concluded 
 separately with each of the German princes, as he could gain 
 them over, what is called the " concordat of Yienud," in which it 
 was provided that " all the resolutions of the council of Basle, in 
 so far as they related to tlie circumscribing of papal privileges, 
 should be null and void." 
 
 In Hungary tlie infant Ladislaus, son of the late Emperor, 
 had been crowned by the German party; but a threatened 
 invasion of the Turks rendering it necessary to have a man 
 of action at the head of the government, the people chose Ladis- 
 laus of Poland, who was conquered and slain by the Turks at 
 Varna soon after his election. In Bohemia the German Ladislaus 
 was universally recognised as king, but the powers of government 
 were exercised by the heads of two factions, Meinhard and 
 Ptaczek. After the death of the latter, George of Podiebrad, 
 a brave Avarrior, became leader of the more popular party, sur- 
 prised Prague, threw his rival into prison, and was made sole 
 regent. In Austria, one Sitzinger, a native of Bavaria, exercised 
 unlimited influence over the states : — thus in each of the hereditary 
 dominions of the Emperor and his ward, the people were ruled 
 with absolute authority by a power almost independent of the 
 indolent Frederick and his young cousin. In 1452 the Emperor 
 married tlie beautiful Eleanor of Portugal, who met him at 
 Sienna in Italy : and after his coronation the marriage was cele- 
 
A.D. 1471 FREDERICK HI. 219 
 
 biated witli great pomp at Naples, the fountains of the city 
 being' made to rmi with wine, and tables spread for the entertain- 
 ment of 30,000 guests. The following year the city of Constan- 
 tinople was taken by Sultan Mohammed II., and the easterji 
 empire destroyed. All Christendom was horror-struck at the intel- 
 ligence of this disaster ; Pope Nicholas proclaimed a crusade against 
 the Turks, while ^neas Sylvius preached with fiery eloquence, and 
 left no means untried to rouse the people. His chief instrument 
 in this work was an Italian monk, named John Capistrano, wlio 
 travelled through Bavaria, Bohemia, Silesia, and Hungary, ac- 
 companied by a German and Sclavonic interpreter, and preached 
 tlie crusade in imitation of Peter the Hermit. The eloquence of 
 tliis man, even diluted as it must have been by passing through 
 tlie process of translation into another language, was so over- 
 powering, that in many towns the people brought all their articles 
 of luxury, rich dresses, carriages, cards and dice, into the market- 
 place, and burnt them amidst groans and lamentations. Portraits 
 of tlie monk were exhibited with chains hanging out of his mouth, 
 to represent the power of his eloquence over the people. In 
 Silesia lie preached furiously against the Jews, and all the Jews 
 in the land were burnt. But all this fanaticism confined itself to 
 acts of penance and persecution, none caring to lace the enemy 
 in the field. The defence of eastern Europe was therefore left 
 to th.e Hungarians, who stormed Belgrade, and drove the Turks 
 across the Danube. Ladislaus, King of Poland, dying in 1457, 
 the people elevated Matthias Corvinus to the throne ; whilst the 
 Bohemians chose their brave leader, George of Podiebrad, to be 
 their king. For these losses the Emperor was easily consoled by 
 a present of 60,000 ducats from Matthias, and the promise of 
 George to assist him against the rebellious people of Vienna. 
 George of Bohemia died in 1471, and was succeeded by Ladislaus, 
 King of Poland. 
 
 During the years occupied by these occurrences in Bohemia 
 little or nothing had been done for the benefit or credit of the 
 German empire. A diet assembled in 1466 at Ulm, and anotlier 
 in 1471 at Ratisbon, where a general armament against the 
 Turks was proposed ; but it had now become the custom to em- 
 ploy mercenary troops, and none of the princes were willing to 
 })ay them. Frederick, despised by all, and so poor that his horses 
 were seized by a farrier, and kept as security for his bill, liad now 
 the additional misery of bodily suffering. An abscess in one of 
 
 (> 2 
 
220 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XXXII. 
 
 his feet, occasioned by his constant habit of openmg doors with a 
 kick, had rendered amputation necessary, and as he lay solitary 
 and in pain, he is said to have uttered the desponding exclama- 
 tion, " better be a sound beggar than a sick Roman Emperor." 
 lie had, as we have seen, lost the rich inheritance of his house, 
 Bohemia and Hungary ; was contemptible as an Emperor, lightly 
 esteemed even by his own vassals in Austria, and constantly 
 threatened with invasion by the Turks. One hope alone remained, 
 to marry his young son Maximilian to Mary, the only daughter 
 and heiress of Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, who liad 
 already distinguished himself as a warrior in a battle at Montlhery, 
 wliere the French were defeated by the Burgundians. 
 
 At a meeting of the two sovereigns at Treves the hand of the 
 young Burgundian princess was formally demanded by the Em- 
 peror on behalf of his son. But an unexpected obstacle arose : 
 Charles wished to be recognised as King of Burgundy, whilst 
 Frederick was anxious that at least the marriage should be so- 
 lemnized before he gave his consent to such an assumiDtion of 
 dignity. This diiference of opinion produced a misunderstanding 
 wliich was aggravated by the intrigues of Louis XL of France, 
 and Frederick quitted Treves in disgust. After the Duke's 
 death, however, Mary succeeded in persuading the Netherlanders 
 to seek an alliance with Maximilian, who joyfully obeyed the 
 summons, and entered the city of Ghent clad in bright armour, 
 with no covering on his head except a bridal circlet of gold, 
 studded with precious stones, which was wreathed in his long fair 
 hair. His affianced bride came out to meet him at the head of a 
 gallant train of nobles and ladies, and falling on her knees by his 
 side welcomed him with expressions of the tenderest affection. 
 But the domestic Iiappiness which had begun so auspiciously was 
 destroyed by a lamentable accident. His beautiful wife, who han 
 borne him a son and a daughter, died in 1482, in consequence of 
 a fall from her horse, leaving Maximilian to struggle not only 
 with the grief occasioned by her death, but with the fury of the 
 discontented Netherlanders, who now considered themselves ab- 
 solved from their allegiance. At Liege the citizens rose against 
 their bishop, and admitted William de la Marck, generally called 
 " the Wild Boar of Ardennes," into the city.* After putting 
 
 * Sir Walter Scott, iu ' Queutiu Durward/ has added greatly to the 
 fearful interest of his story by mixing the events of this insurrection -udtlx 
 those of the former, which occurred in the lifetime of Charles the Bold, 
 
Sup. Ciiap. XXXIT. CHARLES OF BURGUNDY. 221 
 
 1]h\ bisliop to deatli, this adventurer took possession of the place 
 m the name of France, but was soon afterwards beheaded by 
 Maximilian, Avho had recently concluded a treaty of peace with 
 tiic French king-. The Flemings, however, still refused to submit 
 to a prince who neither understood nor valued their privileo-es. 
 At Bruges the citizens, mistaking the evolutions of his merce- 
 naries for an attack, displayed the thirty-two banners of their 
 guilds, and marching to tlie market-place disarmed the troops, 
 and took INIaximilian prisoner. Even the Emperor was roused 
 by this insult, and sent a German army into Flanders which 
 speedily compelled the people of Bruges to release his son. 
 During these events Matthias of Hungary had invaded Austria, 
 and made himself master of Vienna, which was re-taken by the 
 imperialists in 1490. 
 
 At length in the year 1493 Frederick ended his long and in- 
 glorious reign. He left Germany torn and weakened by the 
 dissensions of rival factions ; Italy partly republican, partly ruled 
 by petty sovereigns; the Roman states misgoverned by Alex- 
 ander VI. — one of the most profligate wretches that tlie Morld 
 ever produced ; the church unreformed, and the spirit of inquiry 
 into her abuses apparently crushed. Frederick was the last Em- 
 peror who received the imperial crown from the hands of the Pope. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER XXXII. 
 
 Charles of Burgundy. — The grandfather of Charles had been 
 a prisoner at Constantinople, where he imbibed notions of mag- 
 nificence, which he put into practice on his return to Burgundy. 
 His son Philip followed his example ; and both were outdone by 
 Charles, whose court was the most brilliant in Europe. The 
 boundless wealth of the Netherlands, then the great emporium 
 of manufactures, provided him with inexhaustible funds for the 
 gratification of his expensive inclinations. His court glittered 
 with jewels, gold, and the richest productions of the Flemisli 
 loom. Brussels set the fashion of dress to all Europe. Instead 
 of the simple garb of their ancestors, the men now wore hats 
 with waving plumes, puffed sleeves and hose, and the women 
 Turkish caps, with long veils hanging down behind. TJieatrical 
 rei)resentations and masques, or mummeries, formetl a principal 
 part of the amusements of this luxurious court. The Strasbui-g 
 Clironicle contains a curious account of Charles's weddinu: feast 
 
222 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XXXII. 
 
 on the occasion of his marriage with Margaret of York, sister of 
 Edward IV. of England, " Anno 1468 ; he held his marriage 
 feast at Bruges ; there was much costly pomp, and the dining 
 hall was hung with cloth of gold. He and the bride wore golden 
 robes. On the table stood fifty ships laden with roast meat, and 
 by each ship a boat full of vegetables. Then came a lion, out 
 of the jaws of which four singers sang harmoniously; then a 
 griffin, out of which there flew a flock of birds ; then a tower 
 from the windows whereof six bears growled a bass ; and the&t 
 were followed by wolves and he-goats with pipes and flutes, and 
 lastly by asses, which sang deliciously. Then the apes danced a 
 Moorish dance round the tower. Lastly there came a whale, 
 out of which twelve wild men sprang and fought with one 
 another. The dinner was every day set on table in 800 great 
 silver dishes." 
 
 Invention of the Art of PrifUitig. — The art of printing with 
 moveable types was invented by John Guttenberg at Mentz, 
 about the year 1440. Long before that period, however, wood 
 plates had been used at Haarlem in Holland, for printing repre- 
 sentations of saints, playing cards, and even short elementary 
 t?chool books. The first printed book bearing a date is an im- 
 pression of the Psalms, which appeared in 1457 ; but others exist 
 which are evidently the production of an earlier period. In 
 conjunction with his partners, Fust and Schoffer, Guttenberg 
 brought the art to such perfection that he was enabled in the 
 year 1462 to publish a complete edition of the Latin Scriptures, 
 which vvas sold for 30 gold florins the copy. Previously to the 
 invention of printing the price had been from 400 to 500. The 
 cause of this diflTerence in value was not merely the rapidity with 
 which copies were now produced, but also the saving eflPected by 
 the cheapness of the material, linen paper, which was invented 
 in 1318, and soon took the place of parchment. Among the 
 earliest productions of the press are the satirical works of Ulrich 
 von Hutten (who severely lashes the clergy in his 'Epistolas 
 Obscurorum Virorum/ as well as his German verses), the ' Ship 
 of Fools,' of Sebastian Brand, and the Shrovetide mummeries 
 of Hans Sachs, the cobbler of Niirnberg ; all satires more or less 
 coarse on the follies of the age, and the ignorance and licentious- 
 ness of the priesthood. The famous Eulenspiegel, or German 
 Joe Miller, was also published towards the end of the fifteenth 
 (•entury. The worthy whose name it bears (Till Eulenspiegel) 
 
A.D. 14U3. 
 
 MAXIINIILIAN I. 
 
 223 
 
 is siippoflccl to liavo flonrisliccT (if lie ever existed at all) at tlio 
 beginning of tlie fourteenth century, and to liavo died at the timo 
 of the black pestilence. Tlie work was originally written in low 
 German, but has since been translated into most Eiu-opean lan- 
 guages. The monks, who foresaw the.storm which this new art was 
 destined to raise against them, endeavoured to prejudice the lower 
 classes against it by representing it as an invention of the devil. 
 Hence the well known legend of Dr. Faustus, in whose name we 
 cannot fail to recognize that of Fust, the printer of Mentz. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXITI. 
 
 MAXIMILIAN I. 
 
 From A.D. 1493 to miO. 
 
 George of Frundsberg. — Armour preserved in the Ambras Museum, Vienna. 
 
 Maximilian was in person such a hero as minstrels love to 
 celebrate in their songs of chivalry ; and his disposition was in 
 many respects _thc counterpart of this fair exterior ; cheeifiil 
 
224 HISTORif' OF GERMAXY OlFAP. XXXTII. 
 
 lively, full of conversational talent and wit, he presented to 
 the eye of the casual observer a striking contrast to his heavy, 
 pedantic father. But those who studied human nature more 
 deeply were forced to acknowledge that the same littleness of 
 mind which had made Frederick contemptible was not unlikely 
 to prevent his son from persevering in any great or comprehen- 
 sive measures. To be the first knight at the tournament, the first 
 hunter in the field, were distinctions much more gratifying to his 
 taste than to acquire by slow and painful steps the character of a 
 sage politician or an experienced general. In the Tyrol is still 
 shown the steep precipice called the Martinswand (AYall of St. 
 Martin), where he lost his way in pursuit of the chamois, and 
 could neither advance nor descend, until, as the legend tells, an 
 angel appeared and guided him back to the plain. At another 
 time he exhibited himself to the citizens of Ulm, standing m ith 
 one foot on the balustrade of the cathedral tower, and enjoyed 
 the applause which this fool-hardy exploit drew from the cro\\'d 
 below. His memorandum book still exists, and exhibits a curious 
 picture of his character, as well as of the tunes. There are 
 sundry little notices of how such and such a fish was taken, and 
 how it was dressed ; how such and such a weajion was forged ; 
 what allowance the governor of a distant fortress required for 
 his support ; where a pretty story might be read, and so forth. 
 He himself dictated a history of his life to his private secretary, 
 under the allegorical title of the " White King." A metrical 
 biography (Theuerdank, the Adventurer) was also \\Titten by 
 Pfinzing, of Niirnberg. But these are rather the records of a 
 knight errant's romantic exploits, than chronicles of an imperial 
 reign. From time to time, nevertheless, flashes of the old Ho- 
 henstaufen spirit blazed forth. He would march against the 
 Turks, again incorporate Italy with the empire, chastise the 
 msolence of France : in a word, act the part of a mighty Ger- 
 man Emperor. But the first difficulty generally disgusted him ; 
 and his ambitious projects were abandoned as hastily as conceived. 
 The only feasible means of improving his position he overlooked 
 or neglected. Had he taken the part of the people, among whom 
 his manners rendered him very popular, and furthered the cause 
 of the Reformation, he might have found means of humbling tne 
 proud aristocracy of Gennany, who trampled on the rights of tne 
 Emperor as well as on those of his subjects. It is true that 
 «ome attempts were made to reform the political condition of the 
 
A.n. 1497. MAXIMILIAN 1 225 
 
 Empire. A general peace was proclaimed, which eacn ])rince 
 observed or not, as he thouglit fit : a supreme court of justice 
 was instituted, but it wanted the power to enforce its decisions. 
 A post-office was established, under the direction of the Count 
 of Thurn and Taxis ; but the badness of the roads rendered it 
 almost useless. In order to obtain funds for the exigencies of 
 the Empire, Maximilian prevailed on the states to grant a sub- 
 sidy for four years, called the " common penny," which was a sort 
 of property-tax of one penny in the thousand ; but this contribu- 
 tion, insignificant as it appears, was very irregularly paid, and 
 the Emperor remained as poor as ever. Even a subsidy for the 
 defence of the Empire against the Turks was refused, on the 
 plea that Italy, Burgundy, Switzerland, and the Netherlands con- 
 tributed nothing. At a diet lield at Worms in 1497, the old 
 Archbishop of Mentz (tlie only electoral prince who appeared 
 m person) complained bitterly of this luke^varmness. '* Take 
 heed," said he, " lest a stranger come upon you, who will rule 
 us all with a rod, aye, and that of iron." It was, however, in 
 this reign that the empire was first divided into circles. Germany 
 was filled with electorates, dukedoms, earldoms, bishoprics, 
 imperial cities, &c., which jealously insisted on their independence, 
 though none of them separately was strong enough to maintain 
 order. To remedy this state of things, a union of the diflTerent 
 states had been effected in Swabia for the purpose of mutual 
 protection. This example was now followed throughout the 
 emi)ire, which was divided into ten circles, each forming a union 
 like that of Swabia. These circles were: Austria, Bavaria, 
 Franconia, Swabia, Upper Rhine, Electoral Ehine, Burgundy, 
 AVestphalia, and Upper and Lower Saxony. Bohemia, Silesia, 
 INIoravia, Lusatia, and Prussia, were not included in this division. 
 The Swiss confederacy had been incorporated with the circle of 
 Swabia, but they refused to sanction this arrangement, separated 
 themselves from the Empire, and overthrew the imperial forces 
 at Schwaderloch. Peace was now concluded ; and the Swiss con- 
 federation, to which they were allowed to annex Basle, Schaft- 
 liausen, and Appenzell, declared an independent power. 
 
 Many years were employed in struggles between the French 
 and Germans for the possession of Upper Italy. Venice sur- 
 rendered to the Emperor, but having again revolted, was attacked 
 by George of Fiundsberg, with a chosen body of German soldiers 
 (Lanchknechtcn, Lansquenets, a sort of mercenaries, who served 
 
 o 3 
 
226 HISTORY OF GERMANY Chap. XXXIll. 
 
 on foot and were at that time in much repute). The Venetian 
 commander had invited a great number of ladies to witness what 
 he supposed would be the certain defeat of the Germans ; but to 
 his unspeakable mortification not only was his large army beaten 
 by an insignificant force, but the fair Venetians themselves taken 
 prisoners. In 1516 Maximilian endeavoured to raise forces for a 
 Turkish war. But a mightier contest was at hand. " We must 
 fight," Avrote Ulrich von liutten, " not against the Turks, hut 
 against the PopeT 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER XXXIII. 
 
 Battle of the Spurs. — In the year 1513 the Emperor renounced 
 his alliance with the King of France, and joining Henry VIII. of 
 England defeated the French near Terouenne. This engagement 
 has been called the Battle of the Spurs, from the haste with which 
 tlie French knights fled from the field. 
 
 Tribunal of the Imperial Chamber — (Reichskammergericht). 
 — This court was established by Maximilian I., in the year 1495, 
 for the purpose of settling disputes among the nobles, and adminis- 
 lering justice generally throughout the Empire. The chamber 
 consisted of a president appointed by the Emperor and sixteen 
 judges, half of whom were nobles and the other half lawyers. All 
 these functionaries were chosen by the Emperor out of a list pre- 
 sented to him by the States, and held their offices for life. The 
 first sessions of the imperial chamber were held at Frankfort on 
 the Main, and subsequently in succession at "Worms, Niirnberg, 
 Augsburg, Ratisbon, and Wetzlar. This court took cognizance 
 of all questions of civil right between the states of the Empire, 
 and its judgment was without appeal. There was also another 
 tribunal termed the Aulic Council (Reichshofrath), which sat at 
 the imperial residence, and decided questions immediately affecting 
 the interest or honour of the crown, or the hereditary dominions 
 of the Emperor. This council, until the reign of Maximilian I., 
 was nothing more than a court of appeal for the Duchy of Austria. 
 As its functions ceased on the demise of the crown, a fresh ap- 
 pointment was always made by the new Emperor. 
 
 Maximilia7i becoines a candidate for the papal throne. — Tiie 
 warlike character of Pope Julius II. may perhaps have suggested 
 to Maximilian the extraordinary idea of himself becoming a can- 
 didate for the papacy. A soldier, he would naturally suppose, 
 
Sup. Chap. XXXIII. HOUSE OF ORANGE. 227 
 
 might as reasonably become a pope as a pope a soldier. That 
 he once had such an intention, although he never followed it up, 
 is clear, from a letter of his to tlie Minister Lichtenstein. " And 
 forasmuch as Pope Julius hath lately been sick unto death, and 
 all men at Rome did think that he would have departed : there- 
 fore have we resolved within ourselves to follow up, as far as may 
 be, the plan on which we have before touched, and to deal m sucJi 
 sort as we may attain unto the said popedom : and thereupon 
 have we now proposed the said matter unto Cardinal Adriano 
 (the which was long time with us in Germany). The same doth 
 advise us heartily thereunto, and thinketh there Avill be no lack 
 of Cardinals, and at the hearing thereof hath wept for joy. But 
 inasmuch as such a matter may not be brought about without a 
 handsome sum of money, we have thought good to disclose our 
 plan, when necessity requireth it, unto the cardinals ; and hereby 
 promise to aid them and other our helpers in this matter to the 
 extent of thrice a hundred thousand ducats." Indeed Julius him- 
 self remarked that he should have been emperor, and that Maxi- 
 milian should have been pope. Maximilian, on the contrary, 
 thought that the world might easily have dispensed with either 
 for a governor, and is said to have once exclaimed : " Eternal 
 God, how would it fare with the w^orld if thou hadst not a special 
 care over it whilst under such an emperor as I, m ho am only 
 a sorry hunter, and under so wicked a pope as Julius II. ! " 
 
 Hise of the house of Orange m Holland. — In the year 1514 
 the Dutch, terrified by the atrocities of a pirate named " Groot 
 Peter" (Big Peter), clmig to the Empire for protection ; and 
 were placed under the imperial Stattholder, Count Henry of 
 Nassau, who had married the heiress of the French house of 
 Orange, and assuming his wife's family name founded the dis- 
 tmguished house of Orange. 
 
228 
 
 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 
 
 Chap. XXXIY. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIV. 
 
 THE REFORMATION. CONDITION OF THE CHURCH AT THE BEGINNINCr 
 
 OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. — EARLY LIFE OF MARTIN LUTHER. 
 
 From A.D. 1483 to 1508. 
 
 Messenger of the Imperial Chamber. 
 
 So miserably had the corruptions and inventions of men dis- 
 figured the church at the beginning of the sixteenth century, 
 tliat it would have been difficult for one of the Apostles, had he 
 been permitted to revisit the eartn, to recognise in her that 
 simple and holy society of believers for Avhich the Lord took 
 upon Him the form of a servant, and died in agony upon the 
 cross. The essential doctrines of the Christian faith, although 
 
A.D. 1483. CONDITION OF THE CHURCH. 229 
 
 never formally abandoned, had been grievously overlaid by a 
 mass of uiiautlioritative traditions and leg-ends, the study of Avhicn 
 seems in many instances to have superseded that of the Scripture 
 itself to a very considerable extent ; for at a subsequent period 
 Carlstadt himself declared, that although he had taken the degree 
 of Doctor in Divinity, he had never yet read the whole Bible. 
 
 The sermons of this period were, for the most part, mere re- 
 commendations of the abuses and errors which prevailed in the 
 church. In many places, and at particular seasons of the year, 
 their professed object was to excite the merriment of the congre- 
 gation by loose jests and disgusting vulgarity. During what 
 was called the Easter revel for instance, one preacher would 
 amuse his hearers by crying " cuckoo," another would gabble 
 like a goose, a third would throw his cowl over a layman's head, 
 and haul him blindfold about the church, whilst a fourth would 
 relate a legend, invented for the nonce, of the Apostle Peter ; 
 a jolly reveller, so ran the tale, who, after drinking his fill at a 
 tavern, used to escape payment of the reckoning by some trick of 
 low knavery. Frederick Mecum, preacher and superintendent of 
 Gotha, gives us, in his History of the Reformation, from the year 
 1517 to 1542, the results of his own experience. " Christ," says 
 lie, " was described as a stern judge, who would damn as many 
 as neglected to obtain the intercession of the saints, of whom the 
 Popes were continually making fresh batches. They also taught 
 that heaven was to be bought by good works, and that the man 
 who had not himself performed a sufficient number of them to 
 eiisure his salvation, might make up the deficiency by purchasing 
 from tliose who had more than they wanted. On the otlier hand 
 lie Avho thought lightly of these works, and died in his obstinacy, 
 must go to hell, or at least into purgatory, and burn and broil 
 there until he or some one in his stead had done sufficient 
 penance. Day and night men were required without ceasing to 
 sinff, and bellow, and scream, and mumble, without ever reflect- 
 ing that Christ hath said, ' AVhen ye pray, use not vam repeti- 
 tions, as the heathen do.' Pilgrimages, too. Mere so much in 
 fiishion, that there were almost as many of them to be performed 
 as there are mountains, valleys, forests, and trees in the world. 
 To the convents and priests were brought presents of fowls, 
 geese, ducks, eggs, flax, hemp, butter, and cheese ; \\\ return for 
 w inch the whole place rang and reeked with music, incense, and 
 sacrifices. The kitchens, you may be sure, were well supplied, 
 
230 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XXXIV, 
 
 and there was no lack of strong drinks. These were paid for in 
 masses, which were to set to rights whatever had gone wrong m 
 the spiritual concerns of the givers." 
 
 The perverse scliolastic learning of the times was employed in 
 supporting the abuses of the papacy. The universities were 
 filled with sophists, who made the pope their idol. There was 
 no stupidity so gross, no nonsense so absurd, which these men 
 would not undertake to demonstrate by their wonderful word- 
 catching and logic. The very few of the clergy who had sense 
 and rectitude enough to perceive and lament the scandals of the 
 church, were either too weak to oppose them, or did so at the 
 risk of their own destruction. The aged Andrew, archbishop of 
 Carinthia, proceeded to Basle in 1482, preached loudly against 
 the Pope, and demanded a general council ; but he was excom- 
 municated, shunned like a wild beast, and driven at last to hang 
 himself. 
 
 The effects of the invention of printing, and the revival of 
 ancient learning, were, however, already beginning to produce a 
 better state of things. The Scriptures were translated into Ger- 
 man,* and bemg spread abroad by means of the press, afforded 
 men opportunities for comparing the practice of the church with the 
 precepts on v/hich it professed to be founded. A race of scholars 
 was coming forwards whose task it was to overturn the scholastic 
 philosophy and the spiritual and ecclesiastical abuses which it 
 supported. Marsilius Ficinus, the celebrated editor of Piato, 
 was one of the first who ventured to express himself freely on the 
 subject of the Christian religion. In the 14th century a school 
 was founded by Gerhard de Groote, at Deventer, in Holland, 
 called the " Brothers of Social Life," which was totally inde- 
 pendent of tlie universities, and which was distinguished both for 
 its deep piety and for its learning. Out of this school came tlie 
 celebrated Thomas a Kempis. John Wessel, a professor at Hei- 
 delberg, who died in 1489, and who on account of his learning 
 was called lux mundi, expressed himself strongly against the 
 abuses of the church, and recommended the study of the Bible. 
 Shortly afterwards appeared Laurentius Valla, Eeuchlin of 
 Tubingen, and Erasmus of Rotterdam. The last, although he 
 never openly departed from the dogmas of the church, became 
 by his wit and learning the most dangerous enemy that Rome had 
 ever had, by teaching men to laugh at those absurdities which 
 * There were no fewer than seventeen translations before Luther's, 
 
A.D. 1483. EARLY LIFE OF IMAllTIX LUTHER. 231 
 
 tliey had been hitherto accustomed to regard with superstitious 
 reverence. Tlie Epistolae ohsciiromm Virorum (Letters of the 
 Obscure) of Ulrich von Hutten and his friends chastised the 
 stupidity and wickedness of the priests with a broader and more 
 genial humour, and were everywhere read with avidity; whilst 
 amusement of the same sort was provided for the lower orders in 
 their mother tongue by Sebastian Brand, Hans Saclis, the cele- 
 brated cobbler of Niirnberg, and other writers. The eyes of men 
 were opened, and the folly and errors of the priesthood, which 
 might have long w^ithstood the attacks of serious argument, began 
 to fall when subjected to the test of ridicule. 
 
 Thus the minds of men were already prepared for a reforma- 
 tion in religion, when Luther appeared, who was to carry it 
 through, not by writing against Rome in his closet, but by an 
 open struggle with the pope himself, and his adherents. Martin 
 Luther was born at Eisleben on the 10th of November, 1483, 
 and was barely six months old when his father, John Luther, a 
 miner, went to settle with his family in the town of Mansfeld, 
 where he was appointed one of the town councillors, an office for 
 which he seems to have been well qualified by his integrity and 
 natural sagacity. Luther never sought to conceal the humbleness 
 of his birth. " My parents," he says m one of his letters, " were 
 |joor folks ; my father a woodcutter, and my poor mother, his 
 faithful helpmate, used to carry the wood on her shoulders that 
 she might earn something to support us little ones." 
 
 In his fourteenth year he was sent, in company with his friend 
 John Reinecke, to a school of some reputation at Magdeburg, 
 where he was obliged to earn his bread by singing in the streets 
 before the doors of houses ; as is still the custom of poor scholars 
 in Germany. The following year he was removed to Eisenach, 
 but so difficult did his parents find it to support him at a distance 
 from home, that they w^ere on the point of recalling him, wlien 
 he was taken into the house of the burgomaster, Conrad Cotta, 
 whose wife had been touched by the sweetness with which the 
 poor famished boy sang the hymns of the church before her door. 
 Luther now made such good use of his industry and abilities, 
 that in a very short time he outstripped all his schoolfellows. He 
 used to take especial delight in music, the love of wliicli he never 
 lost ; and played on the flute and harp, and for many years of his 
 life sang a verj' agreeable tenor, besides himself composing airs 
 for his hymns. 
 
232 
 
 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XXXI^^ 
 
 In 1501 lie entered at the university of Erfurt, and in 1503 
 took the degree of Master of Arts. At this period of his life he 
 happened to discover m the university library a Latin Bible, 
 which he studied with great eagerness. In obedience to his 
 father's wishes, Luther w^as applying himself with assiduity to 
 the study of the law^, wdien a severe illness interrupted his labours, 
 and probably first turned his thoughts towards the plan which he 
 afterwards put into execution — of becoming a monk. An old 
 priest who came to visit him comforted him with the assurance 
 that he would recover, for that God had chosen him to be liis 
 instrument in some mighty work. The drooping spirit of Luther 
 revived on hearing these words, and his mind being thus tran- 
 quillized, the soundness of his constitution soon triumphed over 
 the disease. Luther had been pursuing his studies diligently for 
 more than three years, when another providential escape led him 
 to doubt whether a life which God had mercifully, and, as he 
 believed, almost miraculously spared, ought not to be devoted 
 exclusively to the service of Him to whom he owed it. 
 
 On a beautiful evening in the autumn of 1504, Luther and a 
 young fellow-student named Alexis liad strolled together towards 
 the woody knoll which lies at a short distance from the town of 
 Erfurt : so absorbed were they in their conversation, that they 
 hardly observed the masses of black clouds wdiich gradually over- 
 spread the sky, until the growling of distant thunder, and the 
 patter of heavy rain-drops on the dry leaves, warned them of an 
 approaching storm, and compelled them to seek shelter. TJiey 
 were within a few paces of the town when the heavens seemed to 
 be rent above their heads, and a flash of forked lightning struck 
 both Alexis and Luther to the ground. The former was killetl, 
 and Luther, on recovering his senses, made a vow to St. Ann 
 that he w^ould turn monk.* The effect of this terrible scene 
 on the mind of Luther is recorded in his own words. " It was 
 not Avillingly or of mine own pleasure that I became a monk ; 
 but when I saw myself surrounded by the horror and anguish 
 of death, I vowed a forced and extorted vow." Full of his 
 recently formed resolution, Luther waited on the prior of the 
 Augustine convent at Erfurt, announced Ids intention, which was 
 greatly applauded; and having written to inform his parents 
 of the step which he was about to take, and given a farewell 
 
 * According to aiiother account, Alexis was either miu^dered or killci 
 in u duel, 
 
A.D. 1505. KARLY LIFE OF MARTIN LUTHER. 233 
 
 musical entertainment to his brother students, he entered tlie con- 
 vent on the 22nd of July, 1505, and was introduced as a novice 
 to Ills future companions. Luther's parents were greatly shocked 
 at licaring' that tiicir son had become a monk : his father especially 
 seems to have expressed his disapprobation with considerable 
 warmth. " Never," says Luther, " heard I words uttered by 
 mortal man, which sank deeper into mine heart than these remon- 
 strances of my father." The youthful novice had imagined that 
 in the silence and solitude of the cloister abundant leisure would 
 be aiforded him for study and meditation on divine things; but he 
 found himself miserably deceived. The policy of the monks was 
 to accustom their novices to blind obedience from the moment of 
 tlieir entrance into the convent, and to this end tasks were im- 
 posed on them, which were always irksome and not unfrequently 
 degrading. '' Cum sacco per civitatem," " through the town 
 with your bag," was the rough command the morning after his 
 arrival ; — " it is by begging, not studying, that the convent is 
 enriched." Happily for Luther, the university of Erfurt con- 
 sidered it an insult to their body that one of their graduates 
 should be sent into the streets with a beggar's wallet ; and made 
 such forcible remonstrances to the prior on the subject, that the 
 novice was thenceforth excused from this degrading duty. Still 
 his time was so broken and frittered away by the constant recur- 
 rence of menial services, that very little remained for study : 
 and Luther was beginning to despair of ever attaining the object 
 for which he had renounced the world, when an unexpected 
 occurrence at once relieved him from the heavy burden under 
 which he had so long groaned. The Vicar-General of the 
 Augustines in Germany, Dr. Staupitz, happened to visit the con- 
 vent, and was much struck with the modest expression of Luther's 
 countenance. Hearing a favourable report of him from the prior, 
 Staupitz sent for the young man, and in a long and interesting 
 conversation was made acquainted with the motives which had 
 induced Luther to enter tlie cloister. Subsequently at confession 
 the novice opened his whole heart to the pious father, telling him 
 of all his doubts and spiritual struggles, and humbly imploring 
 advice and comfort. This request was readily granted by Stau- 
 pitz, who spoke to him of the doubts wliich must always precede 
 perfect faith, of the warfare which every soldier of the cross must 
 wage before he can enjoy rest ; that God employed such means to 
 
234 HISTORY OF GERINIANY. Chap. XXXIV. 
 
 order to harden them for the mighty work. " Even thou, my 
 beloved Martin," continued the good man, " knowest not yet how 
 necessary and beneficial this trial is to thee. It is not in vain 
 that God tempts thee — thou wilt see that he will employ thee for 
 some great end." How deeply this discourse sank into his soul, 
 and what comfort and courage it gave him, is testified by Luther 
 in several parts of his writings. His condition too was much 
 improved by order of the vicar-general ; fewer disagreeable tasks 
 being imposed upon him, and more time allowed for study. At 
 length, the period of his novitiate being ended, Luther assumed 
 the habit of a monk, and on the fourth Sunday after Easter, in 
 the year 1507, celebrated his first mass in the church of the 
 Augustines. Luther now gave himself up to the study of the 
 Scriptures, comparing them with the v/ritings of the fathers, and 
 correcting many hitherto erroneous interpretations of them. In 
 the year 1508 he was invited, on the recommendation of Dr. 
 Staupitz, to fill the chair of Philosophy at the University of Wit- 
 tenberg, which had been lately founded by the Elector of Saxony, 
 Frederick the Wise. Luther would gladly have remained at 
 Erfurt, but gratitude and respect for Staupitz prompted him at 
 once to accept the invitation, and on the 9th of March he aj)- 
 peared on a stage where some of the most important scenes of his 
 future life were to be enacted. Here he delivered, without re- 
 ceiving any salary, lectures on the Logic and Piiysics of Aristotle. 
 
 After spending two years at Wittenberg Luther undertook a 
 journey which must have had a vast influence on his future career 
 as a reformer. A pilgrimage to Rome was in those days esteemed 
 a work of holy merit, and Luther appears to have made a vow to 
 perform such a journey ; though it is not improbable that business 
 connected with his order may have been the immediate occasion 
 of his performing it. In 1510 he set off" on foot, accompanied by a 
 brother monk, directing his course first to Heidelberg, and thence 
 through Swabia and Bavaria into Italy. The convents of his order 
 were his inns. On beholding from afar the eternal city, he fell 
 upon the earth, and lifting up his hands exclaimed, " Hail, holy 
 Rome, thrice hallowed by the blood of the martyrs spilt v/ithin 
 tliy walls !" " I little thought at tlmt time," he said afterwards, 
 " tliat I should be the hermit that rose against the papacy." 
 
 Luther, with the enthusiasm natural to his character, entered 
 Rome a firm believer, anxious to discharge all the holy duties 
 incumbent on a pious pilgrim. He duly visited the church «»f 
 
Sup. Chap. XXXIV. ERASMUS.— AUG U STINK MONKS. 235 
 
 St. Calixtus with its bones of 8000 martyrs, ascended on his 
 knees the steps of St. Peter's, and performed all the other super- 
 stitious rites customary on such occasions. He obtained a glimpse 
 of Pope Julius II., but was probably not much edified at behold- 
 ing that A^'arlike pontiff' figuring in a procession of horsemen, and 
 carrying the host on the back of a magnificent white stallion. 
 Other experiences helped more and more to undeceive him. He 
 had naturally enough formed a high idea of the Roman clergy ; 
 he found them, as he afterwards expressed it, " gross ignorant 
 asses," much below the German priests in point at least of theo- 
 logical learning. " Had you asked them," said he, " how many 
 sacraments there were, they would have answered three — the 
 sprinkling-brush, the censer, and the crucifix." Their manifest 
 unbelief and profanity disgusted him more than their ignorance. 
 When oflftciating in the same church with them they would 
 dispatch seven masses before he could get through one. " Passu, 
 pnssa,'' they would exclaim, "get on, make haste, and send 
 Our Lady her Son home again," alluding to the real presence or 
 our Saviour in the host. At other times, when consecrating the 
 sacred elements, they would mutter audibly enough, but in a 
 language not understood by the vulgar, ^^ Panis es et panis 
 manehis I vinum es et vinum onanehis^^ — "Bread thou art, and 
 bread thou wilt remain ; wine thou art, and wine thou wilt con- 
 tinue to be." The obscure monk, who had entered Rome with 
 such feelings of veneration, quitted it with her condemnation in 
 liis bosom. She little dreamed that the humble stranger she liad 
 Jiarboured for a fortnight would one day deprive her of half her 
 subjects and revenues. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER XXXIV. 
 
 Erasmus. — Desiderius Erasmus (as his Dutch name is trans- 
 kited) was born at Rotterdam on the 28th of October, 1467. 
 Soon after his ordination he travelled to Paris, and in 1497 to 
 England, where he was well received by Henry VIIL, and formed 
 an intimate acquaintance with Sir Thomas More. Erasmus resided 
 a short time at Oxford as Professor of Greek ; visited Italy and 
 Germany ; and died at Baale on the 12th of July, 1536. His 
 most celebrated works are his "Colloquies" and "Encomium 
 jNIoriae " (Praise of Folly). 
 
 Augustine Monks. — The Augustine or Austin friars arose 
 nbout tiie middle of tiie tiiirteenth century, wlien Popes L.noceiit 
 
236 
 
 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 
 
 Chap. XXXIV. 
 
 IV. and Alexander IV. united several societies of recluses, having 
 no particular rule, into one order, under a name borrowed from 
 St. Augustine, the celebrated church father and bishop of Hippo, 
 who flourished towards the close of the fourth and beginning of 
 the fifth century. They were to live by begging, that they might 
 be thereby impressed with pious humility. It was not, however, 
 until 1567 that Pope Pius V. incorporated them with what were 
 properly called the " Mendicant Orders." They soon became 
 very numerous, and counted more than 30,000 monks, with 2000 
 monasteries and 300 nunneries. They were considered an ex- 
 emplary order, less contentious and fanatical than their rivals, the 
 Dominicans and Franciscans. Their habit consisted of a black 
 cassock and hood, with a sort of white scarf over the shoulder. 
 There is a monastery of Augustines on the Great St. Bernard. 
 
 Luther's Cell at Erfurt. — The cell in which Luther dwelt at 
 Erfurt is still preserved, although the convent itself has long since 
 been applied to secular uses. In 1 850 it was fitted up for the 
 reception of tlie German Parliament. 
 
 Luther's Cell m the Cuuveut at biluit. 
 
A.]). 1517. CAUSES 01'' TltE REFORMATION. 
 
 237 
 
 CnAPTEK XXXV. 
 
 IMMEDIATE CAUSKS OF THE KEFOKMATlON. 
 
 Bronze Slirine of St. Sel-ald in the Church at Niiruberg, begun by Peter Vischer in 15C6, 
 finished in 1519. 
 
 " The spirit of ancient Rome seemed, like a vampire, to have 
 reanimated her corse, that she might suck the blood of those 
 Northern hordes who had laid her prostrate." * Leo X., who 
 had now ascended the papal throne, an enthusiastic admirer and 
 patron of the fine arts, but entirely without religious principles, 
 wished to leave behind him a monument which should perpetuate 
 his name to the remotest posterity. Notwithstanding the enor- 
 mous revenue derived from the taxes levied on the faithful of all 
 countries, the profligate expenditure of the Popes had almost ex- 
 hausted the Roman treasury, and Leo was aware that some new 
 mode of raising money must be devised, if he proposed to erect 
 a building worthy of his own greatness and the reputation of 
 
 * W. Menzel's History of Germany. 
 
238 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XXXV. 
 
 Michael Angelo Buoiiarotti, the illustrious painter, sculptor, and 
 architect, who had prepared a plan of the work. Ever since the 
 evacuation of Palestine by the crusaders the Pope had decreed 
 that every person who performed a pilgrimage to Rome during 
 the year of jubilee should obtain the same indulgence whicli 
 would have been granted to him if he had personally visited the 
 Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem. For a long time this jubilee 
 occurred only once in a hundred years; but this interval was 
 afterwards shortened to fifty, thirty-three, and at last to twenty- 
 five years : and we are told that on these occasions the offerings 
 of the faithful were so abundant that they were raked from tlie 
 altar into large sacks, and deposited in the papal treasury. But 
 as only a few persons, comparatively, could visit Rome, a plan 
 was devised by which all who had sufficient worldly wealth miglit 
 purcliase indulgences from the Pope. At first these indulgences 
 were nothing more than the remission of penance for sins by 
 which the Christian community were scandalized ; but the horrible 
 doctrine began at length to be introduced, that exemption from 
 the fires of purgatory might also be purchased, not only on ac- 
 count of crimes already perpetrated, but even for those which the 
 buyer intended to commit. One of the indulgence-mongers was 
 in this way made the dupe of a cunning rogue, who purchased 
 from him a remission for some crime not yet committed ; and 
 havmg thus taken the necessary steps, as he thought, to secure 
 himself from future punishment (for the common people do not 
 seem to have given themselves much concern about the distinction 
 drawn by the church between the purifying fires of purgatory and 
 the eternal punishment of the wicked), robbed and beat the man 
 who had sold him tJie indulgence. This traffic was intrusted to 
 the mendicant monks, who went about offering their w^ares for 
 sale M'ith the most unblushing eflfrontery. In Germany one 
 Tetzel, a Dominican friar, a man of infamous character, but not 
 without reputation as a preacher, was selected by the papal nuncio 
 as a fit person to be employed in the discreditable task of cajoling 
 his simple-minded countrymen. He was accompanied by a Do- 
 minican monk, named Bartholomew, and two secretaries. He 
 entered each town with great pomp, amidst the ringing of bells, 
 tlie sound of music, and the fluttering of banners, accompanied by 
 tlie clergy, the different orders of monks and nuns, the magis- 
 trates, the students, and a large body of men and women singing 
 psalms. He rode in a splendid chariot, and before him, on a 
 
A P. 1517. CAUSES OF THE REFORMATION'. 239 
 
 cushion of velvet, lay the bull which authorized his collections. 
 In this state he repaired to the principal church, which was 
 licrhted with wax candles. Before the altar was erected a cross 
 ot^ red wood, bearing the pontifical coat of arms. After Tetzel 
 had mounted the pulpit and pronounced a discourse, brother Bar- 
 tholomew would offer his goods for sale, by striking with a piece 
 of copper a metal plate filled with hundreds of ready signed in- 
 dulgences, crying out at the same time " Buy, buy, buy !" Among 
 the'' devices employed by this artful monk to attract customers, 
 one of the most successful was the exhibition of a picture repre- 
 senting poor souls tormented by the devil in purgatory, with this 
 
 inscription — 
 
 When iu the box the cash doth rmg, 
 The soul from out the fire doth spring.* 
 
 But there were many others who drove quite as shameless a trade 
 as Tetzel, altliough his name is more familiar to us from his 
 having been the first whom Luther attacked. One Iselin, for 
 instance, a Swabian monk, used to carry about with him a feather 
 which, as he declared, had been moulted from the wing of the 
 Archangel Michael. Happening by accident to lose his feather, 
 and being obliged to find a substitute for it on the moment, he 
 desired his hostess to bring him a truss of hay out of her stable, 
 and presented it to the crowd as some of the hay on which the 
 infant Saviour had rested in the manger at Bethlehem. The 
 hostess herself knelt down and kissed her own hay as a holy relic. 
 It must not, however, be imagined that this sort of jugglery im- 
 posed universally either on the secular clergy or the people ; for 
 hundreds were av/are of its absurdity, who chose rather to acqui- 
 esce in what the pardon-mongers said, than run the risk of incur- 
 ring the Pope's displeasure. The ignorance of the parochial 
 clergy, too, was in many instances so monstrous that, whatever 
 their good intentions may have been, they did not possess know- 
 ledge enough to expose the shameless tricks wliich were practised 
 on their flocks by the mendicant monks, who claimed exemption 
 from all episcopal authority, except that of the Bishop of Eome 
 himself. A ludicrous story is told of one of them, who, having 
 heard a brother priest much applauded for a pun on the name of 
 St. Benedict (S. Benedictus henedicat vos), took the first oppor- 
 tunity of surpassing it, as he supposed, by saying, " S. Bernhardus 
 
 * Wenn das Geld im Kasteu kUiigt, 
 Die Socle aus dem Fegfeuer .springt. 
 
240 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XXXV. 
 
 henihardat vos " (may St. Bernard hernhardize you). What tne 
 condition of the monastic orders Avas may be collected from the 
 fact, that in Cologne alone there were three hundred clmrches and 
 convents ; and that there was not a town in Germany Avhich did 
 not swarm with monks and nuns, many of whom were convicted 
 of the most revolting crimes, but escaped because tiie ecclesias- 
 tical power was too jealous of the temporal to permit their punish- 
 ment. " In this town of Gotha," says Frederick Mecum, " were 
 fourteen canons, forty parish priests, thirty Augustine monks, two 
 begging friars, and thirty nuns. These were all held to be pious 
 and holy folks, who were earning heaven for us : nevertheless 
 they led such scandalous lives, that nothing in the world could be 
 worse ; yet they could not be checked or punished, because they 
 were only subject to the jurisdiction of the Pope." E\en from 
 one of the most strenuous opponents of the Reformation, Cardinal 
 Bellarmine, the truth has forced this avowal, that " a few years 
 before the breaking out of the Lutlieran and Calvinistic heresies, 
 there existed, according to the testimony of contemporary writers, 
 no strictness in the spiritual courts, no discipline with regard to 
 morals, no acquisition of Christian knowledge, no respect for 
 sacred things ; in short, there was hardly a vestige of religion 
 remaining." And Bossuet, Bishop of Meaux, acknowledges that 
 most of the preachers of tliat day discoursed only of indulgences, 
 pilgrimages, and alms to the monks, and made things quite indif- 
 ferent the ground-work of piety. Yet the crisis would probably 
 liave been delayed, but for the audacious attempts of Tetzel and 
 liis colleagues to impose on the people in Gennany. The cuf 
 indeed was brimful, but a steady hand might long have carried 
 it in safety, had not this additional drop of bitterness caused it at 
 once to overflow. On the 31st day of October, 1517, Martin 
 Luther declared war against the sale of indulgences by affixing 
 to the great door of the castle church at Wittenberg a challenge 
 to all comers to dispute Avith him on nmety-five different theses, 
 in which he pledged himself to prove that the pardon of sins was 
 to be obtained only by contrition and penance, and not to be 
 bought with money ; since the Pope, although as the Yicar of 
 Christ on earth he had undoubted poAver to remit temporal 
 penance, neither possessed nor could ever exercise any control 
 OA-er the punishments Avhich God has sworn to inflict on impeni- 
 tent sinners. This bold challenge of Luther's fell like a spark 
 on matter prepared for explosion. What thousands had thought 
 
A.l). 1519. CAUSES OF THE REFORMATION. 241 
 
 i!i secret, he had dared openly to express — what hundreds of tliou- 
 sands had suspected, they now felt to be true. Tlie theses of 
 Luther found their way into every part of Germany, yet the Pope 
 and his advisers looked on the affair as merely one of those dis- 
 putes between monks of rival orders which were perpetually 
 occurring-, and commissioned the Cardinal Tommaso di Gaeta 
 (Caietanus), General of the Dominican Order, to inquire into tlie 
 circumstances of the case. Luther was accordingly summoned 
 to appear at Kome, but the Emperor Maximilian, deeming this a 
 fit opportunity for humbling the arrogant pretensions of the Pope, 
 informed Frederick, Duke of Saxony, that the monk must be 
 spared ; and Frederick, proud of the reputation which his newly 
 ibunded University of Wittenberg had acquired through Luther's 
 exertions, willingly assented. Luther, therefore, instead of being 
 gi\en up to tlie Pope, was permitted to meet Caietanus at Augs- 
 burg, where the Diet was then sitting, and to discuss with him 
 tiie subjects of his theses. At this period nothing seems to have 
 been farther from tlie reformer's wishes than a separation from 
 the church ; but his opponent was an intemperate man, who re- 
 qiiired unqualified retractation of all that Luther had advanced ; 
 and, this being refused, he rose in great wrath, and dismissed the 
 assembly with these violent words — " I will have nothing more to 
 say to that beast, for he hath deep-seeing eyes and strange specu- 
 lations in his head."* Luther appealed from the Pope, now ill 
 infonned, to the Pope when he should receive better information ; 
 but his attempts at reconciliation only drew on further discussions, 
 in which he found it necessary to combat the principal errors of 
 the church of Rome one after another, and thus to widen hope- 
 lessly the breach between the Pope and the reformers. Circum- 
 stances at this time greatly favoured Luther. By the death of 
 Maximilian, which happened in January, 1519, the imperial 
 crown became vacant, and the Pope, willing to conciliate Frede- 
 rick of Saxony (who administered the affairs of the Empire during 
 the interregnum), proposed a friendly discussion, to be held at 
 Leipzic between Luther and his Wittenberg friends Carlstadt and 
 Melancthon on the one side, and the famous logician Dr. Eck on 
 the other. Had this conference taken place before the discussion 
 with Cardinal Caietanus, a compromise might perhaps have been 
 effected ; but Luther had gone too far to retract. Eck now pro- 
 
 * " Ego nolo amplius cum hac bestir loqui, habet enim profuudos ociilos, 
 et inirabiles speculationes in capite suo." 
 
 Gy. p 
 
242 HISTORY OF GERMANY. CiiAr. XXXV. 
 
 ceeded to Rome, to solicit Luther's condemnation. On the 15th 
 of Jmie, 1520, the fomous bull " Exsurge, Domine" (Let God 
 arise) was published, in which 41 })ropositions extracted from 
 Luther's works were condemned as scandalous and heretical ; all 
 persons were forbidden to read his >\Titings on pain of excommu- 
 nication ; those who possessed any of them were commanded to 
 burn them ; Luther himself, unless he retracted his errors and 
 burnt his books within sixty days, was pronounced an obstinate 
 heretic, was excommunicated and delivered over to Satan for the 
 destruction of his body ; and all secular princes were required, 
 under pain of the same censures, to seize and deliver him up to 
 punishment. 
 
 Li pursuance of this sentence Luther's works were publicly 
 burnt at Rome and Louvain. But the bull met with a very dif- 
 ferent reception in the greater part of Germany. At Erfurt the 
 students snatched it from the booksellers' shops and threw it into 
 the water. In other towns the publishers of it were obstructed 
 and insulted, and the bull itself torn up and trodden under foot. 
 Luther himself published a pamphlet against it, in which lie de- 
 nounced the pope as the man of sin, or antichrist, foretold in tlie 
 Scriptures ; and by way of retaliation for tlie burning of his own 
 works, he assembled the professors and students of the University 
 of Wittenberg in an open space outside the Elster Gate, on the 
 banks of the Elbe, and there in the presence of a large concourse 
 of spectators solemnly consigned the bull, together with the 
 papal decretals, to the flames. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER XXXV. 
 
 Burial of the Emperor Maximilian. — He commanded that 
 after his death all the hair should be plucked out of his body, and 
 all his teeth drawn, and that both hair and teeth sliould be covered 
 with hot coals. His body was also to be scourged, and then 
 wrapped in a linen cloth with quicklime ; and afterwards, being 
 clad in grave-clothes of silk and damask, to be buried beneath 
 the high altar in such a manner that the priest who said mass 
 s-iould always stand on tlie Emperor's breast. Maximilian was 
 accustomed to say that the King of France ruled over asses who 
 bore all the burthens that he laid upon them ; that the King of 
 Spain Avas a king of men, who obeyed him only in reasonable 
 things ; that the King of England was a king of angels, whom he 
 
Sup. Chap. XXXY. TITR SWISS REFORMATION. 243 
 
 oirn)iiied nothing- wrong, and who obeyed him with pleasure ; Ijut 
 tlial, iis for hiniscdf, he was a king over kings, who obeyed liim 
 just when it pleased them. During his lifetime he had caused the 
 pedigree of his family to be drawn out with great care ; a circum- 
 stance wliich tempted some witty rogue to write underneath tlie 
 scroll on tiie walls of the palace : — 
 
 Da Adam liackt uuil Eva spaun, 
 Wei' war clauu der Edelmaun ? 
 
 When Adam dug and Eve span, 
 Who was then the gentleman ? 
 
 To which tne Emperor rejoined — 
 
 Ich bin ein Mann wie ein andcr Mann, 
 N^ur dasz mir Gott die Ehre gann. 
 
 A man like other men am I, 
 
 Save that my God liath made me high. 
 
 The Swiss Reformation; Zwincjli. — Ulrich Zwingli, the 
 leader of tlie Reformation in Switzerland, was born at Wilden- 
 liaufen in the comity of Toggenburg, on the 1st of January, 1484. 
 In 1506 he began to study the Holy Scriptures diligently, parti- 
 cidarly tlie writings of St. Paul, which he wrote out and com- 
 mitted to memory. In 1519 he was made a canon of' the cathedral 
 of Zurich, where, as he had done before, he frequently preaclied 
 agaiiist the errors of Rome. The immediate cause of the Re- 
 formation in Switzerland was the same as in G-ermany. A 
 Franciscan monk, named Bernardin Sampson, had come thither 
 from Milan for the purpose of selling indulgences. Zwingli op- 
 posed him, as Luther had opposed Tetzel, and went on correcting 
 one abuse after another, until he had reduced his church to a state 
 of what he conceived to be Apostolic simplicity, sweeping away, 
 not only the errors and superstitious practices of Rome, but even 
 the forms necessary for the decent celebration of divine service. 
 In point of doctrine, there seems to have been little difference 
 between him and Luther, except on tlie subject of the Eucharist . 
 Luther maintaining that the words " This is my body " were to 
 be taken literally, as declaring the real presence of Christ in the 
 sacrament — Zwingli contending that the elements were only sym- 
 bols of the Redeemer's body and blood. This difference of opinion 
 prevented a union between the two Reformers, and caused tlie 
 Lutherans to regard the ZMdnglians, whom they branded ^ith the 
 name of '• Sacramentaries," with almost as much hatred as tlit'V 
 
 I' 2 
 
244 
 
 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 
 
 Chap. XXXY. 
 
 felt towards the Roman Catnolics. Zwingli was slain on the 11th 
 of October, 1531, in a battle between the men of Zurich and 
 those of the Romish cantons, — Lucern, Uri, Sclfwyz, Unterwal- 
 den, and Zug ; in which, according to ancient custom, he bore, 
 as a priest, the banner of the republic. His mantle descended on 
 John Calvin or Chauvin, a native of Noyon ui Picardy, who drew 
 up a plan of church government which was accepted by the au- 
 thorities of Geneva, and was the foundation of what is generally 
 called the Genevan or Reformed church. 
 
 Albert Diirer, the most distinguished German pamter of the 
 sixteenth century, was born at Niirnberg on the 20th May, 1471, 
 and died on the 6th April, 1528. His grave may still be seen m 
 tlie churchyard of St. John, near Niirnberg. 
 
 Albert Diirer's Grave. 
 
A.D. 1519. 
 
 CHARLES V. 
 
 2l.n 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVI. 
 
 CHARLES V. — DIET OF WORMS. 
 
 F)-oni A.D. 1519 to looO. 
 
 House iii which Albert Diu'er lived at Nurnberg. 
 
 The Emperor Maximilian left t^o grandsons, Cliarles, King of 
 Spain, Naples, and Sicily, Lord of the Netherlands and of Milan, 
 and Ferdinand (afterwards King of Hmigary and Bohemia), 
 Arohduke of Austria. The rival candidates for the vacant throne 
 were Charles of Spain and Francis I. of France. Charles Mas 
 one of the richest monarchs of Europe, and possessed moreover 
 tlie power of protecting the Empire against the Turks. Francis, 
 who enjoyed the reputation of being a brave and chivalrous prince, 
 had also many friends in Germany. Whichever of the rival 
 candidates the electors chose, they would find in him a master 
 infinitely more powerful than any one of themselves. In this 
 perplexity they offered the crown to Frederick of Saxony : but 
 that sagacious prhice was well aware that the influence of his 
 
 p 3 
 
246 HISTORY OF GERMANY. CnAP. XXXVl. 
 
 aouse 111 Germany would be too feeble to resist such powerful 
 rivals as Charles and Francis, and that, if he were elected, little 
 more than the shadow of sovereign power would be permitted to 
 him. He therefore at once refused the crown, and recommended 
 Charles to the electors ; wlio on their part preferring him as a 
 German prince to Francis, a foreigner, followed the Duke of 
 Saxony's advice, and elected Charles Emperor of Germany, he 
 liaving first signed an instrument by which all their rights and 
 privileges Avere secured to the princes of tlie Empire. The new 
 Emperor, who was born in a house at Ghent, of which vestiges 
 still remain, was nineteen years of age when he assumed the im- 
 perial mantle. By the death of his mother's father, Ferdinand 
 of Spain, he had succeeded to the crown of that kingdom in 1516; 
 but committed the regency to the famous Ximenes, and resided 
 chiefly in the Netherlands, of which country he inherited the so- 
 vereignty from his grandmother, Mary of J3urgundy, daughter 
 of Charles the Bold, last Duke of Burgundy, and wife of the Em- 
 peror Maximilian. His coronation as Emperor was performed 
 M'ith great pomp at Aix-la-Chapelle, during his first visit to Ger- 
 many, two years after his election. On ascendhig the imperial 
 throne, he exchanged, like Henry V. of England, a wild and dis- 
 solute life for one of the greatest regularity : and his talents 
 bluing naturally of no mean order, he soon acquired a competent 
 knowledge of state affairs. The great object of Charles was to 
 secure as many friends as possible, for the accession of a foreigner 
 to the throne of Spain had raised him up many enemies in thai 
 cour.try. The Lutheran heresy, he thought, might be easily 
 stifled, supported as it seemed to be by very few of the powerful 
 noljles of Germany ; and the extirpation of this sect would be an 
 acceptable offering to the Pope. Had he examined more closely, 
 he might have found that the Refonnation was unavoidable, and 
 rendered his name glorious by placing himself at its head. Lu- 
 ther had already openly preached that the Sacrament of the Lord's 
 Supper ought to be administered in both kinds to the laity, and 
 had published two pamphlets which were read throughout Ger- 
 many with the greatest eagerness. The one was addressed to 
 *' The Christian Nobility of the German Nation ;" the title of 
 tlie other was " Of the Babylonish Captivity," and contained a 
 remonstrance in Luther's usually nervous but coarse style against 
 the corrupt practices of the Papacy. To the nobles and men of 
 letters he wrote in Latin, to the comijion people in German j 
 
A.I). 1521. CHARLES V. — DIKT OF WORMS. 247 
 
 [iiid Ins constant nsc of Iiis native lang-uagc in arg-umentative 
 writing, as well as his translation of the Bible, formed tlie style 
 whiali is generally called the modern high German. The effect 
 of Luther's reasonings, uttered in this richest and most energetic 
 of European languages, was almost miraculous. He compares 
 his own preaching to a mighty trumi)et, M'ith which lie would en- 
 compass the paper walls of Konie, and blow until they fell to tlie 
 ground. Not only the people but many men of learning were 
 convinced by his arguments : but his great object at present was 
 to gain over Charles V., whose accession to his cause would ren- 
 der a reform of the churcli comparatively easy. With this view 
 lie addressed a letter to the Emperor, couched in the most re- 
 spectful terms, urging on him the necessity of lending his ^wwer- 
 ful aid to the mighty work of purifying the church from her 
 abuses ; but Cliarles, whose great object was to acquire popu- 
 larity, and remove the objections which many of the princes of 
 the Empire had entertained to his election, looked on Luther 
 rather as a disturber of the public peace than a reformer of 
 acknowledged abuses, and made no reply to his letter. Tlie next 
 year, as we have already mentioned, Luther was excommunicated 
 by the Pope, and burnt in public the papal bull and books of the 
 canon law. In 1521 a diet of the Empire was held at Worms, 
 at which the new Emperor presided, and proposed plans for 
 crushing at once these heretical proceedings, by which, as he de- 
 clared, tne peace of the church was endangered. Not doubtiiii*; 
 tliat such Vvould be the effect of a public discussion, and willino- 
 also to oblige Luther's patron, the Elector of Saxony, Charles 
 summoned the Reformer to appear at the diet and defend his doc- 
 trines. 
 
 As soon as Luther received this invitation, he set out for the 
 city of Worms, accompanied by his friends Justus Jonas, Nicliolas 
 Amsdorf, Peter Suaven,* and Jerome Schurf. Tlie last of tliese 
 was a lawyer, who was to act in some sort as his advocate. Al- 
 tliough Luther had received a safe-conduct from the Emperor, the 
 journey was by no means without danger ; for it was very probable 
 that the infuriated populace would waylay and assassinate liim ; 
 and even if he escaped this peril, the fate of John Huss, a hundred 
 years before, warned him that his life might not be secure from 
 tlie machinations of his enemies at the diet. But Jio had long 
 
 ^•^ A young Danish student — afterwards celebrated for hi'S labours in 
 romenvnia and Denmark. 
 
248 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XXXVJ, 
 
 accustomed himself to contemplate martyrdom without alarm , 
 and the assurance that he was destined to perform a mighty work 
 supported his courage and strengthened his resolution. On his 
 way to Worms he passed a night in the convent of Rheinhardts- 
 brun, in Thuringia. The superior, John Kestner, who was in- 
 formed of his name, and the purpose of his journey, expressed his 
 concern for him : " I know the Italians and Spaniards well," saia 
 he; " and if they catch you tripping in the smallest word, they'll 
 burn you to a certainty." " Nay," said Luther, smiling, '' one 
 might endure a bed of nettles, but to be burnt with fire — that is 
 indeed altogether too hot. But dear Mr. John," he continued, 
 " say a Paternoster for our Lord Jesus Christ, that God may be 
 gracious to him; for if he obtains his ends, /shall get mme at 
 the same time." To other friends who met him at Oppenheini, 
 and tried to turn him back, he said, " An there were as many 
 devils in "Worms as there are tiles upon the roofs of the houses, 
 nevertheless I will go through them, and make my confession 
 openly." As the towers of Worms appeared in sight, Luther 
 stood up in his chariot and began to sing the hymn, both the 
 words and music of which he had composed a day or two before^ 
 at Oppenheim, " JEi?i^ feste Burg ist unser Gott " (a trusty for- 
 tress is our God). The imperial herald in full dress, and carry- 
 ing the eagle in his hand, preceded his carriage. A great number 
 of horsemen followed him, and when he entered the city thou- 
 sands of the inhabitants accompanied him to his quarters, next 
 door to the Swan iim. The entrance of the Emperor himself had 
 hardly excited so much sensation. His entry is thus described 
 ])y himself in his own quaint style : — " I rid into the city in a 
 little close carriage, my face covered with my hood : and all the 
 folk came together to see the monk, Dr. Martin ; and so I came 
 unto Duke Frederick's lodging ; and thereby was Duke Frederick 
 mighty sorry that I had come to Worms at all." On the following 
 afternoon (17th of April) about four o'clock Luther ai:>peared 
 before the diet. As he entered the great hall in which the 
 assembly sat, George of Frundsberg tapped him on the shoulder 
 and said, " Monkikin ! thou art on thy way to make such a stand 
 as neither I nor many a captain besides ever made in the field of 
 battle. If thou meanest honestly, and art sure of thy ground, go 
 for^vard in God's name, and be of good cheer — He will not forsake 
 thee." Many other members of the diet addressed words of 
 encouragement to him. One recalled to Iiis remembrance the 
 
A.D. 1521. DIET OF WORMS. 249 
 
 words of Christ, " When they shall lead you and deliver you up, 
 take no thought beforehand what ye shall speak, neither do yo 
 premeditate ; but wliatever shall be given you in that hour, that 
 speak." Otliers called out to him not to fear those that kill the 
 body, and after that have notliing more that they can do. The 
 Commissary of the Arclibishop of Treves then opened the pro- 
 ceedings by asking Luther whether he acknowledged a pile of 
 books which lay on the table to be his, and whether he would 
 retract their contents. Luther in the straightforward simplicity 
 of his lieart would at once have answered " yes " to the first 
 question, had not his counsel Schurf stopped him, and requested 
 that the titles of the books might be read singly. This being 
 done, Luther acknowledged all of them to be his. To the second 
 question he replied, " Since here is question concerning faith, and 
 the salvation of the soul, which is the greatest treasure in heaven 
 and on earth ; and lest I should for want of due consideration say 
 more tlian the subject requireth, or less than it deserveth, I humbly 
 pray your imperial majesty therefore for some sliort space of time, 
 tliat I may do no wrong to God's word, nor bring danger to my 
 soul through want of preparatioii." The Emperor granted this 
 request, remarking however that Luther had already had time 
 enough, but that he should be indulged with one day more. Tlie 
 assembly M'as then dismissed. It is said that on this occasion 
 nearly fi^'e thousand persons were collected in the hall, the avenues, 
 and round the windows. On the 1 8th of April he was summoned 
 again at the same time, but was kept waiting until six o'clock, 
 \\lien he was ushered into the hall, which was already lighted up. 
 He was again required to retract all that he had said against the 
 cliurch. Hereupon he delivered a long speech in German, which 
 at the request of the Emperor he repeated in Latin. He frankly 
 declared that he should conunit a very great sin in recanting, since 
 he would thereby only strengthen and aggravate the evil against 
 which he was contending, and he firmly demanded to be confuted 
 before he was condemned. But this proposal was not listened to. 
 He was simply to retract, in order that tlie trouble lie had occa- 
 sioned might be put an end to once for all. The disturbance in 
 Germany was very inconvenient to the Emperor, who liad not yet 
 seated himself firmly on the throne of Spain, and was on the eve 
 of a war with France. He was therefore resolved, if Luther Mouid 
 not retract, to put him at once under tlie ban of the empire, as he 
 already was under the excommunication of the Pope, and so tc 
 
250 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XXXYI 
 
 end the matter. Accordingly he hastily demanded that Luther 
 should explicitly declare Iiimself. Hereupon the bold monk replied 
 with a firm voice : " If, then, your imperial majesty requires a 
 direct answer, I will give one that has neither horns nor teeth. 
 When convicted of my error by passages from the Scriptures, or 
 by clear and manifest reasons and arguments — for I put no trust 
 in a Council, nor in the Pope, who, it is as clear as day, have 
 often contradicted and confuted themselves — I will retract, but 
 otherwise, not : since it is neither safe nor prudent to do any thing 
 against one's conscience. Here T make my stand, and can act 
 no otherwise. God help me ! Amen !" The assembly then 
 broke up. 
 
 Luther's courage astonished the princes and delighted the German 
 nobility. Soon after his return to his lodgings, the old Duke Eric of 
 Brunswick sent him a silver flagon full of his favourite Eimbeck 
 beer, which Luther drank, saying, " As Duke Eric hath remem- 
 bered me, so may our Lord Jesus Christ remember him in his last 
 agony." These words were recollected by the duke on his 
 deathbed. The German nobles, the followers of Franz \on 
 Sickingen, who were present in great numbers, could not conceal 
 their joy. Reports were circulated that 400 knights were pre- 
 pared to defend Luther against all the attacks of those in power, 
 and billets were found with the ominous word " Bundschuh " 
 inscribed upon them — the watchword of the insurgent peasantry. 
 
 A few days after Luther's departure from Worms he was 
 placed under the ban of the Empire, and thus deprived of all his 
 privileges as a subject, whilst all princes were forbidden to har- 
 bour him, and every man enjoined to seize his person so soon as 
 the term of his safe-conduct should have expired. Some of the 
 ecclesiastics, indeed, were for seizing him at once, and delivering 
 the church from the author of so pestilent a heresy, by imitating 
 the conduct of the council of Constance in the case of Jolm Huss. 
 But the members of the diet refused to inflict a second wound on 
 the German reputation for integrity by sanctioning so gross a 
 violation of the public faith ; nor was Charles himself inclined to 
 bring so deep a stain upon the very first years of his administra- 
 tion. 
 
 The Palatine Lewis said it would never be forgotten to the 
 end of time, that those who had broken their pledge to John 
 Huss had thenceforth little success or happiness. Duke George 
 of Saxony, although personally hostile to Luther, declared 
 
Sui>. Chap. XXXVI. FllANZ VON SICKINGEN. 251 
 
 tluit tlie Geniiaii princes could not and would not allow sucli a 
 d(>ed of shame to be done on the day of their Emperor's first 
 diet: such conduct was inconsistent with the old German honesty 
 — what they had promised, that they must perform. Tlie 
 Emperor himself maintained that if truth and honour existed 
 nowhere else, at least they should be found in the courts of princes. 
 Atler two or three conferences with tlie Archbishop of Troves, 
 Luther was commanded to quit tlie town within twenty-one days ; 
 the safe-conduct was to contume in force provided he abstained 
 from preaching on the road.* Luther gratefully acknowledged 
 this kindness, and then turning to the Archbishop said, "With 
 respect to the subject of our disputation I can give thee no better 
 advice than that which Gamaliel gave, (Acts v.) ' If this counsel 
 or this work be of men, it will come to nought : but if it be of 
 God, ye cannot overthrow it ; lest haply ye be fomid even to 
 fight against God.' I will sooner give up body and life, trunk 
 and limb, than sun'ender God's true and holy word." The next 
 (kiy having breakfasted and taken leave of iiis friends, and blessed 
 them, Luther set out on his return to Wittenberg. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER XXXVI. 
 
 Franz von Sickingen. — A Franconian knight, named Franz 
 of vSickingen, was among the foremost of those who favoured tlie 
 lieformation, as affording them an opportunity for emancipatiiig 
 themselves, not only from the spiritual dominion of the Pope, but 
 from the tyranny exercised by the Emperor and princes of Ger- 
 many. Sickingen was a great admirer of Luther, and invited 
 Jiini, in case of need, to his castles in the forests and ravines of 
 Kaiserslautern and Kreutznach, and especially to the renowned 
 I^^beriiburg, where Hutten had established a printing press, whence 
 a mass of audacious plans were circulated. This castle used to 
 be called " the hotel of Justice." Sickingen was employed by 
 the Emperor to act against the French on the banks of the Eliine. 
 So zealously and efficiently did he discharge this duty, that the 
 French, although commanded by the renoMiied Bayard, were 
 compelled to retire after a brave resistance and shut themsdves 
 up in the fortress of Mezieres, which would soon have falleji, had 
 not the Count of Nassau, who envied Sickingen, withdrawn a 
 I'onsiderable body of troops from the besieging army. Disgusted 
 ^ This condition Luther tajipeara to liavc violated. 
 
252 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XXXVI. 
 
 at this failure, Sickingen no longer hesitated to accept the offers 
 of assistance made to him by the French king, and calling to- 
 gether the nobles of Swabia, Franconia, and the Ehineland, at 
 Landau, he laid before them his plans for overthrowing the 
 imperial power, and was unanimously elected their leader, ^vitli 
 an understanding, that if the enterprise succeeded, the crown of 
 tlie Empire should be placed on his head. But the French had 
 little confidence in their new ally, and the German nobles, too 
 haughty to endure for any length of time the authority of any 
 commander, gradually withdrew from the confederacy; so that 
 Sickingen, after declaring war against the Elector of Treves on 
 the 27th August, 1522, wa« compelled either to attack the city 
 with a miserably insufficient force, or abandon his ambitious plans 
 altogether. 
 
 On the 7th of September his little army, consisting of loOO 
 horse, 5000 foot, and a considerable train of artillery, appeared 
 before the walls of Treves. But the disaffected citizens, on whose 
 co-operation he had confidently reckoned, were overawed by the 
 presence of their sovereign and made no demonstration ; whilst 
 the only one of his allies who took the field was driven back by 
 the Landgrave of Hesse ; and intelligence reached Sickingen that 
 his former patron, the Elector Palatine, was hastening to the 
 relief of the city with a considerable force. Sickingen, therefore, 
 after bombarding the city for seven days, withdrew his troops on 
 the 14th of September. The following year he agam invaded 
 the Palatinate, but was repulsed by the united forces of the 
 Elector Palatine, the Archbishop of Treves, and the Landgrave 
 of Hesse. In the spring of 1523 Sickingen threw himself into his 
 fortress of Landstuhl, where he hoped to hold out for at least a 
 quarter of a year. But he had miscalculated his own resources, 
 and underrated those of his enemies. The walls of the mountain 
 fortress, which before the invention of artillery had bidden defi- 
 ance to its assailants, were rent and shattered by the storm of 
 missiles poured in without intermission from the battering train of 
 the besiegers, and on the 30th of April the principal tower fell 
 down with a terrible crash, burying many of the besieged in its 
 ruins. The very newness of the walls in other parts prevented 
 their offering any effectual resistance to the balls. Sickingen had 
 r\scended the remaining tower for the purpose of reconnoitring the 
 enemy, and was in the act of directing one of the unwieldy en- 
 gines, which were still employed in the defence of fortified places, 
 
Sup. Chai>. XXXVI. FRANZ VON SICKINGEN. 253 
 
 when a cannon-ball, tearing the framework of the machine to 
 pieces, daslied Sickingen against one of the beams, which wounded 
 him fatally in the side. AVrithing in agony ]w. was borne ])y his 
 men to the only sliot-i)roof chamber of the castle, whicii had now 
 become a heap of nuns. " AVhere are my friends?" said the 
 wounded man, " who promised me so fairly ? AVhere is Fiirsten- 
 berg — where tarry the Switzers and the men of Strasburg?" 
 Resistance beuig now useless, Sickingen offered to surrender his 
 castle on condition of bemg allowed free egress for himself and 
 followers ; but this the conquerors peremptorily refused. '• It 
 matters not," said the dying chief; "I shall not long remain 
 your prisoner." He had hardly strength left to sign the capitu- 
 lation, and already was in the agonies of death, when the princes 
 entered his room. " How had I injured thee," said the Elector 
 of Treves, " that thou sliouldst attack me and my poor people ?'" 
 "' Or I," said the Landgrave of Ilesse, " that thou shouldst 
 invade my territories while I was yet a mmor ?" To these taunts 
 Sickhigen calmly replied, " I must soon plead before a liigher tri- 
 bunal." His chaplain, Nicholas, enquired whether he desired 
 to confess. " I have already confessed my sins to God," was the 
 answer of the dying man. The chaplain then offered him the 
 consolations of religion, and Sickingen breathed his last at the 
 moment that the host was elevated, and the princes kneeling 
 before it offered up a paternoster for the repose of his soul. With 
 him expired the Faust Recht (or right assumed by the nobles of 
 levying forces and declaring war on their own account) ; for the 
 feudal aristocracy of Germany, too proud to make common cause 
 with the cities and peasants, and too feeble and disunited to effect 
 tlieir own emancipation, had no course left but to submit patiently 
 to the tyranny of their princes. 
 
254 
 
 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XXXVII. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVII. 
 
 PEOGRESS OF THE REFORMATION. 
 
 U J 
 
 Castle of the Wartbiirg, in Thuiingia, vcheve Luther made his Translation of the Bible. 
 
 As Luther's safe-conduct would expire in a few days, when 
 anybody, according to the imperial edict, would be at liberty to 
 seize him, his friend the Elector of Saxony resolved to convey 
 him to some place of safety as soon as he should enter his 
 dominions. Luther himself was informed of this plan, and com- 
 municated it to his travelling companion, Amsdorff ; but it was 
 kept a secret from everybody else except the immediate actors in 
 it. Not far from the town of Eisenach, three horsemen suddenly 
 rushed out of a wood. One of them seized the reins and interro- 
 gated the coachman ; another held his javelin against Luther's 
 breast, and bade him consider himself a prisoner. He was then 
 placed on a horse and conducted to the Wartburg, a castle 
 belonging to the Elector of Saxony, seated on a lofty and wooded 
 hill within a mile or two of Eisenach. Here he arrived at eleve.»?. 
 o'clock at night. His real name was kept a profound secret, even 
 
A.D. 1522. PROGRESS OP THE REFORMATION. 255 
 
 from the people in the castle. The warder believed liim to be 
 some malefactor who had been apprehended on the higliway. 
 One lad alone, the son of a nobleman, was appointed to attend 
 upon him, and bring him his meat and drink. In this solitary 
 retreat, which he called his " Patmos," and where he lived under 
 the assumed name of Junker Georg (Squire George), Luther had 
 ample time for study, to which he devoted himself with ardour. 
 He applied to Greek and Hebrew, wrote several pamphlets and 
 commentaries, and commenced his translation of the Bible. His 
 friends who were not in the secret were alarmed at his absence. 
 Many thought that he had been seized and put to death. He 
 had scarcely however resided ten months in this retreat, when the 
 neA^'s of some intemperate proceedings on the part of Carlstadt 
 called him again into the field. During Luther's absence this 
 well-meaning but most injudicious reformer had been displaying 
 his zeal by violently demolishing altars, crucifixes, and every 
 ornament, whether objectionable or not, which had any connection 
 with llio Romish ritual. He had also put forth doctrines respect- 
 ing the holy eucharist which were at variance with the opinions of 
 his master ; and was undoing much of what had been effected with 
 so much difficulty and danger, when Luther suddenly appeared 
 at Wittenberg, thundered for eight days from the pulpit, and 
 secured for the moderate party among the reformers the influence 
 which they were on the point of losing. In the same year 
 (1522) Albert of Brandenburg, Grand Master of the Teutonic 
 Order, had an interview with Lutlier, and announced his intention 
 of reforming the order, marrying, and declaring himself hereditary 
 Duke of Prussia. Luther's early patron, Frederick of Saxony, 
 still continued to befriend him, and allowed him to introduce into 
 all the churches of that country a simple form of prayer in the 
 German language, and, two years later, to publish the first 
 German hymn-book. 
 
 "Whilst these reforms were going on, the perversion of Luther's 
 doctrine respecting Christian liberty became the cause of much 
 bloodshed. Throughout Germany the peasants Jiad long groaned 
 under the oppression of their feudal lords, and were indeed little 
 better than slavcii. Towards the end of the fifteenth and begin- 
 ning of the sixteenth centuries they had attempted several 
 insurrections, which were not quelled without considerable diffi- 
 culty and bloodshed. The general ferment caused by the Reforma- 
 tion stimulated them to fresh attempts, and in 1522 they raised 
 
 Q 2 
 
256 . HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XXXVII. 
 
 the standard of revolt in S\vabia. Their banner contained a 
 
 golden shoe, with the motto : — 
 
 '' Wer frei will seyu 
 Der folge diesem SonnenscLein." 
 
 (Let him who Avill be free follow this sunshine.) 
 
 This revolt, however, as well as one in the year 1524, was put 
 down; but in 1525 the rebellion became general. At Wein- 
 garten the peasants surrounded the small army which Truchsetz 
 von Waldburg had raised to oppose them, and it was only by 
 false promises that he managed to obtain a truce. The rebels, 
 however, behaved with great moderation. They drew up a state- 
 ment of their grievances in 12 Articles, and desired tliat it 
 should be submitted to a tribunal comprised of the Archduke 
 Ferdinand, the Elector of Saxony, Luther, Melancthon, and a few 
 other clergymen. The principal articles were, that they should 
 be at liberty to choose their own pastors ; that nothing more than 
 their tithes should be exacted from them ; that corporal servitude 
 should be abolished ; that they should have the right of hunting, 
 fishing, and cutting wood ; and that justice should be administered 
 according to fixed and ancient laws. The simplicity of these poor 
 people drew a smile from Charles and the other princes ; but 
 Luther viewed the matter in a graver light, and sent them a 
 letter full of the most cutting reproaches. The insurgents, being 
 thus driven to despair, and having chosen the celebrated Gotz 
 von Berlichingen to be their leader, overran all Franconia, look 
 Wiirtzburg by storm, and, after pulling do^\ii and setting fire to 
 an immense number of castles and convents, were at last com- 
 pletely overthrown by the imperial troops. About the same time 
 the serfs in Thuringia and Saxony rose against their rulers at the 
 instigation of a mad fanatic named Thomas Miinzer. 
 
 Whilst Luther lay concealed m the Wartburg, and Carlstadt 
 was carrying on his violent proceedings at Wittenberg, there 
 arose at Zwickau a sect termed Anabaptists, headed by one Klaus 
 Storch, a weaver, who went about attended by twelve apostles and 
 seventy-two disciples. As their name imports, they taught that 
 the baptism of infants was unscriptural, and therefore that those 
 who had been thus erroneously baptized must go through the rite 
 again when they arrived at years of discretion, provided always 
 that they felt themselves called thereto by the inspiration of the 
 Holy Spirit, otherwise they could not be admitted into the 
 Christian covenant at all. Being expelled from Zwickau, Storch 
 
A.D. 1525. rROftRESS OF THE REFORMATION 257 
 
 \\<>iit to Wittenberg', where he and liis adherents joined the liare- 
 hiained reformer Carlstadt, and were feebly withstood by Me- 
 lauctlion, until Luther arrived and destroyed their infiuence. 
 ]MeanA\hile their apostle Thomas Miinzer was preaching at 
 Altstadt in Thuringia, not only against the papal usurpation, but 
 against the doctrines of Luther, whom he denounced as " a fellow 
 who extracted the word of God out of books, and swallowed 
 tlie dead letter." As he taught the lawfulness of resistance 
 to sovereigns, his doctrines attracted an immense number ot 
 followers, \vho w^ere admitted by baptism into the society, and 
 looked anxiously for the time when, as he led them to believe, 
 all earthly kingdoms should be destroyed, and the saints should 
 establisli a sort of spiritual republic. 
 
 IMiinzer afterwards visited Niirnberg and MiiJilhausen in Saxony, 
 M'liere he plundered the monasteries and houses of the rich, and 
 proclaimed the doctrine condemned by the thirty-eighth article ot 
 our church, that " Christian men's goods are common." He also 
 published a proclamation, in which he styles himself " Thomas 
 with the Hammer," and calls on his followers to " make the hole 
 wider, that the world may see and understand who these miglity 
 Jacks be who have blasphemously made God into the miserable 
 figure of a painted man." By dint of these exhortations he col- 
 lected an army of peasants and miners at Frankenhausen, where 
 his forces were defeated in 1525 by the united troops of the 
 Elector of Saxony, the Landgra^ e of Hesse, and Duke Henry of 
 Brunswick. Five hundred men were left dead on the field ; and 
 Munzer himself, behig found concealed in a liay-loft, was put to 
 death with twenty-five others. After his death one of the princes 
 behaved with the grossest brutality to his widow, for which he 
 was sharply reproved by Luther. " A very kuightly, noble deed 
 truly," writes the indignant reformer, " to treat thus a miserable, 
 forsaken, helpless woman ! What shall I write to such swine ? 
 The Scripture calleth such men ' beasts,' hut we must suffer them, 
 because through them God seeth fit to plague us. I have well 
 considered the matter, and do believe that if the peasants were 
 lords, the devil would be an abbot ; and if tlie nobles were mas- 
 ters, his dam would be an abbess." 
 
 But though Luther could tlius reprove the high born oppressors 
 of the peasants, he viewed the revolt of the latter with the greatest 
 aversion, as these disturbances seemed to compromise tlie success 
 of the Keformation. 
 
258 HISTORY OF GERMANY, Chap. XXXVII. 
 
 Hitherto the princes of Germany had suspected Luther as a 
 dangerous innovator, whose doctrines tended towards revolution in 
 state as well as church affairs ; but when they heard him openly 
 and miceasingly preach that every sovereign v/as appointed by 
 God, and responsible only to the Almighty for the manner in 
 which he exercised the authority entrusted to him, they began to 
 look on the reformer as a powerful auxiliary in their great design 
 of emancipating themselves from the Pope as well as from the Em- 
 peror, and joyfully embraced the opportunity afforded of enriching 
 themselves at the expense of both by seizing on their possessions. 
 From this moment the Reformation in Germany assumed tlie form 
 of a struggle for political power rather than an attempt to deliver 
 men from spiritual bondage. In the North, Gustavus Yasa 
 introduced the Lutheran faith, because he believed this to be the 
 most effectual mode of widening the breach between his own 
 country and the Danes, whose king. Christian, he had driven out 
 of Sweden. Albert of Prussia embraced Protestantism for the 
 sake of making the territory of the Teutonic Order hereditary 
 in his family. Some of the German princes were perhaps 
 influenced by motives less objectionable : but it is worthy of re- 
 mark, in proof of what we have stated, that the more distant a 
 country v/as from the residence of the Emperor, the more readily 
 did its rulers embrace the doctrines of the Reformation. In 1526 
 a diet was held at Spires, at which the two parties agreed to 
 abstain from hostilities until the return of Charles V. from Spain, 
 whither he had gone immediately after the diet of Worms, in 
 order to repress some symptoms of discontent which had shown 
 themselves during his absence from his hereditary kingdom. 
 Meanwhile Luther, under the auspices of the new Elector John of 
 Saxony, had been carrying on his reforms to a great extent in tliat 
 country. All ecclesiastical foundations became the property of 
 the state, but a great part of their income was devoted to pur- 
 poses of public education. Monks and nuns were absolved from 
 their vows and allowed to marry, if their consciences would per- 
 mit them. The aged churchmen were pensioned off. Luther 
 himself, bidding defiance to an ancient prophecy, that out of the 
 union of a monk with a nun Antichrist should spring, married a 
 handsome young nun named Catherine of Bora, by Avhom he had 
 four children. To some of his friends who remonstrated with 
 him on the sinfulness of thus deliberately violating a solemn 
 obligation voluntarily undertaken, Luther replied, '^ I have fallen 
 
A.D. 1527. PROCtEESS of THE REFORMATION. 259 
 
 into great contempt on account of this my marriage, yet I trust 
 it is a thing over which the angels will rejoice and devils weep." 
 lie is by no means sparing of his animadversions on those who 
 had any share in keeping up the system of celioacy, of which he 
 had experienced the evils in his own person. " ye tyrants !" 
 says he in one of his bursts of rough eloquence, " O ye horrible 
 parents and relations in Germany ! And for you, pope and 
 l)ishops, who can curse you as you deserve, who can sufficiently 
 execrate your blindness and tyranny in teaching and wishing for 
 such a system ?" The monastic orders were entirely suppressed, 
 and the secular clergy placed on a different footing. And here 
 Luther committed that fatal error under the effects of which the 
 Protestant community of Germany is still labouring. Wishing 
 to conciliate the temporal authorities, he taught that to thein 
 belonged the right of deciding in controversies on questions both 
 of discipline and faith ; and, suppressing all the bishoprics, lie 
 transferred the authority hitherto held by the successors of the 
 apostles to a sort of mixed commission, composed of himself, the 
 other reformers, and certain lay counsellors appointed by the 
 Elector — a form of church government which still exists in 
 Saxony and elsewhere under the title of Consistorium. Me- 
 lancthon, indeed, the most single-hearted of all the reformers, 
 tried to establish a modified form of episcopacy: but Luther, 
 afraid of losing the support of the princes, gave him little encou- 
 ragement ; yet he afterwards bitterly lamented that the church 
 should have been thus subjected to the temporal power. In eacli 
 congregation one priest was retained, who was named a " preacher," 
 or '• pastor," to indicate that the chief business of a spiritual officer 
 was to preach the Gospel and lead wandering sheep into the fold 
 of Christ. The dress of the pastor Avas the black robe of the 
 Augustines, over which, when engaged in prayer at the altar, he 
 wore a white surplice. The service was performed entirely in 
 German, and hymns were smig, in which the whole congregation 
 joined. Luther himself wrote and set to music many of these 
 hymns. Next in rank to the pastor was the schoolmaster, whose 
 office was to teach the catechism. Luther's penetrating mind liad 
 discovered that the only effectual means of destroying the in- 
 fluence of Rome must be sought in the cleansing of that Augean 
 stable of ignorance, where the seeds of error found so congenial 
 a soil and shot forth so luxuriantly. With those who Jiad grown 
 up in this ignorance little could be done. Tiie experiment must 
 
260 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XXXYll. 
 
 be tried on young and teachable minds. Luther therefore wrote 
 to his Elector in these words : — " There is no more fear of God 
 nor discipline, since the Poj^e's ban hath become a dead letter, 
 and every man doeth what seemeth good in his own sight. But 
 inasmuch as it is enjoined on us all, especially on the ruling 
 powers, to educate the children who are daily born to the poor, 
 
 and grow up among us ; therefore we must have 
 
 schools. If the old folks are lost, at least it is the fault of the 
 government if the young remain neglected and uneducated." In 
 the year 1529 a diet assembled at Spires, where the princes of 
 the En\pire decided by a majority of votes that church affairs 
 sliould remain as they were until a general council could be held. 
 The Lutheran princes immediately drew up and forwarded to tlie 
 Emperor a protest, from which circumstance they and all the 
 Lutheran party were thenceforth styled Protestants. In 1521 
 Cliarles V.' raised to the papal throne his old tutor Adrian of 
 Utrecht. This good man acknowledged the corruptions of the 
 papacy, and took into consideration the hundred articles of com- 
 plaint which the German princes had drawn up at the diet of 
 Worms, with the intention of reforming at all events the outward 
 discipline of the church, even if her doctrines were allowed to 
 remain unaltered; but he died in 1523, and his successor, Cle- 
 ment VII., declared that the secession of the northern nations 
 was less dangerous than a general reformation. It was better, he 
 said, to lose a part than the whole. 
 
 In 1522 Charles formed an alliance with England against 
 France, and three years afterwards the imperial army, commanded 
 by George of Frundsberg, overthrew the French at Pavia, and 
 took their king prisoner. On the 6th of May, 1527, the Germans 
 took Home by storm, and burnt a considerable part of the city ; 
 but the stench arising from the number of unburied bodies soon 
 produced a pestilence, which compelled them to abandon their 
 conquest. In Hungary Charles's brother Ferdinand became so 
 unpopular, chiefly through his persecution of the Lutherans, that 
 his opponent, John Zapolya, obtained the suffrages of a very large 
 party. France fomented this division, sent Zapolya's party 
 30,000 crowais, and induced the Sultan to assist them. In con- 
 sequence of these intrigues Soliman II. entered Hungarj^ with a 
 large force, overran the ^yhole country, and besieged Vienna for 
 twenty-one days, but was obliged to retreat before Nicholas Count 
 of Saim. Tlie Emperor, anxious to secure his brother on tlie 
 
Sup. Chap. XXXVIT. LUTIIEU AT THE WARTBURG. 201 
 
 throne of Hungary, now left liologna, where he had been residing 
 for some time, and, returning to Germany, summoned a diet of 
 the Empire to be held at Augsburg. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER XXXVII. 
 Luther at the Warthurg.^lt is curious to observe how strong 
 a liold tlie superstitious fancies of the age had on the powerful 
 hwt imaginative mind of Martin Luther. Strange visions were 
 j)erpetually presenting themselves to his eyes in the solitude of 
 his Fatmos. One day as he sat busied in his translation of the 
 Scriptures, the arch-fiend Idmself appeared in bodily presence 
 standing at his right hand, with a grin of devilish triumph and 
 derision. Half mad with terror, yet at the same time indignant 
 at this very miwarrantable intrusion on his privacy, Luther seized 
 the heavy inkstand which stood beside him, and hurled it at the 
 liead of his unwelcome visitor, who vanished with a cry of rage 
 and disappointment. In confirmation of this strange tale, Luther's 
 room in the Wartburg is sho^vri to strangers, with the stains of 
 ink still visible on one of the walls. In fact, Luther's nervous 
 and irritable temperament, acted upon by the almost complete 
 solitude into which he was plunged, after the exciting scenes 
 through which he had recently passed, seems to have been wrought 
 up to a pitch little short of insanity. The most common occur- 
 rence was magnified by his excited imagination into some snare 
 of Satan. Tims one evening, when about to retire to rest, lie 
 found his bed occupied by a large black English dog, which 
 seemed inclined to dispute the possession of it. Luther, instead 
 of taking measures to eject him, fell on his knees and recited the 
 8th psalm ; when on coming to the verse, " Omnia subjecisti sub 
 pedibus tuis," tlie dog suddenly vanished ; after which, we are 
 told, Luther enjoyed a comfortable sleep. 
 
 As far, liowever, as bodily comforts were concerned, Luther seems 
 to have had no reason to complain of his treatment at the AYartburg. 
 His table A^-as so liberally supplied that, though he seems to have 
 shrewdly suspected that he was indebted to some princely hand 
 for the entertainment, he was fearful that he was overtaxing the 
 hospitality of the warder of the castle. With the title of Junker 
 Georg he also adopted the dress and manners of a German noble. 
 lie suflTered his hair and beard to grow, he wore a riding-frock, 
 was girt with a sword, wore a gold chahi round his neck, and 
 
 Q 3 
 
262 - HISTORY OF GERMAiTY. Chap. XXXYII. 
 
 would frequently go out to hunt and shoot. His monkish breed- 
 ing, liowever, would sometimes peep out in spite of all the pains 
 he took to conceal it. If he saw a book lying in the window or 
 upon a table, he could not resist the temptation of looking into 
 it, an act not at all characteristic of the German noble of those 
 days. He was especially very near betraying himself on his road 
 back to Wittenberg. He had put up at the Lily at Erfurt, and 
 at diimer a priest began to abuse Luther, and inveigh against the 
 error and misery which he had introduced into the church. Luther 
 addressed him and said, that being a poor unlettered nobleman, 
 and going sometimes into company where Luther M'as talked 
 about, he should be glad to know what kind of man he was. The 
 priest replied that he could show at least a hundred errors in his 
 books. Luther pressed him to point them out ; and as the priest 
 seemed reluctant, said he would be content with two or even one 
 out of the hundred ; for though he was a knight, yet he had read 
 somewhat in his youth, and always found that Luther supported 
 his positions by quotations from the Scriptures, and especially 
 from Paul. The priest was at a loss for an ansv/er and began to 
 look abashed ; but Luther's companion, fearing that the matter 
 would go too far, ordered the horses to be saddled, and insisted on 
 his resuming his journey. 
 
 When he arrived at Wittenberg his best friends could not re- 
 cognise him in his disguise. To humour the joke, Dr. Justus 
 Jonas, to whose house he had gone, sent for the goldsmith. Chris- 
 tian, and the painter, Lucas Cranach ; the first was to make a 
 gold chain for a strange young nobleman, the latter to paint his 
 portrait. It was not till Luther answered Lucas's question, 
 whether the painting was to be in oil or water-colours, that the 
 latter recognised him by his voice. Great, no doubt, was the joy 
 of his friends at Wittenberg that night at finding Luther again 
 amongst them, whom they had all given up for lost. 
 
 The Anabaptists. — In the year 1529 the Anabaptists com- 
 mitted the wildest excesses in St. Gall, Basle, Stuttgard, and 
 Erfurt. In the last mentioned of these cities a man named Nicol 
 formed a society, the members of which used to ask every passenger 
 wlioni they met in the streets, " Is that coat thine ?" The un- 
 suspecting victim would naturally answer " Yes ;" whereupon the 
 fanatics murdered him, and, stripping off his coat, shouted out, 
 " You lie, it is ours." In some places these crazy enthusiasts 
 believed that they were in Paradise, and threw off their clothes as 
 
Sup. Chap. XKXYil. THE ANABAl>TrSTS. 263 
 
 a superfluous encumbrance. Others thought that they were little 
 children, and rode about on hobby-horses and broomsticks. One 
 woman was starved to death because slie deemed herself too 
 spiritual to partake of earthly food. After playing these pranks 
 for some montlis, Nicol, the leader of the Erfurt sect, was taken, 
 hanged and quartered ; and one Baden of Stuttgard, who pre- 
 tended to be the Messiah, was torn with red-hot pincers, and 
 afterwards beheaded. In 1533 these fanatics again caused great 
 disturbances. The town of Miinster, in Westphalia, had declared 
 itself favourable to the Reformation, and in 1527 rose against 
 their bishop, who immediately quitted the city. One of the ring- 
 leaders in this insurrection, Bernard Rothmann, a preacher of the 
 Reformed Church, hoped to procure the powerful aid of Luther ; 
 but the latter declared himself an enemy to all political revolu- 
 tions, and Rothmann, disgusted at this reproof, threw himself into 
 the arms of the Anabaptists, of whom a great number had come 
 to Miinster to avoid persecution in the Netherlands. Among 
 these were a tailor from Leyden, named John Bockelson, and 
 John Matthison, a baker from Haarlem, who declared that they 
 were commissioned by the Almighty to take the command of his 
 servants. Matthison, who in his mad enthusiasm had gone out 
 alone to meet the enemy's army, having been slain by their ad- 
 vanced guard, John of Leyden, in conjunction with Knipper- 
 dolling, a rich draper, became leader of the insurgents. The new 
 chief commenced his proceedings by running stark naked about 
 the streets, screaming, "The King of Zion is come;" whilst his 
 Ueutenant, Knipperdolling, not willing to be outdone, shouted 
 out, " Every high place shall be brought low," and instantly the 
 mob pulled down all the steeples of the city. As the number of 
 females who flocked to Miinster was six times greater than that 
 of the men, John proposed a plurality of wives, and himself set 
 the example by taking seventeen. Men and women all ate to- 
 gether at a public table, and all were required to labour according 
 to their strength, without respect of persons. This state of things 
 had not gone on long when a new prophet, one Dusentschuer, 
 declared it to be the will of God that John of Leyden should 
 reign over all the earth : accordingly he was proclaimed by his 
 followers, and took the title of " IQng of Righteousness." His 
 first care was to put the city in a state of defence against the 
 bisliop and his allies. On the walls stood boys between the men, 
 and shot their arrows with deadly effect, whilst the women poured 
 
264 HISTORY OF GERMANY. ChAP. XXXVII. 
 
 down melted pitch and lime on the heads of the besiegers. But 
 famine soon showed itself in the garrison, and it was deemed 
 necessary to drive out all the women and old men, in order to 
 husband as long as possible the small stock of provisions that 
 remained. Elizabeth, one of John of Leyden's wives, having 
 upbraided him with his cruelty in suffering the people to starve, 
 whilst he himself was living in luxury, the madman struck oft 
 -her head, and then danced round her body with his other wives. 
 At length the city was stormed, and most of the Anabaptists put 
 to the sword. John of Leyden and Knipperdolling were cruelly 
 tortured, and their half-burnt bodies hung up in cages, where 
 they perished miserably. A reaction now took place ; and it is 
 worthy of remark that Minister ever since that time has been one 
 of the most bigoted Popish cities in Europe. 
 
 Gotz von Berlichingen^ the hnight tuith the iron hand. — God- 
 frey, or, as he is familiarly called, Gotz, of Berlichingen, was 
 born at Jaxthausen in Wiirtemburg, where his family had been 
 establislied since the tenth century. The memoirs of his life, 
 written by himself during his seclusion in the castle of Hornberg, 
 exhibit a curious picture of the state of society in those unsettled 
 times, when the most chivalrous and high-spirited nobles were 
 wont to return solemn thanks to the Almighty for the success of 
 exploits which in our days of civilization and police would render 
 them fitting candidates for the gallows. At an early age 
 Godfrey was sent to school ; but he seems to have remained 
 there a very short time, " for to own the truth," he writes, " I 
 never had any very great taste for learning ; and as father, 
 mother, brethren, and sisters, with all the men and maidens of 
 our household, were always telling me that I was destined to be 
 a hero — a hero I was determined to become." Accordingly he 
 entered the service of his cousin Conrad as page, and three years 
 later (a.d. 1496) having closed the eyes of his patron, at Lindau 
 on the Lake of Constance, he became a retainer of the Margrave 
 Frederick of Ikandenburg, in whose household he continued to 
 reside until the year 1499, when his father's death recalled him 
 to Jaxthausen. In 1504 we find him at the siege of Landshut, 
 skirmishing with great bra\'ery under the walls of the fortress. 
 " I was so busily engaged," he writes, " in exchanging blows 
 with the enemy (for being a young soldier, and having a rejiuta- 
 tion to gain, I fought in good earnest) as scarcely to observe that 
 tlie garrison had opened a heavy fire uoon friend and foe indiff?r- 
 
Sup. CiiAr. XXXVII. GoTZ VON BERLICHINGEN. 265 
 
 cntly ; until a grating, jarring sensation in my right arm and the 
 fall of the lance from my hand told me very plainly that I was 
 wounded. On examination, I found that a cannon ball had struck 
 the hilt of my sword, which it had forced through my armour 
 with sucii violence as to dislodge three of the iron plates, and 
 crush my wu'ist in so ghastly a manner, that when I afterwards 
 removed the gauntlet, my hand came away with it, being only 
 held by a slight sinew. I have already mentioned that the lance 
 fell from my hand, and wonderful it has since appeared to me, 
 that I did not also lose my seat and fall to the ground ; but by 
 God's mercy I retained my senses until a comrade led me out of 
 the battle and procured a surgeon to dress my w^ounds. Since 
 tliat time I have worn a hand of iron, with which, for sixty years, 
 I have wielded a lance and done good service in divers skirmishes 
 with mine enemies, as well as in the capture of sundry bales of 
 goods, which it hath pleased Divine Providence to place within 
 
 'J^zsm 
 
 Tower at Heilbronn, in which Glitz von Be ili thin gen v.-as shut up by the Citizens, a.d. 1518 
 
 my reach." Fourteen years after this disaster, Gotz, now a pow- 
 erful baron, declared war against the town of Heilbronn,* but 
 being overpowered by the citizens, he was confined for four years 
 in a strong building w^hich still retains the name of the ThieFs, 
 or Gotz's tower ; and was only released at last after paying a 
 
 * This declaration of deadly feud (Fehdcbricf), drawn up in tlio form 
 usual in those days, is preserved in the town-hall of Heilbronn. 
 
266 
 
 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 
 
 CiiAP. XXXVII. 
 
 i^ansom of 2000 florins. In the year 1525 he headed the peasants 
 in their ill-concerted and disastrous insurrection, and after the 
 defeat of his party was compelled to pledge his word of honour 
 never again to disturb the peace of the Empire. The remainder 
 of his life was passed in retirement at his castle of Hornberg, 
 where he died on the 23 rd July, 1562. 
 
 The adventures of Gotz of Berlichingen have been dramatized 
 by Goethe. 
 
 Storm of Rome hy Frundsherg' s Troops. — As soon as the army 
 entered Rome, the wildest scenes were enacted. The Lutheran 
 troopers dressed themselves up as cardinals, and rode on donkeys 
 through the streets. One William von Sandizell assumed the 
 papal garb, and with the triple crown on his head, and a full 
 glass of wine in his right hand, pronounced a mock blessing over 
 these mummers, who knelt before him and did homage, whilst 
 the rabble of soldiery raised a general cry, " We will have Luther 
 for our Pope !" and all held up their hands and shouted " Long 
 live Pope Luther !" 
 
 Pincers with which the Anabaptists v:^r& tortured. Preserved iii the Town Hall at Miiii:=t:r. 
 
A.P. 1530. 
 
 THE DIET OF AUGSBURG. 
 
 207 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVTII. 
 
 THE DIET OF AUGSBURG. 
 
 A.D. 1530. 
 
 1 T^-^'in^Mf 
 
 Cages of the Anabaptists, ittached to the Tower of St. Lambert s Church, Munster. 
 
 The diet was opened on the 18th of June, 1530, by the Emperor 
 in person, who came prepared to take a decided part against the 
 Protestants, as he had done at Worms : Luther, being- under the 
 ban of the Empire as well as of the Pope, could not appear. 
 Even Charles himself must have been struck by the diffierent 
 aspect presented by these two diets, though separated only by the 
 short interval of nine years. In that of Worms a poor monk had 
 stood up alone for his tenets ; but now he saw some of the chief 
 princes and cities of his empire proclaiming their adherence to the 
 same cause. On the first day of their session the following pro- 
 clamation was read by the Emperor's private secretary, Alexander 
 Schwaisz: — "All complaints which the temporal estates liave 
 against the spiritual, and contrariwise, all which the spiritual 
 have against the temporal, they are hereby invited to draw up in 
 Latin and German, which shall be placed in the hands of the 
 Emperor, in order that his Majesty may take such measures as 
 
268 HISTORY OF GEKMANY. CilAP. XXXV 111. 
 
 shall seem to liim good for the settlement of the same." The 
 assembly was then adjourned to the 24th, when the Pope's legate 
 appeared, and in a long Latin oration called on the states of tlie 
 Empire to unite in resisting the Turks, the iiereditary enemies of 
 Christendom; and, addressing himself particularly to the Pro- 
 testants, implored them no longer to persist in their separation 
 from the church, but to stand by her still, as they had done in 
 days of yore. The Protestant princes then demanded that the 
 confession of their faith, drawn up with great care and ability by 
 Melancthon, should be publicly read. This was granted, but 
 only on condition that the reading should take place, not in the 
 great hall of session, but in a chapel of the Bishop's palace, 
 which was daily used by the Emperor and his court for the cele- 
 bration of divine service, and that the assembly should be held at 
 tliree o'clock in the morning. The reason for choosing this place 
 and hour was evident. Tlie chapel holding only about 200 per- 
 sons, it ^vas hoped that none but the principal personages of the 
 Empire would hear the reading. But God ordered it otherwise ; 
 for the excessive heat having forced those within to open the win- 
 dows, the crowd who stood around the chapel heard every word 
 distinctly ; and it was calculated that at least a thousand persons 
 had thus an opportunity of becoming acquainted with the real 
 tenets of the reformers. The Emperor having ascended his throne, 
 two Saxons, Dr. Christian Beyer and Dr. George Briick, came 
 forward, the one holding a Latin, the other a German copy of the 
 Articles. Charles, who understood German but indifferently, 
 wished to have the Latin document read ; but the Elector of 
 Saxony, rising from his seat and making a low reverence, ad- 
 (h-essed him thus: — " Sire, we are here on German ground; I 
 therefore intreat your Majesty that this confession of our faith 
 may be read in our beloved mother-tongue, that all may know 
 what our tenets are, and that henceforward we may be no more 
 likened to the heathen, who know not God." The Emperor 
 being unable to refuse this reasonable request, Beyer, in a voice 
 so loud and clear that not a word was lost to the assembled crowd, 
 began the reading ; and as he proceeded, the falsehood of those 
 charges which men had heard brought against Luther's teaching, 
 as being a device of the devil, worse than the blasphemies of the 
 worst heathen, became apparent to the people, who now began to 
 understand that the reformers had never spoken against any part 
 of Christ's doctrine, but only against the abuses in the churcli. 
 
A.D. 1530. CONFESSION OF AUGSRURG. 269 
 
 The Confession condemned tlie errors of tlie Anabaptists as well 
 as tliose of Rome. The more remarkabki principles asserted 
 were : — That men are justified by faith alone ; that an assembly 
 of true believers constitutes the church ; that it is not necessary 
 that forms and ceremonies should be everywhere the same ; that 
 l)reaching, the sacraments, and infant baptism are necessary ; that 
 Christ is really present in the sacrament of the Lord's Supper ; 
 that that sacrament should be received by the laity in both kinds ; 
 that the doctrine of the sacrifice of the mass is erroneous ; that 
 monastic vows, fasting, pilgrimages, the invocation of saints, &c., 
 are useless ; and that the marriage of priests is to be allowed. 
 After the Confession was read, many were heard to exclaim, " It 
 is reasonable that these abuser should be punished and done away 
 with : the Lutherans are right, for our spiritual lords have carried 
 it with too high a hand." In the assembly itself the effect was 
 scarcely less striking. The Bishop of Augsburg did not scruple 
 to declare that what \m had heard was only the truth, and could 
 not be gainsaid. The imperial secretary, Cornelius Sceppen, 
 spoke out still more plainly. " If," said he, " the Lutherans had 
 money, they might easily buy free exercise for their religion from 
 the Pope ; but without gold they must not hope that their light 
 will ever shine before the world." The reading being concluded, 
 Beyer handed the two copies to the Emperor, who took the Latin 
 one and gave the other to the Archbishop of Mentz. Then the 
 Count Palatine Frederick informed the states, in the name of the 
 Emperor, that his Imperial Majesty had listened with attention to 
 the document which had just been read, and would act seriously 
 and impartially m the matter. Meanwhile he called on the mem- 
 bers of the diet to prevent any premature disclosure of this con- 
 fession through the press. The states having promised to attend 
 to this recommendation, Charles rose and dismissed the assembly. 
 But before the diet was finally dissolved it issued a decree, at the 
 instance of the papal nuncio, Campeggio, by which most of the 
 Protestant tenets were condemned, and persons enjoined not to 
 tolerate or harbour such as taught them ; whilst at the same time 
 a strict observance of the established rites was commanded, and 
 any further innovation pi-ohibited under severe penalties. A pro- 
 mise was subjoined that the Pope should be required to call a 
 general council within six months, for the purpose of settling the 
 controversies by which the church was disturbed. 
 
270 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XXXVIII. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER XXXVIII. 
 
 Melancthon. — Pliilip Melancthon was bom on the 16tli of 
 February, 1497, at Bretten, in the Palatinate of the Rhine. At 
 an early age he received both from his father and mother strong 
 religious impressions; and was especially distinguished by his 
 abilities and the facility with which he acquired the learned 
 languages. After the fashion of that age, he changed his Ger- 
 man name of Schwarzerd (black earth) for its Greek synonyme 
 Melancthon; and in the year 1510 entered at the university 
 of Heidelberg, and subsequently at Tubingen, where he took the 
 degree of Master of Arts, and gave lectures on Greek and Latin 
 literature. That his acquirements were of no mean order may 
 be inferred from the commendations of Erasmus, himself the 
 most accomplished scholar of that day, who speaks of him as a 
 man of uncommon reading, exact knowledge of classical an- 
 tiquity, and one who wrote with elegance and good taste. In 
 1518 Melancthon accepted an invitation to fill the Greek chair 
 at Wittenberg, where he distinguished himself, as he had done at 
 Tubingen, by his profound learning, eloquent and popular style 
 of lecturing, and above all by the candour and gentleness of his 
 disposition. These qualities rendered him a valuable colleague 
 to Luther in carrying on the work of the Reformation ; for the 
 mild remonstrances of Melancthon often healed wounds which 
 Luther's rough treatment would have rendered incurable. The 
 first wish of his heart was to purify the church from its corrup- 
 tions : but he felt more acutely than his colleague the evils of 
 schism and dissension among Christians ; and would therefore 
 have given up many points which he considered of minor import- 
 ance, if he could by such a concession have prevented the separa- 
 tion of the Protestants from the church of Rome, and subse- 
 quently the rupture between the Lutherans and Zv/inglians. Yet, 
 gentle and conciliatory as he was, none made a firmer stand than 
 he against the decision of the council of Spires in 1529, and his 
 " Confession of Augsburg " spread his fame throughout Europe, 
 and procured him invitations both from Francis I. of France and 
 Henry VIII. of England : but he declined both, and continued to 
 reside in Germany until his death, which took place at Witten- 
 berg on the 19th of April, 1560. His last prayers were for the 
 unity of the church. The friendship between him and Luther 
 was never broken, although they differed on so many points, and 
 
Sur. Chap. XXXVIII. TANTOMIME OF THE REFORMATION. 271 
 
 Luther's rough manner of treating those who disagreed with him 
 nmst have sorely tried tlie patience of one so refined and gentle 
 as Melancthon. Besides drawing up the Confession of Augs- 
 burg, he addressed, by command of the Elector, an instruction to 
 the visitors of the Saxon churches, respecting the doctrines to be 
 tauglit, and the caution to be observed in altering the ancient 
 usages and ceremonies of the church. 
 
 Pantomime of the Reformation. — One day during the Empe- 
 ror's residence at Augsburg, whilst he was at dinner with several 
 Roman Catholic princes, some comedians were aimounced, wlio, 
 according to the custom of those times, asked permission to divert 
 the company. First entered an old man clothed in a doctor's 
 robes, who advanced with tottering steps under the load of a 
 bundle of faggots, some straight, some crooked, which he tln-ew 
 down in the middle of the hall. As he turned to depart, there 
 was seen on his back the name of John Reuchlin. A more 
 vivacious personage now appeared, who picked up some of the 
 straight and crooked billets, and took wonderful pains to make 
 them fit together ; but finding all his efforts unavailing, shook his 
 liead, shrugged his shoulders, and departed. His back exhibited 
 the name of Erasmus. When he was gone, a monk advanced of 
 a bold mien and fiery eye, carrying some live coals in an iron 
 vessel. Having arranged the wood, he set it on fire, and blew 
 and fanned it till the crackling flames mounted high ; on perceiv- 
 ing which he withdrew, and showed the name of Martin Luther. 
 Next approached a man with majestic step, and clothed in all the 
 pomp and splendour of the pontifical robes, who, on percei\dng 
 the fire, clasped his hands together in terror, and looked about for 
 something wherewith to put it out. At the end of the hall were 
 two vessels, one filled with water, the other \vith oil. He seizes 
 one in haste, and pours the contents on the fire ; but unluckily it 
 proved to be the oil-jar, and the flames now mount to such a 
 height that the pontiff, alarmed at what he has done, runs away 
 in affright. On- his back was seen the name of Leo X., whose 
 bans and excommunications had only increased the conflagration 
 which they Avere intended to extinguish. Lastly, a magnificent 
 personage appeared, covered with all the imperial ensigns, Avho, 
 on perceiving the violence of the fire, drew his sword and began 
 to cut and thrust at it, in order to exthiguish it ; but the more he 
 thrust, the more the fire blazed, till at last, in despair and vexation, 
 lie gave the matter up, and walked off in haste. No name ap 
 
272 
 
 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 
 
 CiiAP. XXXIX. 
 
 peared upon his back, but probably Charles V. and his guests had 
 not much difficulty in making the application. The little drama 
 was now ended ; but the pretended comedians, instead of waiting 
 for a reward, had made their escape as quickly as possible. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIX. 
 
 LKAGUE OF SCHMALKALDEX. — COUNCIL OF TRENT. 
 
 From A.D. 1531 to 1545. 
 
 Albert ol Brandenburg. 
 
 The conduct of the Emperor at Augsburg had convinced the 
 Protestants that in future they must look only to themselves for 
 support. Even Luther no longer scrupled to preach that a war 
 against Charles V. was a holy war, and urged his party to take 
 up arms in defence of their religion. Accordingly, in the month 
 of March, 1531. the dukes John of Saxony, Philip of Hesse, 
 
A.D. 1539. DORIA. 273 
 
 Ernest and Francis of Brunswick, Wolfgang of Anlialt, the 
 Counts of jMansfeld, and the cities of Strasbur<^-, Ulni, Constance, 
 lleutlingen, Menimingen, Lindau, Biberach, Isni, Liibeck, Mag- 
 de])urgh, Bremen, &c., entered into a defensive league at Schmal- 
 kaldon, a little town in the province of Fulda. Bavaria soon 
 joined tlieni, and France Avas about to follow her example, when 
 the vehement remonstrances of Luther against the foreign alliance 
 sa^'cd tlic Protestants from this disgrace. " Such a compact," he 
 said, " would be an mibearable burden on our consciences, and 
 must be followed by bitter repentance. And thereby it may well 
 happen that the Empire shall be distracted, and it and the Gospel 
 and all go to wreck together. We have a goodly work in hand, 
 but God alone must and will uphold it." The Protestants having 
 abandoned the French alliance, were now inclined to come to 
 terms with the Emperor, who on his part received their overtures 
 favourably, being anxious to obtain assistance against the Turks. 
 Accordingly, in 1532, what is called the Religious Peace was 
 concluded at Niirnberg, the Emperor engaging to allo\v freedom 
 of conscience to the Protestants, in return for the aid which they 
 were to afford him in the Turkish war. Meanwhile the Turks 
 had been rendermg themselves formidable by sea, and had esta- 
 blished settlements on the northern coast of Africa under the 
 protection of the Sultan, who appointed the pirate chief Haraddin 
 Barbarossa to be Capudan Pasha, or High Admiral of his fleets. 
 Under this commander the new settlers stormed Tunis, and hover- 
 ing round the coast of Italy, captured all the Christians who fell 
 in their way. On receiving intelligence of these proceedings the 
 Emperor despatched a fleet to the coast of Africa under the com- 
 mand of a Genoese admiral named Andrew Doria, who carried 
 the fortress of Goletta at the first assault, whilst Charles himself 
 at the head of thirty thousand men attacked the land forces of 
 Barbarossa, and entering Tunis in triumph, liberated twenty-two 
 thousand Christians, who had been languishing for years in the 
 dungeons of that city. In the year 1539 Charles, with a want 
 of prudence which reminds us of Louis XL's visit to the Duke 
 (jf Burgundy, passed through the dominions of his great rival 
 Francis I. on his way to visit Henry VIII. of England. One of 
 his Spanish counsellors had warned him in no very courtly terms 
 of the danger to which he was exposing himself: "If your 
 majesty," said this plain-spoken adviser, "attempts to pass through 
 France, you will commit a great act of folly ; if Francis suffer 
 
274 HISTORY OF GERMANIC Chap. XXXIX. 
 
 you to do so witho\it molestation, he will be guilty of a greater." 
 " In good sooth, m ine honest friend/' replied the Emperor with a 
 smile, " I believe that Francis is a greater fool than I." His 
 anticipations were i ealized ; for Francis not only refused to arrest 
 him, in spite of the solicitations of his subjects, but entertained 
 him with princely magnificence. When Francis showed Charles 
 all the royal jewels and treasures in Paris, the latter remarked, 
 " I have a weaver (Fugger) in Augsburg who could pay ready 
 money for all that." The previous year a " holy alliance" of the 
 Romanists had been formed to oppose the league of Schmalkalden, 
 which had been several times renewed since its first establishment 
 in 1531. The final settlement of their religious disputes was to 
 be referred to a general council which the Pope had hitherto been 
 unvvilling to summon. Now, however, the favourable moment 
 for such a proceeding seemed to have arrived ; for the Lutherans, 
 disgusted at the Emperor's duplicity, had abandoned the field to 
 their adversaries, \^'hom they refused to meet at all miless the 
 council were held on their own side the Alps, and the Pope 
 would consent to appear before it, not as a judge, but as one of 
 the contending parties. In consequence of this refusal a council 
 composed entirely of Romanists was summoned to meet at Trent 
 in the Tyrol, and solemnly opened by the Pope in the montli of 
 December, 1545. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTEK XXXIX, 
 
 Dor ia.— Andrew Doria was born at Oneglia, near Genoa, in 
 the year 1466. After fighting for many years under the baimers 
 of different princes, he entered the service of Francis I., who 
 made him commander of the French fleet in the Mediterranean. 
 Subsequently Doria quarrelled with the French on account of 
 their tyrannical proceedings, and took service with the Emperor 
 Charles V., who agreed to pay him 90,000 ducats a year for the 
 use of twelve Genoese galleys. Having succeeded in driving the 
 French out of Genoa, Doria, under the auspices of the Emperor, 
 framed a constitution for that city ; and after distinguishing him- 
 self in several engagements with the Turks, died full of years and 
 honours at his palace in Genoa, in November, 1560. 
 
A.D. 15l(). 
 
 LAST ILLNESS OF MARTIN LUTHER. 
 
 275 
 
 CHAPTER XL. 
 
 DFATH AND FUNERAL OF MARTIN LUTHER. 
 
 A.D. 154G. 
 
 px^xv "vWu" M\v *iiii|iiii)i);r//////////W/'^>^^'^^i^;r7^ 
 
 rortrait of Luther after his Death, taken by his friend Lucas Cranacb, 
 
 During the progress of events recorded in our last cliapter, old 
 age and chronic disease of a painful and incurable character had 
 been gradually wasting the strength of Martin Luther ; yet he 
 went on labouring with unabated zeal, although he became every 
 day less capable of enduring fatigue. The summer before his 
 death he had retired to the estate of Zollsdorf, near Borna, in the 
 hope of being pennitted to enjoy the repose which he so much 
 needed ; but the University of AYittenberg had prevailed on the 
 Elector to urge his return ; and Luther, unwilling to offend his 
 kind patron, immediately obeyed. Even here he was not allowed 
 to remain long ; for the Count of Mansfeld, who had on a former 
 occasion rejected Luther's mediation, now ^VTote to urge Ins im- 
 mediate appearance at Eisleben. Accordingly, on the 13th 
 January, 1546, the Reformer set out on his last journey ; and on 
 
276 niSTORY OF Germany. Chap. XL. 
 
 the 17th writes thus to his friend Dr. Propst of Bremen :— " A 
 man old and cold and rotten and one-eyed writeth unto thee. I, 
 who had thought that I might now be suffered to rest in peace, 
 am as much overwhelmed with writing and speaking, and doing 
 and settling, as if I had never written, or spoken, or done, or 
 settled anything in my life before." He writes to his wife on 
 the 25th January—" Grace and peace in the Lord ! Dearest 
 Kate ! "We reached Halle at eight o'clock, but could not get on 
 to Eisleben ; for there met us a great Anabaptist with waves and 
 lumps of ice which covered the land and threatened us with a 
 second baptism. So we were fain to stop at Halle, watch the 
 waters, and lie snug till they had abated. Not that we had any 
 desire to drink the same ; but took good strong beer and good 
 Rhenish wine instead, and consoled ourselves therewith until the 
 Saale thought fit to subside. For inasmuch as both the boatmen 
 and ourselves were somewhat fearful, we thought it not good to 
 commit ourselves to the waves and tempt God : for the devil is 
 wroth with us, and dwelleth in the waters; and prevention is 
 better than lamentation ; and there is no need to give the Pope 
 and his rabble a fool's jubilee. * * * * So no more at present. 
 Pray for us and serve God. If you had been here I think you 
 would have advised us to do as we have done, and for once we 
 should have followed your advice. God bless you. Amen." 
 
 The fatigue of this journey, midertaken at an unfavourable 
 season of the year, was severely felt by Luther's worn-out, feeble 
 body ; yet he rallied after a time, and found himself strong 
 enouo-h to preach four times at Eisleben. The fourth of these 
 sermons Avas the last that he ever delivered. On the 14th of 
 February he wrote again to his wife — " To the hands of my 
 kind, loving housewife, Catherine Luther of Bora, at Witten- 
 berg, these. Grace and peace in the Lord ! Dear Kate ! We 
 hope this week to be at home again, if God will. God hath 
 shown great mercies here, for my lords have made all smooth, 
 except two or three articles, one of which is that the two brethren 
 Count Gerard and Count Albert should again live as brethren : 
 which matter I shall care for to-day ; and will bid them to my 
 lodging, that they may speak together ; for as yet they have been 
 dumb, and only grieved one another with their writings. For 
 the rest, my young lords be merry, and my young ladies also 
 ride together in sledges with jingling bells, and have their mum- 
 meries, and are right content together, and Count Gerard's son 
 
A.D. 151G. LAST ILLNESS OF MAliTIN LUTHKi:. 277 
 
 likewise ; — so one may by this understand tJiat God is a hearer 
 of prayer. I send some trout which Countess Albert hath given 
 unto me. 8iie rejoiceth from her heart at the united state of the 
 fiimilies. Your boys are still at Mansfeld — Jacob Luther will 
 take care of them. We eat and drink like lords here, and are 
 waited upon bravely — and all too bravely : enough to make us 
 forget you at Wittenberg. My old complaint doth not trouble 
 me now\ Here is come a report that Dr. Martin is carried off; 
 as the story goes at Leipzic and Magdeburg. The busybodies, 
 your countrymen, have invented this ; but let them say and 
 sing : we will wait God's pleasure. To him I commend you." 
 Two days after he had written this letter, his weakness increased 
 so rapidly, and was accompanied by such an access of asthma and 
 feeling of suffocation, that his friends entreated him to allow 
 liimself a few days' rest. In the evening he forced himself, ill as 
 lie was, to sit at table with his sons and Dr. Jonas ; and the dis- 
 course turning on the meeting- of friends in another world, Luther 
 spoke with a deep feeling, which seemed to arise from the con- 
 viction that the hour of his own departure was at hand. Having 
 gone to his chamber, to pray that God would give him strength 
 to support the last struggle, the near approach of which was be- 
 coming every moment more evident, he felt a sharper pain in his 
 chest than he had ever experienced before : but a ^estorati^•e 
 draught being administered, he was enabled to lie down and take 
 a little rest. To his friends, who wished him good night, he 
 said, '^ Pray to our Lord God that it may go well with his Gospel, 
 for the Pope and his council at Trent are thrusting sore at it." 
 Before he lay down he repeated in Latin, " Father, into thy 
 hands I commend my spirit ; for thou hast redeemed me, Lord, 
 thou God of truth." Soon afterwards he said, ''My soul is ex 
 ceeding sorrowful, even unto death." " Reverend.e Pater," said 
 Ca3lius (Pastor of Eiiileben), "call on our Lord Jesus Christ, 
 our high-priest, the only mediator. You are sweating plenti- 
 fully. God will vouchsafe his mercy that you may be better." 
 '•It is the cold sweat of death," replied Luther. "O my hea- 
 venly Fatlier ! God eternal and most merciful ! whom I have 
 known, whom I love, whom I honour as my dear Saviour and 
 Redeemer, whom the godless persecute and shamefully entreat 
 and revile, take my poor soul unto thyself." Then he repeated 
 in Latin " Into thy hands I commend my spirit. — God so loved 
 the world that He gave his only begotten Son, that wdiosoever 
 Gy. r 
 
-:i78 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XL. 
 
 believeth on Him sliould not perish, but have everlasting life." 
 The Countess of Mansfeld then rubbed spirits on his hands and 
 forehead, which revived him a little ; so that when Justus Jonas 
 addressed him in these words — " Beloved Father ! do you acknow- 
 ledge Christ, the son of God, our Redeemer?" — he answered, 
 " Yes," with a voice so strong, that all in the room heard him : 
 and then folding his hands, drew one deep sigh, and died between 
 two and three o'clock on the morning of the 17th of February. 
 " This," concludes Jonas (from whose letter to the Elector this 
 account is taken), " most gracious prince and lord, have I the 
 next hour, as in duty bound (although we, his poor disciples for 
 five and twenty years, are sore troubled at the event), written in 
 all haste, and given your grace to know the same. With regard 
 to the funeral, we humbly pray that your grace will signify your 
 pleasure, and write also concerning it to our lord the Count. 
 Although my good lords would rejoice to have him buried here, 
 yet they submit entirely to your gracious will. May our 
 Almighty Father, which is in heaven, comfort your grace and 
 all of us, whom this bereavement hath sorely afflicted. I also 
 entreat your grace to write letters of condolence to his poor 
 wife, and to the Doctors Bugenhagen and Cruziger, — the which 
 your grace understandeth how to do better than we can suggest." 
 This letter was forwarded to "Weimar with such speed, that the 
 Elector received it the next day. The same messenger bore also 
 a letter for the Count of Mansfeld, to whom the Elector writes 
 in reply — " I have received with a deeply-grieved and troubled 
 spirit, the news of Dr. Martin's death. I desire that you would 
 allow his body to be conveyed to Wittenberg, that it may be 
 buried in the castle church there. I cannot help adding I could 
 liave wished that you had not worried the old worn-out man with 
 your troublesome affairs." The Count replied, " that they were 
 deeply grieved at the good man's death, as doubtless all well- 
 thinking Christian folks were. They had, it is true, wished to 
 retain in their own dominions the body of one so gifted by God, 
 and so highly honoured ; but since the Elector desired to possess 
 it, they would send it to his grace." 
 
 The day before this letter was written, two painters had drawn 
 the portrait of the deceased; and on the 19tli the body was 
 placed in a tin coffin (an honour hitherto allowed only to the 
 highest nobles), and borne at Uvo o'clock in the afternoon into 
 the church of St. Andrew, followed by the Counts and a great 
 
A.D. 154G. DEATH AND FUNERAL OF MARTIN LUTHER. 279 
 
 concourse of people. Ten citizens watched tlic body during tlie 
 nig-ht, a funeral discourse having been previously pronounced 
 over it by Dr. Jonas. The next day Coclius occupied the pulpit, 
 and preached a very affecting sermon, in which he described tlie 
 last moments of Luther, as one who had himself stood by his 
 death-bed. " The corpse of Dr. Marthi," concluded the good 
 man, " will be laid in the earth, and planted like a grain of 
 ^^ heat, that at the coming of Christ it may spring up, and rise 
 A\ith honour and joy into everlasting glory." At one o'clock 
 llio body was removed on its way to Wittenberg, the Counts of 
 Mansfeld and all the inhabitants without exception attending it 
 as far as the gates of Eisleben. In every village through, which 
 the procession passed, the bells were tolled, and men, women, and 
 children flocked around it to display their sympathy. About five 
 o'clock it was received in the neighbourhood of Halle by a crowd 
 of citizens and their wives with loud cries and lamentations. So 
 great was the throng that the procession was often obliged to 
 halt, and did not reach the city until half-past six, when the body 
 was deposited in the church of the Blessed Virgin. "Here," 
 says an eye-witness of the scene, " we endeavoured to raise the 
 funeral psalm, ' De Profundis,' ' Out of the depths have I cried 
 unto thee;' but so heavy was our grief, that the words were 
 rather wept than sung. The body remained in the sacristy until 
 the next morning, when it was conveyed out of the town, the 
 bells of all the churches tollmg as the procession passed. The 
 two Counts of Mansfeld accompanied it to the Elster gate of 
 Wittenberg, where it arrived on the 22nd of February, and was 
 received by the rector and professors of the university, the town- 
 council, and the citizens. The preachers and school children 
 walked before the body, singing a suitable hymn. In front of 
 the procession rode the Commissioners of the Elector, in all sixty- 
 five horse, and after the coffin came in a little carriage the widow 
 of the deceased with some female friends, her two sons, his 
 brother Jacob, and the two sons of his sister. Then followed 
 the rector, with several young princes and nobles, students of the 
 university. After these walked Melancthon, Justus Jonas, and 
 other notaliles of the university, the town-council, and the great 
 body of the students. The citizens and many of their wives and 
 children closed the funeral train, filling the air with their lamenta- 
 tions. As soon as the body was deposited in the church, some 
 livnms \s{'re sunc^, and Bugenhagen ascended the pulpit, but was 
 
 R 2 
 
280 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XL 
 
 so choked by sobs that he could hardly utter a word. The sermon 
 M'as succeeded by a Latin oration, delivered by Melancthon, who 
 spoke of the zeal with which Luther had propagated his doctrines, 
 of the opposition and obloquy to which he had been exposed, and 
 of the good service which he had rendered to the church by 
 translating the Bible into German, and by his commentaries on 
 the word of God. " The deatks of illustrious men," continued 
 the speaker, " are generally tokens of great public calamities. 
 We are threatened by the Turks from without, and within are 
 unquiet spirits at work, seeking to corrupt the purity of our 
 faith ; and now about to act without fear, since the mighty arm 
 of Luther can no longer smite. That God may avert these evils 
 from us, let us fashion our lives and studies the more carefully ; 
 remembering that as long as we hold the evangelical faitli in its 
 purity, hear, learn, and love, we shall remain the temples and 
 dwellings of God." All the preparations having been completed, 
 ten masters of arts advanced to the coffin, and raising it on their 
 shoulders, bore to the grave all that now remained on earth of 
 the renowned champion of Protestantism — Martin Luther. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER XL. 
 
 Character of Luther. — That the leader of so great a revolu- 
 tion as the religious reformation of the sixteenth century should 
 have been variously judged can excite no surprise. To those, 
 however, M'ho approach the subject with candour and impartiality, 
 the character of Luther presents but little difficulty. Whatever 
 his faults, hypocrisy at least was not one of them. Few men who 
 have played so great a part in the world have taken so little pains 
 to conceal their motives and opinions. 
 
 Luther's share in the Reformation has perhaps been exaggerated. 
 Like other popular leaders, he merely gave utterance and action 
 to the spirit of his age. The times produced Luther, not Luther 
 the times. Wiclif, Huss, and many others had already sounded 
 the note of warning, and, even in the more decisive progress of 
 the sixteenth century, Zwingli accompanied, if he did not antici- 
 pate, the steps of Luther. AYe naturally, however, regard as the 
 authors of all such movements those who have resolution and 
 energy enough to step forward and brave the dangers which ac- 
 company them ; and if any praise be due to such conduct, Luther 
 is pre-eminently entitled to it. On the courage which he dis- 
 
Sup. Chap. XL. CHARACTER OF ]MARTr>^ T.UTIIER. 281 
 
 played in heading the Reformation it were needless to dilate ; it 
 is manifest from the mere recital of his actions, and is indeed 
 acknowledged even by his enemies. His detractors have with 
 more plausibility attacked the source of that courage ; and, if it 
 be any demerit, it must be acknowledged that Luther was ani- 
 mated with an enthusiasm which sometimes bordered on fanaticism. 
 A morbid and constitutional melancholy, combined with a deep 
 religious feeling, caused him to regard himself as the chosen in- 
 strument of the Almighty in the great work of the Reformation ; 
 and this persuasion sometimes led him into acts of violence and 
 intolerance, as well as into an insolence of language, which cannot 
 be defended, though it may in some degree be excused, by the 
 manners of the age in which he lived. We must reflect, how- 
 ever, that great reforms have seldom been achieved by men of 
 uudeviating mildness and moderation ; and that though Luther's 
 conduct was occasionally violent and overbearing, his motives 
 were uniformly pure and disinterested. He was stimulated neither 
 ])y self-interest nor by the lust of power. He never rose above 
 tlie station of a Wittenberg professor, which he attained before he 
 l)egan his career as a reformer ; and in his last will he congratu- 
 lates himself that, notwithstanding his very moderate income, he 
 had managed to keep out of debt, and to leave a small property 
 to his wife. It should also be borne in mind that, however great 
 tlie reformation he achieved, he was by principle a supporter of 
 legitimate authority; that he was no innovator merely for the 
 sake of change ; and that he departed more slowly and reluctantly 
 than any other eminent reformer from the rites and doctrines of 
 the Established Church. For the excesses and extravagances to 
 which the Reformation sometimes led, he cannot be justly con- 
 sidered accountable. 
 
 The more specific charges which have been brought against 
 Luther are principally two — the violation of his monastic vows 
 by his marriage, and the sanction which he gave to the bigamy 
 of the Landgrave of Hess-e. The former of these carries but 
 little weight. If just, it would apply with equal force to all the 
 other observances of monkery as to that of celibacy, and would 
 involve the necessity of Luther's retaining his frock and his beg- 
 ging wallet, and shutting himself up in his cell for life. But, 
 having arrived at the just conviction that such vows are not only 
 idle and superstitious, but also positively wicked and unholy, he 
 was perfectly justified in regarding them as null and void. Tlio 
 
 II 3 
 
282 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XL. 
 
 other charge admits not of so satisfactory an answer. The sanc- 
 tioning of the Landgrave's double marriage was a sacrifice of 
 principle to expediency which suited the policy of the moment, 
 but which we are shocked to see perpetrated by the leader of a 
 great religious movement. 
 
 If we turn from the public to the private life of Luther, we 
 find only subject for unmixed approbation. Pure in his morals 
 and disinterested in his conduct, he was a stedfast friend, an affec- 
 tionate husband, a kind and indulgent father. He had no sour 
 and ascetic feelings, but was a promoter of the innocent pleasures 
 of domestic life. He loved his garden and his flowers, sympa- 
 thized with the recreations of his friends, and the infantine amuse- 
 ments of his children. He was not averse to the moderate enjoy- 
 ments of the table. He loved good Eimbeck beer and Rhenish 
 wine ; but his indulgence in these luxuries, never pushed to ex- 
 cess, only stimulated him to pour out before his table-companions 
 those stores of household wisdom which have seldom been equalled 
 either in extent or value. 
 
A.D. 154G. 
 
 SCHMALKALDTAN WAI7. 
 
 283 
 
 CHArTER XLI. 
 
 SCnMALKALDIAN WAR. — BATTLE OF MUIILBERG. — THE PROTESTANT j 
 PARTY BROKEN UP. 
 
 A.D. 1546-7. 
 
 The Elector John Frederick of Saxony. 
 
 P'rance had been humbled, England gained over, and the Sul- 
 tan conciliated by the cession of Hungary ; the Pope and Em- 
 peror had therefore undisturbed leisure to pursue their designs 
 against the Protestants. The former had taken into his pay, in 
 1540, a newly-founded order of Spanish monks, called the Jesuits, 
 whom he secretly instructed to apply wdth all diligence the ma- 
 chinery of their system to the extirpation of heresy. The watch- 
 word of this order was, " The end sanctifies the means." They 
 first appeared at the Council of Trent, and have ever since jilayed 
 a conspicuous part in the politics of Elurope. At tlie same time 
 the Pope prepared a new bull to be launched against the Protes- 
 
284 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XLI. 
 
 tants when the proper moment should arrive. The Emperor on 
 his part was unwilling to employ force as long as there Avas any 
 hope of success from treachery. At the Diet of Ratisbon, in 1546, 
 he declared that those Protestant princes v/ho refused to recog- 
 nise the authority of the Council of Trent, which was now sitting, 
 should be treated as rebellious vassals : but at the same time gave 
 them to understand that this proclamation had no reference to re- 
 ligious matters ; he only wished for peace and order, and was 
 therefore determined to enforce obedience to himself as their tem- 
 poral lord — but nothing further. But, lest the Pope should take 
 fright at this display of candour, he made at the same time a secret 
 compact with Rome, that, should a war break out, he would do 
 his best to extirpate the Lutheran heresy. The Pope was too 
 shrewd to be deceived by this promise, and displayed his own pro- 
 ficiency in Italian tactics by publishing to all the world the agree- 
 ment which he had promised to keep secret. The Protestants srp.v 
 at once that they were betrayed : and the Emperor, perceiving the 
 failure of this plan, devised another. In the hope of sowing dis- 
 sensions among the Protestants, he placed none of their princes 
 under this ban except the Elector of Saxony and the Landgrave 
 of Hesse. There happened to be among them at this time a 
 drunken savage named Albert of Culmbach, whose excesses had 
 reduced him to a state of almost childish imbecility. With this 
 worthy, and Joachim 11. of Brandenburg, who had been always a 
 lukewarm supporter of the Protestant cause, Charles now formed 
 a secret compact ; and, in order to infuse some portion of respect- 
 ability into the mass, added the name of Maurice of Saxe Thurin- 
 gia, a young prince of great promise, who had distinguished him- 
 self against the Turks, and was now anxious to supersede his more 
 powerful but less intelligent cousm the Elector of Saxony. These 
 compacts were not made so secretly but that the Protestants sus- 
 pected what was going on ; and their surmises, added to the pro- 
 scription of two of their princes by the Emperor and the Pope's 
 bull, roused them to fury. The brave Schertlin, who had taken 
 Rome by storm in 1527, assembled an army in the pay of the city 
 of Augsburg and the other towns of Upper Germany ; the Land- 
 grave Pliilip exulted that blood was at last to flow ; and the Elec- 
 tor of Saxony, old as he was, and so corpulent that he could 
 scarcely mount a horse, prepared once more to lead his troops into 
 the field. In the month of August, 1546, an army of Protestants, 
 47,000 strong, had assembled in Upper Germany ; and nothing 
 
A.D. 1546. BATTLE OF MUIILBEllG. 285 
 
 ^vould have been easier than to surprise the Emperor, wlio lay at 
 llatisbon with a garrison of only 9000 men. But this the allies 
 refused, on the plea tliat tliey had no right to enter the dominions 
 of William of Bavaria, who observed, or pretended to observe, a 
 strict neutrality. " Pliilip," says Schertlin, in iiis ' Memoirs of 
 his Own Time,' " would not bite the fox : every ford and brook was 
 too deep for him, and every morass too broad. And yet," he adds, 
 '" hath Duke AVilliam observed a one-sided neutrality, supplied our 
 enemies with provisions, and employed all sorts of devices to delay 
 us — but the Landgrave would not follow me : nor will he let me 
 attack them single-handed ; but opposes me tooth and nail, crying 
 out tliat I went to seduce the troops and so forth." The Protes- 
 tants therefore contented themselves with bombarding Ratisbon 
 from a distance, and then retired for the purpose of intercepting 
 the Count of Biiren, who was advancing to join the Emperor with 
 a reinforcement of 15,000 men ; but this general eluded them and 
 entered the town. In the following year, on the 24th of April, 
 the Emperor, reinforced by Prince Maurice, surprised the Elector 
 of Saxony at Miihlberg, M'liere the Protestants had secured them- 
 selves, as they supposed, against any sudden attack by destroying 
 the bridge over the Elbe : but a miller whose horses had been 
 stolen by some of the Elector's soldiers, showed the imperialists a 
 ford at which tlie whole army crossed the river and attacked the 
 Saxons. John Frederick, who was surprised by the imperialists 
 while listening to a sermon, made a gallant defence as long as 
 any hope remained, and then quitting the carriage, in which, 
 on account of his excessive corpulence, he had been compelled to 
 sit during the engagement, he mounted a horse and fled with the 
 remnant of his army towards Witteiiberg ; but the heavy charger, 
 wliicli had been selected on account of its clumsy strength rather 
 than its swiftness or power of endurance, after galloping with 
 tolerable speed for a few hundred yards, became blown just as the 
 imperialists appeared advancing rapidly in pursuit ; then rallying 
 a little, the generous animal bore its rider forwards as long as its 
 strength lasted, and finally broke down altogether at the heath of 
 Lochau. Here the Elector rallied his men, and prepared for an 
 action with sufficient skill and presence of mind : taking advan- 
 tage of a forest to cover his wings and prevent them from being 
 surrounded by the enemy's cavalry. Although neither the impe- 
 rial artillery nor the greater part of the infantry had yet come up, 
 Charles, Vy the advice of the Duke of Alva, commanded the attack 
 
286 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XLI. 
 
 to be made at once by the Spanish and Neapolitan cavalry, who 
 charged the Saxons so impetuously that they were soon thrown 
 into confusion. During this struggle the personal appearance of 
 the two commanders presented a strange and almost ludicrous con- 
 trast. The Elector had resumed his seat in the carriage, where 
 he sat panting and exhausted, but still bravely exhorting his men 
 to acquit themselves worthily of the old Saxon reputation ; whilst 
 Ciiarles, mounted on a high-bred Andalusian mare, a lance in his 
 hand, Ms gilded coat of mail and helmet flashing in the sun, led 
 the charge of his cavalry, sliouting the terrible battle-cry of the 
 imperialists, " Espana ! Espana !" So complete v/as the rout of 
 the Saxon army, that the heath was strewed with the bodies of 
 fugitives who had dropped from sheer exhaustion, or been butch- 
 ered by the sabres of the imperial cavalry. One of the Elector's 
 sons, after a brave resistance, was cut down by an imperialist sol- 
 dier, but, before the blow could be repeated, he shot his assailant 
 dead, and was soon after rescued from his perilous situation by a 
 body of Saxons. Meanwhile the Elector, who had again mounted 
 his horse, and was defending himself against a whole troop of 
 Hungarian hussars, received a sabre-cut, whicli laid open his left 
 cheek : but he still refused to surrender, until a German officer 
 addressed him in his native language, when he drew two rings 
 from liis finger, and presenting them to the officer in token of 
 submission, allowed himself to be led into the presence of Charles. 
 At the same moment a heavy thunder-cloud sent forth a peal, 
 which seemed to the wounded man like a voice from heaven, for 
 his countenance instantly brightened, and, raising his eyes, he ex- 
 claimed, " Ah ! thou ancient Almighty One, tliy tongue tells me 
 that thou still livest, and wilt not abandon me." Exhausted with 
 his previous exertions, and the loss of blood which still streamed 
 from his wounded cheek, John Frederick dismounted with diffi- 
 culty, and throwing himself at the Emperor's feet addressed him 
 as his '^ mighty and most gracious lord." " Am I indeed at last 
 thy lord?" replied Charles; '"it is long sin-ce thou hast con- 
 descended to give me that title." The Elector was then con- 
 signed to the custody of the Duke of Alva. Wittenberg, at that 
 time one of the strongest tcvns in Germany, and the residence of 
 the Electoral branch of the Saxon family, still held out; and 
 Sybilla of Cleves, the Elector's wife, animated the citizens to a 
 vigorous defence. The Emperor, meanwhile, had illegally sub- 
 jected John Frederick to a trial before a court martial composed 
 
A.l). 1540. rnOTESTANT TARTY BROKEN UR. 287 
 
 of Spanish and Italian officers, who condemned him to ])e be- 
 headed. This sentence was communicated to him wliilst he was 
 engaged in a game of ohess with his fellow prisoner Ernest of 
 Brunswick. He discovered neither surprise nor terror at the news ; 
 and after remarking upon the irregularity of the proceeding, and 
 expressing a hope that his wife would not surrender the town out 
 of anxiety on his behalf, calmly continued and won the game. 
 But Sybilla did not exhibit the same indifference ; and as the em- 
 })eror threatened to carry the sentence into execution unless the 
 town were surrendered, the garrison were obliged to open the 
 gates. As Charles entered in triumph tlie city where Luther's 
 ashes repose, the bigoted and gloomy Alva advised him to disinter 
 and burn the body of the arch-heretic. " Let him rest," was the 
 magnanimous reply ; "he has appeared before his Judge ere now 
 — I wage war witli the living, not the dead." At the same time 
 he ordered, probably for the sake of annoying the Pope, that the 
 Lutheran service sliould meet with no interruption. Tlie Elector 
 was compelled to cede Courland to Prince Maurice, and follow 
 in tiie Emperor's train as a prisoner ; but no promises or threats 
 could induce him to renounce the Protestant faith. Philip of 
 Hesse, who had been taken in the North of Germany, was also 
 detained in spite of the promises made to him by the agents of 
 Charles.* It was generally believed at the time that this severity 
 was the result of the Emperor's indignation at the unseemly be- 
 haviour of Philip, who could not refrain from smiling even whilst 
 he knelt to implore forgiveness. " Well, bide a wee bit," said 
 Charles, in a strange mixture of Flemish and German, for he 
 spoke the latter of these languages very imperfectly, " Bide a 
 wee bit, and I '11 teach thee to laugh."| Tims the Protestant 
 party was completely broken up. Prince William of Anhalt 
 became an exile from his country, Schertlin and Ulrich von 
 Hutten fled to Switzerland, and Biicer, the Strasburg Refomier, 
 to England. 
 
 * Charles had given an assurance to the Elector, that if he would come 
 to the imperial camp in person, implore his mercy, and sign whatever con- 
 ditions might be imposed, his territories should be restored, and neither 
 death nor imprisonment be inflicted on him. The excuse made by the 
 Emperor for the violation of these conditions was, that his intention had 
 l)cen misinterpreted through his chancellor's ignorance of German, who had 
 inadvertently substituted the words '^-u-ithout a/jy imprisonment " (ohic 
 eiiiujes Gcfauyuiss) iov ''without perpetual imprisonment" (ohnc euncjes 
 Cirfa)iriinss)—a, story which nobody seema to have believed. 
 
 t Wol, wart, ik sol di lacken lehren. 
 
288 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XLl. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER XLI. 
 
 The Jesuits. — The Society of Jesus was founded by Ignatius 
 Loyola in 1539 ; but its laws and constitutions were perfected by 
 his successors, Laynez and Aquaviva, men who were far his supe- 
 riors in the arts of government. In addition to the usual monastic 
 vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, the Jesuits were also 
 required to swear, that into whatever lands the Pope desired to 
 send missionaries, they would without hesitation undertake the 
 work, and do their utmost to forward the interests of Romanism. 
 A bull of Pope Paul III., in the year 1540, confirmed the esta- 
 blishment of the order, and in the following year the members 
 assembled at Rome, and chose Loyola to be their first General. 
 Paul III. and Julius III. granted them various privileges in ad- 
 dition to those enjoyed by the regular monks and secular clerg}^ 
 The most important of these is the power given to the General of 
 the order to establish schools of theology even in countries wliich 
 have been excommunicated as heretic. The society is divided 
 into several classes. 1. Novices, who are chosen from the most 
 intelligent and best-instructed young men, without regard to 
 birth ; and are compelled to pass two probationary years before 
 they are actually admitted into the order. 2. Lay brethren, or 
 coadjutors, ^vho do not take the vows. vSeveral personages of 
 distinction (among others Louis XTY. of France) have been ad- 
 mitted to this degree. 3. Scholastics, or scholars and spiritual 
 coadjutors ; men of learning, who take the vows, and are espe- 
 cially employed in the instruction of youth. 4. The professed, or 
 highest order, which consists of a certain number of the most ex- 
 perienced members. They are engaged as missionaries among 
 the heathen and heretics, confessors in the families of princes, and 
 residents in places where there is no college ; but are never em- 
 ployed in the education of youth. They alone have a voice in 
 the election of the General, who holds his office during life, and 
 possesses an absolute power, from which there is no appeal. He 
 is assisted by a council of five, who are natives of the five princi- 
 pal Romanist states, Italy, Germany, France, Spain, and Portu- 
 gal. Loyola had at first only ten disciples. But in the year 1608 
 the society counted 10,581 members; and in the year I7IO they 
 had increased to 19,998 
 
A.D. 1548. THE INTERIM. 289 
 
 CHAPTER XLII. 
 
 THE INTERIM. — TEACE OF AUGSBURG. ABDICATION OF CHARLES V. 
 
 A.B. 1548 to 1555. 
 
 Meanwhile the Bohemians had formed a confederacy at Prague 
 for the protection of their constitution and the maintenance of 
 relig-ious freedom ; but their zeal evaporated in ribald songs, 
 and caricatures in which the insults offered to Bohemia by the 
 Austrian eagle were represented under similitudes too nasty for 
 description. Had they afforded substantial assistance to the 
 Schraalkaldian allies, the results of the war might have been dif- 
 ferent. Soon after the victory over the Saxons at Miihlberg, 
 the Emperor's brother, Ferdinand, proceeded to Prague, and 
 opened what is called the " bloody diet," which condemned the 
 chiefs of the confederacy to suffer death by the hand of the common 
 executioner. Of the citizens, some were heavily fined, and others 
 scourged out of the town. The old Hussite party, called the 
 " Bohemian brethren," were banished the country for ever, and 
 retiring in three bodies, each consisting of more than 1000 per- 
 sons, took refuge in Prussia. In Austria the public feeling was 
 decidedly favourable to the Reformation ; and as the states had 
 been politically serviceable to the Emperor, they considered them- 
 selves entitled to petition for religious freedom. Charles met this 
 demand by what he considered a master-stroke of policy, which 
 was to have the effect of giving him an enormous influence over 
 the Protestants independently of the Pope. He laid before the 
 former as his ultimatum, a proposition called the " Interim of 
 Augsburg," which provided that the cup should be allowed to 
 the laity, and the marriage of priests permitted, but that in all 
 other respects matters should remain as they had been twentv 
 years before ; that forms and ceremonies which during that period 
 had fallen into disuse should be re-established and continue to be 
 observed (interim — in the meantime) until a general council 
 could be summoned. The plan, hov/ever, met with little success. 
 Two or three of the weaker princes, it is true, adopted it ; but 
 the majority either openly or secretly rejected a proposition whicli 
 they believed to be nothing better than an attempt to re-establish 
 Romanism. The people universally ridiculed the proposal of 
 Charles, and a sort of pun ran like wild-fire through Germany 
 G V. s 
 
290 HISTORY OF GERMAN r. Chap. XLTI. 
 
 in which they expressed their suspicions of his smcerity in 
 the proceeding : — 
 
 • The Interim 
 
 Has a knave behind him.* 
 
 Charles, perceiving how little success his plan had with the 
 Protestants, changed his policy, and determined to employ the 
 assistance of the Pope to bring them under subjection. The 
 death of Pope Paul III. furnished him with a good excuse for 
 treating with his successor Julius, who re-opened the council of 
 Trent in the year 1551. Still Charles was unwilling to proceed 
 to open extremities against the Protestants ; and informed the 
 Pope that he could only secure their attendance at the council by 
 civil speeches, quoting the text, " Surely in vain is the net spread 
 in the sight of any bird." To this Julius replied, that he cared 
 not to invite the Protestants to Trent, and fight with a cat in a 
 net ; he thought it would be much better to leave them a way 
 open for escape. Meanwhile Prince Maurice, desirous of playing 
 a conspicuous part as leader of the Protestants, had availed him- 
 self of the siege of Magdeburg, which he was at this time carry- 
 ing on by command of the Emperor, to keep a large army on 
 foot ; and knowing himself to be surrounded by spies, had con- 
 trived to mislead them by allowing them to intercept letters 
 written expressly for that purpose. Before, however, he broke 
 out into open rebellion, he made an alliance with Henry II. of 
 France, which the states of Saxony refused to ratify. Maurice, 
 having no further motive for concealment, now proclaimed war 
 against the Emperor, setting forth as his reasons that the Land- 
 grave Philip of Hesse had been imprisoned in the face of a solemn 
 assurance that no harm should happen to him, and that Habsburg, 
 as it appeared, was endeavouring to reduce the Germans to a 
 state of " brutal hereditary slavery." The situation of Charles 
 at this moment was one of extreme danger : he was at Innsbruck 
 without an army — the enemy was at his heels ; all Germany 
 terrified by the unexpected defection of Maurice ; the Romanists 
 paralyzed ; the Protestants full of hope. To add to his embar- 
 rassment, Henry of France entered Germany, and made himself 
 master of Metz, Toul, and Verdun. Maurice on his part would 
 accede to nothing until the helpless situation of the Emperor 
 enabled him to dictate conditions of peace, which was concluded 
 
 * Das Interim 
 
 Hat den Schalk hinter ihm. 
 
A.D. 1552. ALBERT OF BRANDENBURG. 291 
 
 at Passau on the 22nd August, 1552. By this treaty freedom of 
 conscience w£is secured to the Protestants ; tlie princes John Fre- 
 derick of Saxony and Philip of Hesse were set at liberty, whilst 
 on the other hand, Maurice promised that lie would do his best to 
 protect the empire against the French as well as the Turks. The 
 only German prince desirous of war was the Margrave Albert of 
 Brandenburg, who, at the head of a band of mercenary fire-eaters, 
 continued to burn, slay, and destroy in the name of the Gospel of 
 Peace. A crowd of hostages, among whom were eighty distin- 
 guished inhabitants of Bamberg, were starved to death by this 
 ferocious tyrant in a tower at Hohenlandsberg. So enamoured 
 was he of cruelty, that when a fatlier implored him to spare the 
 life of only one of his three sons, Albert asked him which was 
 liis favourite, and beginning with the youth pointed out by the 
 old man, put them all to death in succession. But his career of 
 terror was short. A large force was speedily raised by the diet 
 and entrusted to Maurice, who readily undertook the command, 
 although the offender had been his intimate friend and companion 
 in arms. The two armies met at Sievershausen (a.d. 1553). The 
 engagement was murderous : three princes of the house of Bruns- 
 v>^ick lay dead on the field : Albert himself was wounded in the arm, 
 and Maurice received a mortal wound from a musket-shot ; yet, 
 like our own Wolfe, he had the satisfaction of hearing in his dying 
 moments the cry, '" They run ! they run !" He was only thirty- 
 two years of age when death closed his brilliant career. In better 
 times his conduct would have been esteemed hateful ; but it must 
 be remembered that the politics of that age were universally dark 
 and treacherous ; and he did no more than others in throwing off 
 his allegiance to the Emperor, whilst his strenuous support of the 
 Protestant cause deserves our praise. The least defensible act of 
 Maurice's life was his availing himself of the Emperor's injustice 
 to extort an exchange of principalities from his cousin, the Elector 
 John Frederick. 
 
 The detestable Albert having fled into France* (where his un- 
 bridled excesses soon put an end to his life), there remained no 
 further obstacle to a religious peace, which was concluded at 
 Augsburg in 1555, with the extraordinary condition tliat all sub- 
 
 ♦ ^Vllen it was announced to him that he was a second time placed under 
 the ban (Aclit), he jestingly remarked ''Eight and eight (acht und acht) 
 make sixteen. Come, my lads, let us drink number 16 : the more enemies 
 the better luck." 
 
 s 2 
 
292 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XLII. 
 
 jects should follow^ the religion of their rulers. Whenever the 
 prince thought fit to alter his creed, the whole population were 
 compelled, under the most tremendous penalties, to change theirs 
 also. An instance of this occurred in the Palatinate, wliich was 
 four times alternately Romanist and Protestant. Only the eccle- 
 siastical dignitaries were allowed to change their faith -without 
 suffering any other penalty than the loss of their temporal rank 
 and privileges. This clause was termed the " Spiritual reserva- 
 tion." Immediately after the conclusion of this hollow peace, 
 Charles V. abdicated, dividing his dominions between his brother 
 Ferdinand and his son Philip. He had once anxiously desired 
 that Philip should succeed him on the imperial throne ; but the 
 feeling against the bigoted and gloomy Spaniard was too strong 
 amon^- the electors to permit his perseverance in such a plan. 
 All that he could do, therefore, was to annex to the crown of 
 Spain those of Naples, of the newly-discovered South American 
 colonies, and of the Netherlands. The hereditary possessions of the 
 House of Habsburg he allowed Ferdinand to retain, together 
 with Bohemia and Hungary. Having made this disposition of 
 his dominions, the aged Emperor embarked for Spain, where he 
 died in the Convent of St. Just, near Placentia, in Estremadura, 
 on the 21st September, 1558. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER XLII. 
 
 Charles V. in his retirement. — The monastery of St. Justus, 
 whither Charles retired, Avas seated in a vale of no great extent, 
 watered by a small brook, and surrounded by rising grounds 
 covered with lofty trees : from the nature of the soil as well as 
 the temperature of the climate it was esteemed the most healthful 
 and delicious situation in Spain. Some months before his resigna- 
 tion he had sent an architect thither to add a new apartment to 
 the monastery for his accommodation ; but he gave strict orders 
 that the style of the building should be such as suited his present 
 situation rather than his former dignity. It consisted only of six 
 rooms, four of them in the form of friars' cells, with naked walls ; 
 the other two, each twenty feet square, were hung with brown 
 cloth, and furnished in the most simple manner. They were all 
 on a level with the ground, with a door on one side into a garden, 
 of which Charles himself had given the plan, and had filled it 
 with various plants which he intended to cultivate with his own 
 
Sup. Chap. XLTI, CHARLES V. IN IIIS RETIREMENT. 293 
 
 liands : on the other side they communicated witli the cliapel of 
 the monastery, in which he was to perform his devotions. Into 
 this Immble retreat, hardly sufficient for the comfortable accom- 
 modation of a private gentleman, did Charles enter with twelve 
 domestics only. He buried there, in solitude and silence, liis 
 grandeur, his ambition, together with all those vast projects which, 
 during almost half a century, had alarmed and agitated Europe. 
 
 AVhen Cliarles entered this retreat he formed such a plan of 
 life for liimself as would have suited the condition of a private 
 gentleman. Sometimes he cultivated the plants in his garden 
 with his own hands ; sometimes he rode out in the neig-hbourino: 
 wood on a little horse, the only one that he kept, attended by a 
 single servant on foot. When his infirmities confined him to his 
 apartment, which often happened, and deprived him of those more 
 active recreations, he either admitted a few gentlemen who re- 
 sided near the monastery to visit him, and entertained them 
 familiarly at his table, or he employed himself in studying me- 
 chanical principles, and in forming curious works of mechanism, 
 of which he had always been remarkably fond, and to which his 
 genius was peculiarly turned. With this view he had engaged 
 Turriano, one of the most ingenious artists of the age, to accom- 
 pany him in his retreat. He laboured together with him in 
 framing models of the most useful machines, as well as in making- 
 experiments with regard to their respective powers, and it was 
 not seldom that the ideas of the monarch assisted or perfected the 
 inventions of the artist. He relieved his mind at intervals with 
 slighter and more fantastic works of mechanism, in fashioning 
 puppets, which, by internal springs, mimicked the actions and 
 gestures of men, to the astonishment of the ignorant monks, who, 
 beholding movements which they could not compreliend, some- 
 times distrusted their own senses, and sometimes suspected Charles 
 and Turriano of being in compact with invisible powers. He 
 was particularly curious with regard to the construction of clocks 
 and watches; and having found, after repeated trials, that he 
 could not bring any two of them to go exactly alike, he reflected, 
 it is said, with a mixture of surprise as well as regret, on his own 
 folly, in having bestowed so much time and labour on the more 
 vain attempt of bringing mankind to a precise uniformity of senti- 
 ment concerning the profound and mysterious doctrines of religion. 
 
 About six months before his death, the gout, after a longer in- 
 termission than usual, returned with a proportional increase of 
 
294 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XLII. 
 
 violence. His shattered constitution had not vigour enough to 
 withstand such a shock. It enfeebled his mind as much as Iiis 
 body ; and from this period we hardly discern any trace of that 
 sound and masculine understanding which distinguished Charles 
 among his contemporaries. An illiberal and timid superstition 
 depraved his spirit : he had no relish for amusements of any kind ; 
 he endeavoured to conform in his manner of living to all the 
 rigour of monastic austerity ; he desired no other society than 
 that of monks, and was almost continually employed with them 
 in chanting the hymns of the Missal. As an expiation for his 
 sins he gave himself the discipline in secret with such severity 
 that the whip of cords which he employed as the instrument of 
 his punishment M^as found after his decease tinged with his blood. 
 Nor was he satisfied with these acts of mortification, which, how- 
 ever severe, were not unexampled. The timorous and distrustful 
 solicitude which always accompanies superstition still continued 
 to disquiet him, and, depreciating all the devout exercises in 
 which he had hitherto been engaged, prompted him to aim at 
 something extraordinary, at some new and singular act of piety, 
 that would display his zeal and merit the favour of heaven. The 
 act on which he fixed was as wild and uncommon as any that 
 superstition ever suggested to a weak and disordered fancy. He 
 resolved to celebrate his own obsequies before his death. He 
 ordered his tomb to be erected in the chapel of the monastery ; 
 his domestics marched thither in funeral procession, with black 
 tapers in their hands ; he himself followed in his shroud ; he was 
 laid in his coflfin with much solemnity ; the service for the dead 
 was chanted, and Charles joined in the prayers offered up for the 
 rest of his soul, mingling his tears with those which the attendants 
 shed, as if they were celebrating a real funeral. The ceremony 
 closed with sprinkling holy water on the coffin in the usual form, 
 and all the assistants retiring, the doors of the chapel were shut. 
 Then Charles rose out of the coffin and withdrew to his apart- 
 ment, full of those awful sentiments which such a singular so- 
 lemnity was calculated to inspire. But either the fatiguing length 
 of the ceremony, or the impression which the image of death left 
 on his mind, affected him so much that next day he was seized 
 with a fever. His feeble frame could not long resist its violence, 
 and he expired on the 21st September, after a life of fifty-eight 
 years, six months, and twenty-five days.* 
 
 * Robertson, Charles V. 
 
A.D. 1556. FERDINAND 1. 295 
 
 CHAPTER XLIII. 
 
 FERDINAND I. 
 
 From A.D. 1556 to 1564. 
 
 Stuange as it may appear, not a single voice was raised to dis- 
 pute the will of Charles V. The electors had forgotten the 
 general welfare of their country amidst the heat of religious feuds 
 and the projects of individual selfishness. One of the earliest 
 fruits of the Italian and Spanish iiifluence in Germany was the 
 establishment of Jesuit colonies in all the Romanist states. A 
 member of that society named Canisius, who had published a 
 catechism in Bavaria, being invited into Austria, where Pro- 
 testantism was now triumphant, laboured so successfully as to 
 extort from his opponents the confession that '■' but for him, all 
 Soutliern Germany would have become Lutheran." The good 
 Pope Marcellus, of whom a contemporary had said tliat he was a 
 man granted to the prayers of the faithful, as one who would 
 rescue the words "church," "council," and " refonn" from the 
 contempt into which they had fallen, had been succeeded by the 
 most active of the Ultra-Romanist party, Peter Caraffa. This 
 pontiff, who assumed the title of Paul IV., was in his seventy- 
 ninth year when he ascended the papal throne ; but his deep-sunk 
 eyes had still all the fire of youth. In person he was tall and 
 meagre ; a bundle of sinews and nerves. His habits were singu- 
 larly irregular : he would sleep all day and study at night ; and 
 woe to the servant who ventured to intrude on his privacy without 
 being sunmioned. 'J'he great object of liis life was to re-establish 
 tlie ancient faith in its former splendour. He believed that he 
 was chosen, not by the college of cardinals, but by God himself, 
 to fill the chair of St. Peter. " We promise and swear," said this 
 zealous pontiff in his inauguratory bull, " in all truth to provide 
 that the reform of the universal church and of the Roman court 
 be taken in hand in earnest." 
 
 With Ferdinand I. he would at first hold no communication, 
 because he had sanctioned a peace with the Protestants ; but 
 dreading his defection from the Romish faith, he placed about the 
 Emperor's person as confessor, a Jesuit named Bobadilla, who 
 brou^-lit him back to the feet of the Holv Father. Terrified at 
 
2-96 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XLIIL 
 
 this new and unexpected conjunction, Augustus of Saxony, Mau- 
 rice's son, who was now the head of the Lutheran party, called 
 together his adherents at Naumburg. Paul TV. availed himself 
 of this opportunity to attempt a reconciliation between the Ro- 
 manists and Protestants. The times seemed favourable for such 
 an arrangement. The great fathers of the Eeformation were all 
 dead, and their successors split into numberless sects ; whilst 
 many theologians, disgusted at the want of a rallying point, had 
 already relapsed into Romanism. The Emperor and Duke Albert 
 of Bavaria were willing to allow the cup to the laity, and permit 
 the marriage of priests : concessions which the Pope would pro- 
 bably have ratified. But the Protestants had no inclination to 
 trust those by whom they had been already deceived : and when 
 the Cardinal Commendone appeared at Naumburg, bearing a 
 conciliatory message from the Pope, the assembled princes so far 
 forgot the respect due to a stranger and a minister of religion, as 
 to assail the old man with expressions of contempt and aversion. 
 Yet he addressed them at some length, and in a strain of dignified 
 remonstrance : " What mean ye, sirs, by these bitter words against 
 one who hath undertaken so long and painful a journey in the 
 service of Christian unity ? It would seem that you wish to sup- 
 ply by ribald invention what you lack in argument. In that 
 1 will not imitate you, but show that we have the better, not only 
 in the justice of our cause, but in the moderation with which we 
 defend it." He then describes a state of things which, it is to be 
 feared, is not altogether without its joarallel in our own days. 
 " What contention reigneth among you on account of Luther's 
 doctrine ! Not a city, hardly a house, is free from theological 
 bickerings. Wives dispute with their husbands, children with 
 their parents, respecting the interpretation of Scripture. In com- 
 panies, in taverns, over the wine-pot and the dice-box, women and 
 children pronounce on the most awful mysteries of religion." 
 After several ineffectual attempts to obtain a favourable hearing, 
 Commendone quitted Germany ; and the Council of Trent (aban- 
 doning all hopes of an accommodation) now applied itself solely 
 to such measures as were likely to be available for retaining ir, 
 the church those who still belonged to her communion. Some 
 abuses, such as the immorality of the clergy and the sale of indul- 
 gences, were in a great measure removed. But the supremacy of 
 the papal see was asserted more vehemently than before, and any 
 departure from the tenets now promulgated as the decnsion of the 
 
Sup. Chap. XLIH. THE CllUllCil. 297 
 
 church was forbidden on pain of excommunication. Since that 
 time there has never been a reasonable hope of reconciliation be- 
 tween the church of Rome and the Protestants. Ferdinand I. 
 died on the 5th of July, 1564, in the sixty-second year of Ids age, 
 and was succeeded by his son Maximilian II. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER XLIII. 
 
 The Church. — The Lutheran church had delivered itself from 
 the yoke of Rome, and the Lutlieran princes made themselves 
 almost entirely independent of the Emperor. Could they have 
 agreed among- themselves, they might have spread the blessings 
 both of civil freedom and sound religious knowledge as far as 
 the German tongue is spoken. But the Protestants, instead of 
 making common cause against the arrogance of Rome, were dis- 
 puting with each otiier about the various tenets of Luther, 
 Zwingli, and Calvin. The wildest notions were put forth re- 
 specting original sin, and the impeccability of those who had 
 once received grace. In Prussia society was shaken to its founda- 
 tions by the contentions of the rival sects, headed by Osiander and 
 Mori in. 
 
 The Palatine Frederick, who had embraced Calvinism, caused 
 some of his clergy to draw up the Heidelberg Catechism, one 
 of the most intolerant rules of faith that has ever appeared in 
 the world ; and endeavoured to propagate its tenets by the sword 
 and the halter. A Socinian named Sylvan was beheaded for he- 
 resy at Heidelberg, and hundreds were driven into exile. The 
 death of Frederick, however, was followed by a change as rapid 
 and universal as the first had been. His son Lewis, a zealous 
 Lutlieran, banished from his territories all who refused to renounce 
 Calvinism, and displaced such of the clergy as adhered to the reli- 
 gion which his father had established. 
 
 S 3 
 
298 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap XLIY. 
 
 CHAPTER XLIV. 
 
 MAXIMILIAN II. — RUDOLPH II. 
 
 From A.D. 1564 to 1612. 
 
 Maximilian II. had been recommended to the electors by his 
 father in the year 1560 at a diet held at Frankfort. The terms 
 in which the Emperor described his son's qualifications may be 
 taken, with a little allowance for a father's^ affectionate partiality, 
 as a fair representation of Maximilian's character: "He is intel- 
 ligent, ready-witted, gentle and tolerant ; in a word, endued with 
 all the virtues which beseem a sovereign, attached to his native 
 land and studious of her welfare. He is also learned, speaking 
 with fluency the six principal European languages, so that he will 
 be able himself to converse with the representatives of foreign 
 powers." During his reign the German people, both Romanist 
 and Protestant, enjoyed a freedom from persecution which they 
 had never experienced since the first outbreak of the Reformation, 
 and this too at a period when France and the Netherlands were 
 deluged with the blood of martyrs. The imperial chamber, which, 
 although established for the purpose of repressing lawless violence, 
 had hitherto been for the most part set at nought by the more 
 powerful nobles, now occupied its true position as the supreme 
 tribunal of the land, to whose decisions all without distinction 
 were compelled to submit. One knight alone, William of Grum- 
 bach, refused to acknowledge its authority, and at the head of a 
 band of freebooters ravaged Franconia with fire and sword, stormed 
 the city of Wurtzburg, and put the bishop to death. Being 
 placed under the ban of the Empire for this atrocious act, he fled 
 to Gotha, where he was received with kindness by Frederick, son 
 of the late elector of Saxony, whom he had well nigh persuaded 
 to employ the mercenary Franconians in an attempt to recover 
 his hereditary dominions, when an army commanded by the Elec- 
 tor Augustus appeared before the city, and after a siege, which 
 lasted the whole winter, compelled Frederick to surrender at dis" 
 cretion. The ill-fated young man was then conveyed a prisoner 
 to Vienna, v\'here he was exhibited to the mob, and then thrown 
 into a dimgeon in Styria. Grumbach, after suffering tortures 
 too horrible to relate, was at last tied to four wild horsesj which 
 
A.D. 1591. MAXIMILIAN IT. — RUDOLPH IL 299 
 
 tore him limb from limb. In the year 1.575 Maximilian \vas 
 elected king of Poland, and died soon afterwards at Ratisbon, not 
 without suspicion of having been poisoned by the Jesuits. lie was 
 succeeded by his son Rudolph II., who closely resembled his an- 
 cestor Frederick III. in the shyness and indolence of his habits. 
 Tlie chief business of his life was to collect a stable of handsome 
 horses, which he never rode, and to study natural history and 
 astronomy under the instruction of the celebrated Dane Tycho 
 Brahe, and the German philosopher Kepler. Strange things had 
 been foretold to Jiim by the astrologer who had cast his horoscope. 
 He was not to marry, because it had been read in the stars that 
 he sliould die by the hand of his own son : Rudolph therefore re- 
 mained single, and in the pursuit of his studies shut himself up so 
 closely that foreign ambassadors and persons of condition w^ere 
 obliged to disguise themselves as grooms m order to obtain a 
 stolen glimpse of him. So carefully did he exclude himself from 
 public observation, that for many months the people of Vienna 
 did not know whether he was alive or dead. A bigoted priest, 
 Melchior Clesel, Bishop of Vienna, persuaded the feeble-minded 
 Emperor that an attempt ought to be made to root Protestantism 
 out of Austria. During his father's life-time the Lutherans had 
 rather been comiived at than encouraged, and had built chapels in 
 various parts of the country. These were now closed, the Pro- 
 testants banished, and a law passed that education should thence- 
 forth be exclusively in the hands of the Jesuits. It cannot be 
 denied that their own absurdities and the unchristian wranglings 
 of their teachers in some degree justified this severity. In Saxony 
 and the Palatinate still more violent measures were adopted 
 against the Calvhiists, to whom the disputes of the Lutherans 
 had given an advantage which neither their doctrines nor their 
 character merited. Dr. Crell, the chancellor of Christian I., elec- 
 tor of Saxony, anxious to reconcile the contending parties, and 
 to bring about a union of the two churches, prevailed on the 
 Elector to prohibit the superstitious practice of exorcism in bap- 
 tism : but the people were so besotted that they compelled their 
 pastors still to perform it. In 1591 Christian died suddenly; 
 and Crell, after an imprisonment of ten years, was brought out 
 nito the public market-place of Dresden and beheaded with a 
 sword, on which was inscribed " Cave Calviniane Crell." Simi- 
 lar cruelties were perpetrated in Brunswick. But the stupid 
 bigotrj' of the Lutherans was never more discreditably exhibited 
 
300 HISTORY OF GERMANY. CnAP. XLIV. 
 
 than in their resistance to the nitroduction of Pope Gregory 
 XIII.'s amended calendar (published in 1584). Like some men 
 in the present day, they chose rather to endure inconvenience and 
 disorder than accept any thing which had been defiled by passing 
 through the hands of a Pope ; and therefore protested at the diet 
 against any innovation on the good old practice of mis-reckoning 
 their time. These divisions among the Protestants were hailed 
 with satisfaction by the Pope and his adherents, among whom the 
 most distinguished was Maximilian, Duke of Bavaria. The ill- 
 treatment of some Romanists by the mob of Donauwerth had 
 given this prince a pretext for seizing on the city and placing the 
 Bavarian arms over its gates. This act of violence excited great 
 indignation among the Protestants, particularly the Calvinists. 
 The Palatine Frederick IV. proposed a general Union of the 
 Protestants, but was at first supported only by Wiirtemberg and 
 the Margrave of Franconia. In 1609, however, he was joined 
 by Brandenburg, and subsequently by most of the Protestant 
 princes except the drunken Elector of Saxony, Christian IL, who 
 returned no answer to the proposal. On the other hand, Maxi- 
 milian assembled the Romanist princes, and proposed to them a 
 Holy League in opposition to the Protestant Union. Christian 
 II. was invited to Prague, and so plied v/ith Hungarian wine, 
 that he was on the eve of joining the league, Protestant as he was, 
 when Saxony was saved from this disgrace by the spirited remon- 
 strance of Duke Julius of Brunswick. The German Protestants 
 had on their side a zealous friend in Henry lY. of France, who 
 was preparing to march an army to their assistance, when his life 
 was taken by the dagger of the assassin Ravaillac. Rudolph, 
 who had been compelled to cede Hungary and Austria to his bro- 
 ther Matthias in the year 1606, endeavoured to secure the sove- 
 reignty of Bohemia by granting to the people a charter, termed 
 the " Letter of Majesty," by which political and religious freedom 
 was insured to them ; but no sooner was the danger over, as he 
 supposed, than he permitted his cousin Leopold, Bishop of Passau, 
 to raise an army with which he invaded Bohemia and stormed 
 the suburbs of Prague. On the advance of Matthias howcN er 
 he was compelled to cede Bohemia to liis brother, as he had yielded 
 Hungary and Austria. As Rudolph beheld from his window the 
 beautiful city, which he was about to quit for ever, he exclamied 
 in bitterness of spirit, " May the vengeance of God overtake thee, 
 and my curse light on thee and on all Bohemia ! " 
 
Sup. Chap. XLIY. TYCIIO BRAIIE. 301 
 
 On the 20th January, 1612, Rudolph died in the 60th year of 
 liis age, and was succeeded on the imperial throne by his brother 
 Matthias. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER XLIV. 
 
 Separation of the Netherlands from the Spanish crown. — In 
 the year 1572, Holland, which had been struggling for many 
 years against the oppressive tyranny of Spain, declared itself in- 
 dependent, and established a republic consisting of seven pro- 
 vinces, Geldern, Holland, Zealand, Ziitphen, Friesland, Oberyssel, 
 and Groningen, which they named the States-CTcneral of Holland, 
 and elected William of Orange general Stattholder. They had 
 been advised to adopt these decisive measures by Elizabeth, Queen 
 of England, who was anxious to establish at the mouth of the 
 Rhine a barrier against Spain and France. The United Pro- 
 vinces soon formed an alliance with Ghent, where a republic was 
 also established, and Francis of Alencon, brother of Henry III. 
 of France, chosen Stattholder. A price being set by the Span- 
 iards on the head of William of Orange, he was assassinated by 
 a man who entered his lodging in the guise of a petitioner. In 
 his dying agony the unfortunate prince was heard to murmur, 
 " God have mercy on me, and on this poor nation." He died 
 in the arms of his wife, who twelve years before, during the 
 massacre of the Protestants at Paris on St. Bartliolomew's day, 
 had witnessed the murder of her father, the celebrated Admiral 
 Coligny, and of her first husband Teligny. After many years of 
 war, during which the strong fortress of Ostend surrendered to 
 the Spaniards, after a noble defence of three years (a.d. 1605), an 
 armistice was at last concluded ; the seven northern provinces 
 remaining independent, the southern being re-annexed to Spain. 
 Almost all the riches of the Netherlands were transferred with the 
 Protestants to Holland ; and Flanders, except during the few years 
 of her connexion with that countrj^, which termiiiated in 1830, 
 has never been able to compete with her rival in commerce, 
 wealth, or civilization. 
 
 Tycho Brahe. — This celebrated astronomer was born on the 
 14th of December, 1546, and in 1559 entered at the university 
 of Copenhagen, where liis attention was directed to astronomy by 
 a total eclipse of the sun, which took place in 1560. After tra- 
 velling for some years in Switzerland and Germany, he settled 
 
302 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XLV. 
 
 Ill 1576, on the little island of Hoen, which was placed at his 
 disposal by Fredericlv II., King of Denmark. Here he built an 
 observatory and occupied himself in astronomical pursuits until 
 1596, when the building was demolished by order of Christian IV. 
 In 1599 he accepted the invitation of the Emperor Rudolph II. 
 to reside with him, and after superintending his studies for two 
 years, died at Prague on tlie 13th October, 1601. His monument 
 is still to be seen in that city. 
 
 Kepler.— Joseph Kepler was born at a little village near 
 Weil, in the territory of Wiirtemberg, on the 27th December, 
 1571. His first work was an almanac for the year 1594. 
 After a residence of eleven years at Prague, he was compelled 
 by poverty to accept the appointment of mathematical professor 
 at Linz. During the Thirty Years' War he was patronized by 
 Wallenstein, who gave him a professorship in the university of 
 Rostock. He died on the 15th November, 1631, at Ratisbon, 
 whither he had gone to petition the diet for a more regular pay- 
 ment of his stipend as professor. In the year 1 808 a monument 
 was erected to his memory by subscription at Ratisbon ; it con- 
 sists of a round temple with eight pillars, having the bust of 
 Kepler in the centre. 
 
 CHAPTER XLV. 
 
 MATTHIAS. — FERDINA^'D II. 
 From A.D. 1612 to 1637. 
 
 It seemed suspicious that, whilst Matthias appeared anxious to 
 insure freedom to the Bohemians, his nephew, Ferdinand, should 
 be destroying every vestige of it in the mountains. The solution 
 of this enigma appeared but too soon. When Matthias became 
 Emperor, he quitted Bohemia, leaving to his nephew Ferdinand, 
 whom he caused to be proclaimed King of that country, to recon- 
 cile as well as he could the system of persecution which he had 
 followed in the mountains with the liberal provisions of the Letter 
 of Majesty. The first act of Ferdinand's reign was to remove 
 Clesel, his uncle's ancient friend, from his councils, and treat 
 him as a superannuated dotard, because the bishop had entreated 
 him to spare Bohemia. " Better a desert than a land full of 
 
A.D. 1618. 
 
 FKUDIXAND II. 303 
 
 heretics," was the fierce reply. A shudder of horror thrilled 
 throuti'h all hearts as Ferdinand, attended by his Jesuit coun- 
 sellors, entered Prague. He swore, indeed, to respect the Letter 
 of IVIajesty ; but experience showed that at Gratz and Lay bach 
 he had manifested little regard for the sanctity of an oath. The 
 Jesuits did not attempt to conceal their exultation. They circu- 
 lated tracts, in whicli the best modes of exterminating Protest- 
 antism were freely discussed ; and one of them, Scioppius, in his 
 " Alarm-drum of the Holy War," declared that the only way to 
 attain that end was to wade to it through blood. All writings 
 were subjected to a severe censorship, and none allowed to be 
 published except those of the Jesuits and their supporters. Each 
 party seemed to understand the disposition of the other, and, like 
 the ancient gladiators, each waited until some indiscreet move- 
 ment or some manifestation of weakness on the part of its adver- 
 saiT should enable it to strike with effect. The Protestant feeling 
 was so general throughout Bohemia, tliat the people had long 
 been accustomed to celebrate their worship openly, although, 
 strictly speaking-, only the nobles possessed that privilege. But 
 when, presuming on this forbearance, they ventured to erect new 
 churches in several places, Ferdinand immediately ordered the 
 buildings to be demolished. The states made representations, 
 which the King treated with contempt. Irritated beyond endur- 
 ance, they resorted to the old Bohemian mode of revenging injuries. 
 William von Lobkowitz seized the Stattholder Martinitz, whilst 
 Count Thurn laid hold on his colleague Slawata, and others 
 having come to their assistance, the two representatives of Ma- 
 jesty were flung out of a window of the palace. Their secre- 
 tary and creature, Fabricius, was sent after his masters. The 
 window was 60 feet from the ground ; but luckily a dwarf alder- 
 tree, round which a heap of waste paper and other rubbish had 
 accumulated, broke the force of their fall and preserved them 
 from serious injury, though Slawata sustained a severe concussion. 
 This event occurred on the 25th of May, 1618, from which day 
 we may date the commencement of the Thirty Years' War. TJie 
 first movement of the Bohemians after this act of violence was to 
 drive out the Jesuits, " tliat hypocritical pestilent sect," as they 
 termed them. The people of Austria, Hungary, and Silesia 
 followed their example, and forwarded to Vienna a strong letter 
 of remonstrance, to which Ferdinand returned no answer. The 
 Count of Thurn, the original instigator of this revolt, now 
 
304 HISTORY OF GERMAIN Y. CiiAP. XLY. 
 
 marched to Vienna and prepared to storm the city. Ferdinand 
 (who had lately returned from the diet at Frankfort, where he 
 had been elected Empewor in the room of Matthias) took refuge 
 in a strong tower within the w^alls ; but no sooner did the anny 
 of the liberator appear in sight, than the populace burst into his 
 hiding-place^ and laid before him an instrument which promised 
 them the free exercise of their religion. " Sign it, Ferdy," 
 shouted one of their leaders. At this critical moment a flourish 
 of trumpets w as heard in the castle yard. The cavalry of Dam- 
 pierre, one of Ferdinand's foreign generals, had come to the 
 King's relief. The burghers retreated, and w^ere soon after"wards 
 abandoned by the Bohemians, as well as by the Hungarian army 
 w^hich had come to their assistance under the command of Beth- 
 lehem Gabor. Wild Lithuanian Cossacks (as they were called) 
 were now sent into Austria with express orders to burn, slay, and 
 pillage, mitil the Germans w ere thoroughly converted. Mean- 
 while the Bohemians and Hungarians succeeded in repulsing the 
 Poles, w^ho had marched against them ; and, amidst the din and 
 horror of war, placed the elector Palatine, Frederick Y., on the 
 throne of Bohemia, and Bethlehem Gabor on that of Hungary. 
 Maximilian of Bavaria, who had been placed at the head of the 
 Romanist league, now feared that the Emperor w^ould conquer 
 Bohemia without his assistance, and took the field in all haste, 
 having first promised the Union that he would respect all Lu- 
 theran and reformed churches, except those of Bohemia. The 
 elector Palatine had accepted the Bohemian crown at the instance 
 of his wife Elizabeth, daughter of James T. of England, who was 
 perpetually repeating to him that she would rather starve w ith a 
 crown on her head than live in luxury under an Elector's hat. 
 The indolence of the other Protestant princes had rendered it 
 easy for him to maintain his ascendancy in the Union, and the 
 Bohemians thought that they had made a happy choice in electing 
 him their King ; but circumstances soon convinced them that he 
 was a man rather of words than of action. In order to secure 
 the co-operation of his former allies, he held a diet of the Union 
 at Niirnberg, where he was mean enough to allow the imperial 
 ambassador. Count Hohenzollern, to occupy his throne, whilst he 
 seated himself on a stool by his side. His manners also gave 
 great offence to the Bohemians. He spoke French, a language 
 which they detested, and introduced the vices and frivolities of 
 the court of France into that of Bohenda. The dress of the 
 
A.D. 1620. FERDINAND II.— TiLLV. 305 
 
 court-ladies caused especial scandal to his new subjects, liut 
 what was worse than all, he commissioned Ins chaplain, Scultetus, 
 to preach against the Lutherans and Utraquists ;* and witli a 
 stupid barbarism, wliich was at that time the distinguishing cha- 
 racteristic of the Calvinists, proceeded to strip the churches of 
 Prague of the few works of art whicli they still contained. The 
 people, irritated at this uncalled-for devastation, rose, and were 
 only appeased by the promise of Count Thurn that no such 
 attempts should be made in future. But Frederick had lost the 
 affections of the people, and had never attempted to conciliate 
 the Bohemian nobles ; from the Union he had nothing to hope, 
 for Bohemia had been expressly given up to the tender mercies 
 of the League ; and, to complete the list of his embarrass- 
 ments, he had made an alliance Mdth the Turks, and received 
 a Turkish ambassador into his capital, to the great disgust of all 
 Europe. 
 
 On the 8th of November, 1620, the Bohemians, who liad en- 
 trenched themselves on the White Mountain, near Prague (the 
 scene of Ziska's heroic deeds), were attacked and utterly routed 
 by the united Imperial and Bavarian forces under the Duke of 
 Bavaria and Count Tilly, a Walloon soldier of fortune, who had 
 been for some time in the service of Maximilian. t Frederick was 
 at table when a breathless messenger announced to him that his 
 army was engaged witli the enemy. In order to gain time for 
 consideration he asked for an armistice of twenty- four hours, but 
 the Duke would only allow him eight. This short space he em- 
 ployed in withdrawing by night from the capital with his wife 
 and principal officers. " I know now who I am," said the un- 
 happy Prince to those who attempted to console him : " it is only 
 in adversity that we sovereigns learn this lesson." Frederick 
 fled to Breslau, and afterwards to Holland. His own dominions 
 had been occupied by the Spanish general, Spinola, with an 
 army of 25,000 men. As he had only reigned one winter, men 
 named him in derision the " Winter King." The fate of the 
 capital decided that of all Bohemia, which submitted uncondi- 
 tionally to the Emperor's pleasure. Those leaders of the insur- 
 rection who liad fled (among whom was Count Thurn) were 
 
 * The Hussites, or Bohemian brethren, called Utraquists because they 
 received the communion sub tdraqtte forma (in both kinds). 
 
 t Rene' Descartes, the great French philosopher, served under Tilly in 
 this expedition. He was then about 24 years of age. 
 
306 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XLV. 
 
 pronounced traitors, their goods confiscated, and their names 
 nailed to the gallows. Five hundred noble families and thirty-six 
 thousand families of lower rank were banished. The streets ran 
 with the blood of those who remained. All Protestant preachers 
 were banished ; and, to render his proceedings complete, Ferdi- 
 nand tore the Letter of Majesty with his own hand, and broke 
 the seal. So severe was the blow, that Bohemia has never reco- 
 vered from it, even to this day. Count Mansfeld, the leader of 
 the Protestants, was placed under the ban of the Empire, and a 
 reward of 10,000 florins offered for his head. The Protestant 
 Union voluntarily dissolved itself, to the great disgust of the 
 people, who expressed their feelings in satirical compositions. 
 Among these a book was published, entitled ' A full and particular 
 Account of all the Acts of the late Union ;' which, on being 
 opened, was found to contain only blank leaves. 
 
 Silesia was subjected to the same kind of treatment. Count 
 Hannibal von Dohna traversed the country with the famous 
 Lichtenstein dragoons, and set the example of the so-called 
 Dragonades, which were afterwards imitated in France. Jesuits, 
 or other monks, accompanied by a troop of dragoons, were sent 
 from village to village, and house to house, to convert the 
 inhabitants ; a mission which they fulfilled by plundering, tor- 
 turing, and when other means failed, by kidnapping the children 
 from their miserable parents. 
 
 In Austria the nobility had yielded, terrified by the Emperor's 
 severity ; but the brave peasantry in the mountains still continued 
 to resist, under the command of Stephen Fadinger, a rich pea- 
 sant, and subsequently under that of a man called the Unknown 
 Student, who formed them into regiments, some of which wore 
 a black uniform, emblematical of the melanclioly condition to 
 which their country was reduced. They called themselves the 
 Evangelical Army, and carried banners with the inscription — 
 
 The contest is for soul and life ; 
 If God give courage for the strife, 
 The thing must be.* 
 
 After keeping the Imperial forces at bay for some time, they 
 were at length completely routed by the renowned Count Pap- 
 penheim, the Student slain, and his head brought to the general. 
 
 * Weils gilt die Seel und auch das Blut ; 
 So geb uns Gott ein Heldenmuth, 
 Es musz seyn. 
 
A.D. 1620. FERDINAND 11. 307 
 
 One Protestant leader was still in arnis, Tiie little deformed 
 body of Count Mansfeld contained one of the bravest spirits tliat 
 ever animated a warrior. The Protestants^ flocked to his standard 
 and he soon found himself in Alsace at the head of an army of 
 20,000 men. The Elector Palatine, Frederick, did not scruple 
 to tlirow himself into the arms of this new protector, and marched 
 i^ith him to meet Count Tilly, over whom they gained some 
 trifling advantage ; but soon afterwards, Frederick having dis- 
 banded his army, and thrown himself on the m-ercy of the Em- 
 peror, nothing remained for Mansfeld but to fight his wav into 
 Holland, Mhence he embarked for England to implore the aid 
 of that country. Here he was received with loud acclamations 
 by the people, but gave great oflence to the court-ladies, by re- 
 fusing to kiss them, as was then the English custom. Tilly 
 having now cleared Germany of his enemies, turned all his rage 
 against the cities of Mannheim and Heidelberg, which had pre- 
 simied to take up arms against him. Both towns were laid in 
 ashes, and the noble library of Heidelberg sent as a present to 
 the Pope.* Although the Emperor detested the Duke of Ba- 
 varia, it seemed necessary to reward him for these distinguished 
 services of his general : he therefore presented him with the 
 electoral hat of the unfortunate Frederick. This outrageous 
 proceeding at last opened the eyes of James I., and as the nego- 
 tiations for the marriage of his son with a daughter of the King 
 of Spain happened at this time to be broken off', he felt himself at 
 liberty to avenge the insult oflTered to his son-in-law, and formed 
 an alliance with France, Holland, and Denmark, for the purpose 
 of reinstating Frederick. But the hopes to which this alliance 
 gave birth were miserably disappointed. After the death of his 
 father, Charles I. was too much engaged in disputes with liis par- 
 liament to interfere in continental quarrels ; and the French mi- 
 nister, Cardinal Richelieu, judged it necessary to put down the 
 Huguenots at home, before he ventured to aid the German Pro- 
 testants against the Empire. The King of Denmark (Christian 
 IV.) was therefore the only sovereign who gave substantial 
 assistance to his brethren in Germany. 
 
 * The ancient and valuable German MSS. belonging to this library wero 
 restored to it in 1815. 
 
308 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XLV, 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER XLV. 
 
 Condition of Europe at the commencement of the Thirty Years' 
 War. — Schiller has given us a masterly sketch of the state of 
 Europe at this time. " The Romanist party was infinitely tlie 
 more numerous, and more favoured by the constitution of the 
 Empire : still the Protestants possessed a tract of rich territory, 
 warlike princes and nobles, numerous armies, the sovereignty of 
 the sea, flourishing towns, and many adherents in the Romanist 
 states. If the Romanists had Spain and Italy on their side, 
 Venice, Holland, and England were ready to subsidize the Pro- 
 testants with their treasures, and the northern states and Turkey 
 to aid them with their troops. Three of their princes were elec 
 tors of the Empire. Everything might have been done if private 
 interests had not been consulted rather than the public good. 
 France had lost with her illustrious Henry all her weight in the 
 affairs of Europe. Holland was flourishing, but required all her 
 forces for the defence of her own recently acquired freedom. 
 England, although aggrandised by the acquisition of Scotland, was 
 deprived of that influence in Protestant Europe which had been 
 obtained for her by the master-mind of Elizabeth. The weak 
 James the First suffered his daughter and her husband Frederick 
 to be ruined, without attempting to save them. Spain was 
 beginning to feel the effects of that mistaken policy which had 
 led her to neglect agriculture at home, for the sake of drawing 
 gold from her newly acquired possessions in America. The Pope 
 lived in constant fear of his terrible neighbours the Viceroys of 
 Milan and Naples. As head of the church he wished success to 
 the Romanists, but as a temporal prince he was glad that the 
 Protestants kept the Emperor employed at home. The republic 
 of Venice had two dangerous neighbours in Austrian Tyrol and 
 Spanish INIilan. Savoy lay between these countries and France. 
 In the north two powerful monarchs had made themselves re- 
 spected : Christian IV. in Denmark, and Gustavus Adolphus in 
 Sweden." — Schiller, 30 Jiihriger Krieg. 
 
 Tilly. — Tilly, whose proper name Avas John T'zerklas of Tilly, 
 was descended from an ancient and noble family, and was born at 
 Liege in the year 1560. Being intended for the church, he re- 
 ceived a learned education from the Jesuits, and continuea 
 throughout his life to pique liimself upon his schcbtrship. His 
 
Sup. Chap. XLY. TIIJA'. 309 
 
 destination, however, was afterwards changed, and he became a 
 page at the court of Bavaria, where Duke Maximilian soon dis- 
 covered his talents, though concealed under a quiet and un- 
 assuming exterior. lie first served in the Netherlands, and 
 subsequently in Hungary, where he quickly attained the rank of 
 general of artillery. But it was in the service of Bavaria that 
 ]»'s laurels were chiefly won. He brought the Bavarian troops 
 Lo a high state of discipline,' and gained at their head victory 
 after victory over some of the most renowned generals in Europe. 
 Maximilian rewarded his services with his intimate friendship, 
 and in 1623 the emperor created him a count of the Empire. 
 Tilly was a bigoted Romanist, and acted with the most fiend-like 
 cruelty towards the Protestants who fell into his hands. He 
 prided himself on his temperance, as well as his military prowess, 
 and used to boast that he had never drunk wine, never been in 
 love, and never lost a battle. But after his defeat at Leipsic, the 
 last part of this boast became vain. In person he was tall and 
 thin. His broad forehead was marked, like the rest of his 
 countenance, with deep furrows ; whilst a long and prominent 
 nose, high cheek bones, sunken eyes, and hollow cheeks, made up 
 a physiognomy by no means prepossessing. His usual dress was 
 a Spanish suit of green satin, with a cocked hat, from which a 
 long red ostrich feather dangled down upon his shoulders. In 
 battle he commonly rode a small, mean-looking, grey horse. 
 
310 
 
 HISTORY OF GERMANY, 
 
 Chap. XLYI. 
 
 CHAPTER XLVI. 
 
 WALLENSTEIN, COMMANDER IN CHIEF OF THE IMPERIAL FORCES. 
 
 From A.D. 1626 to 1630. 
 
 \\ a ka tein t Cis Ic ot i-ncdlc.iid in Bcliem a. 
 
 Albert of Wallenstein, or more properly Waldstein, was born 
 at Prague on the 14th September, 1583. As a boy he displayed 
 the wildest and most unruly temper ; and at the age of sixteen was 
 banished from Niirnberg for breaches of discipline committed at 
 the high school of that city. He now entered the service of the 
 Margrave of Burgau,as page ; and having one day fallen asleep on 
 a balcony of the castle of Innsbruck, he fell from a height of 
 three stories, but almost miraculously escaped without injury. 
 This accident had a wonderful effect on his future life. He 
 became all at once thoughtful, taciturn, and visionary. He 
 fancied that his life had been preserved by the special interposi- 
 tion of the Virgin Mary ; and renouncing the Protestant faith in 
 which he had been educated, turned Roman Catholic. In his 
 youth he travelled much in Spain, France, the Netherlands, and 
 
A,D. 1G2G. WALLEXSTETX. 311 
 
 Italy. Ill the last mentioned country he devoted his attention tc 
 the study of astrology, to which his turn of mind naturally led 
 him ; and under Professor Argoli of Padua made great advances 
 ^n a science which, he believed, would enable him to read his 
 destiny in the stars. He retained his fondness for this study 
 throughout his life, and was always accompanied by an old 
 astrologer named Seni. On his return from Padua he entered the 
 imperial army, and distinguished himself in Hungary in a 
 campaign against the Turks. After the peace, he returned to 
 Bohemia in 1606; where he improved his slender fortune by 
 marrying an old, but exceedingly rich widow. Her death, whicli 
 speedily ensued, relieved him from an unsuitable consort, and put 
 him in possession of enormous wealth. Wallenstein now found 
 himself able to raise a troop of 200 horse at his own expense ; 
 but he declined to mix himself up in tlie domestic quarrels then 
 going on between the emperor Rudolf and his successor Matthias, 
 and joined instead the Archduke Ferdinand, then engaged in a war 
 with Venice. In this expedition Wallenstein gained by his 
 bravery and generosity the favour of Ferdinand, and the love of 
 the soldiers. Returning home witlv the rank of colonel, he 
 formed a second marriage with the young and beautiful Isabella 
 von Harrach, the daughter of Ferdinand's privy councillor and 
 favourite. 
 
 When the Bohemians revolted in 1618, they offered Wallen- 
 stein a command ; but he remained faithful to the emperor, for 
 whom he did good service at the head of a regiment of cuirassiers 
 raised by his own funds. The enraged Bohemians confiscated all 
 his estates, but this only served to bind him the closer to Ferdinand. 
 Afterwards he distinguished himself in several affairs with Bethle- 
 hem Gabor, On the conclusion of peace with Bohemia and Hun- 
 gary, Wallenstein was restored to all his possessions, and received in 
 addition the estate of Friedland, with the title of duke. He now 
 remained for some time idle in Bohemia. He offered his services 
 to the Duke of Bavaria ; but Tilly, who dreaded the proximity 
 of so formidable a rival, persuaded Maximilian to decline them. 
 This was the origin of the bitter hatred which subsequently i)re- 
 vailed between A\^allenstein on the one side, and Tilly and his master 
 on the other. But Wallenstein could not remain long inactive, 
 and when Ferdinand proposed to him to raise a force of 20,000 
 men, he at once declared that he was willing to bring 50,000 into 
 the field. " Twenty thousand men," said he, " will starve ; fifty 
 
312 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap, XL VI. 
 
 thousand will be able to support themselves." What a picture of 
 the times ! a whole host to be sustained by the robbery and 
 plunder of their fellow-countrymen ! The proposal was eagerly 
 embraced by the Emperor, who nominated him generalissimo 
 of the imperial forces. In a few months Wallenstein, by dint of 
 profuse gifts and still more liberal promises, collected an army of 
 adventurers from all the countries of Europe. The discipline of 
 this ill-assorted body was suited to the character of those who 
 composed it. Wallenstein allowed no priests in the camp, winked 
 at the irregularities of his men when they did not interfere with 
 military duty, rewarded with princely munificence those who 
 distinguished themselves, and promoted the bravest of his common 
 soldiers to posts of honour. To increase his influence over these 
 wild mercenaries, Wallenstein affected a mysterious adoration of 
 the goddess Fortune, whose name he adopted as the watchword 
 of his army. Hints also of midnight communings with disem- 
 bodied spirits were uttered under their breath by the superstitious 
 troopers, whenever their general, after a night spent in his 
 astrological studies, appeared in the camp with a countenance so 
 haggard and ghastly as well nigh to warrant the belief that his 
 hours of retirement had been passed in converse with the powers 
 of darkness.* Wallenstein's great object in assuming this com- 
 mand, was to restore the imperial power in its fullest extent : 
 " We want no princes," he was wont to say, " but a single master, 
 as in France and Spain." With these designs he marched in the 
 autumn of 1625 towards the north of Germany, at the head of 
 60,000 men. Christian TV. of Denmark, influenced by the 
 crafty diplomacy of Cardinal Richelieu, now at the head of affairs 
 
 * Sie sagen, er le.5 'auch in den Sternen 
 
 Die kiinftigen Diuge, die nahen nnd ferneu ; 
 Ich weisz aber besser, \xie's damit ist. 
 Ein graues Miinulein pflegfc bei nachtlicher Frist 
 Duch verschlossene Thiiren zu ihm einzugehen 
 Die Schildwachen haben's oft angeschrien. — 
 Und immer was Groszes ist drauf geschehen, 
 Wenu je das grane Rocklein kam iind erschien. 
 
 They say too that he reads in the sky 
 The things that are coming, both far and nigh. 
 But better I wot how he gains that power ! 
 A little grey man, at midnight hour, 
 Glides thro' gate and postern barr'd, 
 Challeng'd oft by the wond'ring guard. 
 And some great result is always seen 
 When little grey-coat in the camp has been. 
 
 Wallenstein's Camp, by Schillei*. 
 
A.T). 1630. WALLENSTEIN. 313 
 
 in France, as well as by the more substantial assistance of England 
 and Holland, but, more perhaps than all these, by his own 
 ambition, had already invaded the German territory, where, how- 
 ever, he met with but little support. Tiie march of AVallenstein 
 was opposed by Mansfeld with his irregular army, whom Wallen- 
 stein defeated at Dessau, and pursued through Silesia and 
 Hunj^ary. In the latter country iMansfeld fell sick and died. 
 Meanwhile Tilly had completely overthrown the Danes at Lutter 
 (2Tth August, 1626) ; and when Wallenstein again turned his 
 face to the north, but little remained to be done. In conjunction 
 with Tilly he marched into Holstein, and having compelled the 
 King of Denmark to sign an ignominious peace, appeared with 
 his army before the strongly fortified town of Stralsund, which 
 would have surrendered at the first smnmons, had not the burghers, 
 disgusted at the cowardice of their magistrates, taken the matter 
 into their own hands, and prepared for an obstinate resistance. 
 Irritated at this disappointment, Wallenstein swore that he would 
 take the place though it were bound to heaven with chains of 
 iron ;* but the brave citizens, reinforced by two thousand Swedes 
 and a body of Scotch mercenaries in the pay of Denmark, made 
 so obstinate a defence, that he was compelled to raise the siege 
 after losing 12,000 men. This check decided for the present the 
 fate of Europe. Wallenstein, no longer deemed invincible, and 
 violently opposed by the Jesuits, fell into disgrace, and being 
 formally deprived of his command, retired to Prague in 1630. 
 His army was partly disbanded, and partly incorporated with the 
 troops of Tilly, who proceeded to invest Magdeburg, where the 
 people had successfully resisted an edict of the Emperor for the 
 suppression of Protestant worship. 
 
 * Ruhmte mit seinem gottlosen Mund, 
 Er wollte nehmen die Stadt Stralsund 
 Und war sie mit Ketten gen Himmel gebunden. 
 
 And boasted -svith his godless tongue, 
 
 He would take the fortress and town of Stralsound 
 
 The' with chains of iron to heaVn 't were bound. 
 
 Wallenstein' s Camp. 
 
 Gr. 
 
314 HISTORY OF GERMANY, Chap. XLYL 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER XLVI. 
 
 Tlie Edict of Restitution. — Instead of remaining tranquil 
 after compelling- the King- of Denmark to sign a peace at 
 Liibeck in 1629, the Emperor made new enemies by ordering 
 the restitution of all ecclesiastical property acquired by the Pro- 
 testants since the edict of Passau, namely, two archbishoprics, 
 twelve bishoprics, and several monasteries and abbeys. The 
 Emperor did not hesitate to seize the greater part of the booty, 
 and gave a fine example of accumulation by naming his son 
 Leopold archbishop and bishop of Bremen, Magdeburg, Hal- 
 berstadt, Passau, and Strasburg, and also abbot of Hersfeld. 
 The Protestant form of worship was also suppressed in every part 
 of Germany, except at Magdeburg, where the citizens successfully 
 resisted this encroachment on their liberties. 
 
 Count Mansfeld. — This celebrated military adventurer was 
 the illegitimate son of Peter Ernest, Count Mansfeld, and a 
 Mechlin beauty, with whom in his old age the Count had fallen 
 in love. Of ancient race, but small possessions, the Counts of 
 Mansfeld had long been soldiers of fortune ; and the one of whom 
 we speak, though his birth deprived him of the family honours, 
 was early destined for the same profession. He was brought up 
 in the Roman Catholic faith, and in his first campaigns did good 
 service for the Spanish crown in the Netherlands, and subse- 
 quently for the emperor Rudolph II., by whom he was legitimated. 
 But as, in spite of this, his father's estates were still withheld from 
 him, he swore revenge against the house of Habsburg, and in the 
 year 1610 went over to the Protestants. Small and mean in per- 
 son, Mansfeld possessed a soul of iron, which no reverses could 
 subdue. Without a foot of land, he supported his troops by 
 plunder ; and so great was the fear vvhich his arms inspired, that 
 he was called the German Attila. His death was characteristic, 
 though savouring somewhat of bravado. Being seized at Urako- 
 wicz in Bosnia with a mortal sickness, and feeling his end approach- 
 ing, he caused himself to be clothed in full armour, and supported 
 on his feet by two of his officers, awaited, like a soldier, the stroke 
 of death. 
 
A.D. IGoO. 
 
 GUSTAVUS ADOLrUUS. 
 
 315 
 
 CHAPTER XLYII. 
 
 GUSTAVUS ADOLPIIUS. — BATTLE OF LEIPSIC. 
 
 From A.D. 1G30 to 1G31. 
 
 
 -,'^ 
 
 
 Entry of Gustavus Adolphus into Mmiich. 
 
 From Holland to the Carinthian mountains, and from Prussia to 
 the Alps of Bern, wherever the German tongue was spoken, 
 Luther's and Calvin's doctrines had penetrated, and found a way 
 to the hearts of the people. With the exception of Bavaria and 
 the Tyrol, every district of Germany had at one time or other 
 loug-ht for liberty of conscience ; yet there now remained no ves- 
 tige of it except in the single city of Magdeburg, whose brave 
 defenders still held out against the assaults of Tilly. In the 
 midst of this melancholy prospect a new ray of hope broke through 
 the clouds which hovered over Protestant Germany. The throne 
 of Sweden was at this time occupied by Gustavus Adolphus, a 
 zealous and sincere supporter of the Reformation, who had long 
 
 T 2 
 
-316 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XLVII. 
 
 Witnessed with grief the sufferings of his brethren in Germany, but 
 had hitherto been debarred from rendering them any assistance 
 by the wars in which he was engaged with Denmark and Poland. 
 Yet these very wars had given him that unrivalled military know- 
 ledge which afterwards produced such glorious results. His 
 Swedes were the best and most formidable soldiers of that day, 
 warlike by nature, hardened by their severe climate, thoroughly 
 disciplined, experienced in the field, full of confidence, and more 
 than all, inspired by a strong religious conviction that the cause 
 for which they drew their swords was favoured by the Almighty. 
 As soon therefore as Gustavus had secured an honourable peace 
 with Denmark and Poland, he had both leisure to undertake, and 
 thousands of brave spirits ready to aid him in accomplishing, the 
 defence of his brethren in Germany. Besides his zeal for the 
 common cause, the Swedish King had also private injuries to 
 avenge — Austrians had fought against him in the ranks of the 
 Polish army, and Wallenstein had insulted his ambassador, with- 
 out his having been able in either case to obtain satisfaction. 
 A general imj^ression prevailed in Sweden that, sooner or later, 
 a war with the Emperor was inevitable. Many, however, and 
 among them Gustavus's celebrated chancellor Oxenstiern, were of 
 opinion that Sweden should not be the aggressor. But the King 
 himself thought otherwise, and deemed it more advantageous to 
 attack the enemy on the other side of the Baltic, than to wait 
 till he invaded the Swedish coast. On the 20th of May, 1630, 
 Gustavus Adolphus entered the senate-house at Stockholm, to take 
 a solemn farewell of the States of his kingdom. He had already 
 made the necessary arrangements for the administration of public 
 affairs during his absence, and set his house in order, as one who 
 was about to go forth to death. Taking his little daughter Chris- 
 tina in his arms, he presented Jier to the States as his successor, 
 and caused tJieni to swear fidelity to her, in the event of his never 
 returning. He then read a paper, in which his wishes respecting 
 the government of the country during his absence, or in case of 
 his death, during the minority of his daughter, were distinctly 
 explained. The whole assembly melted into tears, and the King 
 himself was so deeply affected, that some minutes elapsed befoie 
 he could summon sufficient firmness to pronounce his fare\^'ell 
 address. On the 24th of June, the hundredth anniversary of tlie 
 Augsburg Confession, Gustavus Adolphus landed at Usedom in 
 the midst of a violent thunder storm. As soon as he touched the 
 
A.D. 1G30. GUSTAVUS ADOLrHUS. dl7 
 
 German soil, ho fell on his knees, and ealletl God to witness that 
 this campaign was undertaken, not for his own honour, but in the 
 cause of the Gospel. His army at this time consisted of only 
 16,000 men, among whom were thirty-eight companies of Ger- 
 mans, and a regiment or two of Scotch and Irish, who had 
 been in the service of the King of Denmark, and now joined Gus- 
 tavus. So little sensation did his landing produce, that the people 
 of Vienna called him in derision the " Snow King," who would 
 melt away as he approached the South ; and when the Emperor 
 was informed of it, he exclaimed with a shrug of the shoulders, 
 '• We have got another little enemy on hand." The Protestants, 
 on the other side, looked to him as their deliverer, and named him 
 the '• Lion of the North." Gustavus was of gigantic height, with 
 an open countenance, large blue eyes, and a mild but majestic 
 bearing ; presenting in his whole appearance a remarkable con- 
 trast to the gloomy AVallenstein, the ferocious Tilly, and most of 
 the German princes, who affected a mysterious demeanour, to 
 cover their low plans of personal ambition. At the time of Gus- 
 tavus's landing, the army of Wallenstein had, as we have seen, 
 just been disbanded. Tilly was occupied with the siege of 
 Magdeburg, the prosecution of which he deemed of more import- 
 ance than marching against the Swedes. An Italian general 
 named Conti, who had formerly been in Wallenstein's service, 
 and who now occupied Pomerania with 16,000 imperialists, was 
 therefore left to grapple with Gustavus, single-handed, but he 
 did not think it worth while to stir from liis camp before Stettin 
 to oppose his landing. The only fear which the approach of the 
 Swedes seems to have inspired was a belief which prevailed 
 among the superstitious Roman Catholic soldiery, that many 
 Laplanders, enchanters, and other wonderful beings were in their 
 host, the ver}^ sight of whom would put to flight the bravest 
 troops. 
 
 On the approach of Gustavus, Conti, after an ineffectual at- 
 tempt to surprise Stettin, drew off his army towards Anclam. 
 Boffislaus, Duke of Pomerania, who in his heart M^as secretly in- 
 clined towards the Swedes, now admitted them into Stettin ; and 
 Gustavus, leaving Horn with a considerable force in the place, 
 penetrated farther into Pomerania. The ad^•entures of a Scotch 
 regiment (Mackey's), under Colonel Monro, in endeavouring to 
 join him there, deserve to be recorded. The Scots had been posted 
 near Konigsberg and took ship at Pillau ; but in their passage 
 
 T 3 
 
318 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XLVII. 
 
 were assailed with such constant stoniis that eight and foi-ty men 
 were obliged to work constantly at the pumps to keep the leaky 
 vessel from sinking. At length it was stranded near Riigenwald. 
 A fearful surf broke over the wreck, and it was with the greatest 
 difficulty and danger that Monro and his men succeeded in gain- 
 ing the shore. But even then their condition did not seem to be 
 much bettered. They were without provisions, without powder 
 and shot, almost without arms except pikes and swords, and a few 
 Avet muskets. The country all around was still in the hands of 
 the enemy, and the nearest Swedes were at a distance of 80 miles. 
 But Monro did not lose courage. He accidentally knew that the 
 commandant of the castle of Riigenwald, a Pomeranian by birth, 
 Avas secretly in favour of the Swedes, though the numerous ene- 
 mies by M-hoin he was surrounded forced him to pretend the con- 
 trary. Monro sent a secret message, begging the commandant 
 to admit the Scots in the night-time through a postern ; when he 
 undertook to drive out the imperialists and defend the place 
 against them for the future. The commandant accepted Monro's 
 proposal. The Scots were admitted, the imperialists expelled, 
 the fortifications repaired and valiantly defended against the ene- 
 my's attempts to retake the castle. Shortly afterwards, Monro 
 V. as joined by 400 Germans, who had also been driven thither by 
 stress of weather, and by Colonel Hepburn with another regiment 
 of Scots from Prussia, so that in this fortuitous manner a consi- 
 derable force was collected in Riigenwald. Gustavus when in- 
 formed of Monro's adventure exclaimed : " We may well expect 
 a prosperous issue, when Heaven expresses its approval by such 
 extraordinary events." 
 
 The approach of AAinter v/as favourable to the Swedes, as 
 Conti's army, consisting mostly of Italians, was unable to endure 
 the cold. The imperialist commanders invited the Swedish officers 
 to a parley, and gave them a magnificent dinner. After the 
 bottle had circulated pretty freely, Cratz, an Austrian colonel, 
 rose, and remarking that it was unworthy of soldiers to contend 
 with snow and ice, proposed a truce for the winter months ; at 
 the expiration of which, he said, they would be happy to meet the 
 Swedes again in the spring. The oldest officer among the 
 Swedes replied, that being unaware of the object of this enter- 
 tainment, they had not taken the commands of their sovereign 
 on the subject proposed. He was pretty sure, however, that 
 no truce would be granted on account of the winter. Their 
 
A.D. 1631. GUSTAVU3 ADOLl'IIUS. 319 
 
 Kino- was indefatigable, and easily bore hunger, thirst, cold, and 
 all sorts of inconvenience, nor could it be supposed that his 
 officers were more tender than their master. They were soldiers 
 both for summer and winter, not swallows that waited till the ice 
 had disappeared. 
 
 G ustavus highly approved of this answer. A winter campaign 
 was the very thing he had reckoned on. His soldiers were pro- 
 vided with coats lined M'ith fur, and during the winter months he 
 made immense progress. Reinforcements streamed in from every 
 side. Instead of melting away, the Snow King, as if to prove 
 the justness of the epithet bestowed on him, though in an oppo- 
 site sense from that intended, increased in bulk as he rolled 
 forwards. During the winter Pomerania and Mecklenburg were 
 pretty well cleared of the imperialists. In the spring Frankfurt 
 Mas taken by storm. G ustavus was now master of tlie Oder, and 
 could penetrate at will into Silesia, Brandenburg, or Saxony. 
 The Protestant princes began to take courage and speak in a 
 more decided tone. The Emperor, on the other hand, was 
 astonished at his losses, and enraged with the counsellors who had 
 talked so lightly of the Swedish power, and thus occasioned the 
 delay in adequately opposing it. His courtiers no longer dis- 
 played their wit at the expense of the Snow King. The Electors 
 of Saxony and Brandenburg, however, who were well aware how 
 valuable their friendship must be to either side, held back for a 
 time, observing an armed neutrality ; which Gustavus would not 
 break up by violent means, lest he should at once furnish them 
 with an excuse for joining the Emperor. This unfortunate delay 
 decided the fate of Magdeburg, which had received no aid from 
 Gustavus except the sending them one of his officers. Colonel 
 Falkenberg, who entered the place in the disguise of a boatman, 
 and took command of the feeble and dispirited garrison. On the 
 night of the 10th of May, 1631, the imperial party within the walls 
 called loudly for surrender. At four o'clock in the morning 
 Falkenberg hastened to the town-hall, and whilst he was in con- 
 sultation with the magistrates, Pappenheim, without waiting for 
 orders from Tilly, scaled the walls at a place where the sentinel 
 was unfortunately asleep. Falkenberg rushed out, and had nearly 
 succeeded, with the troops which he had hastily collected, in 
 driving the imperialists out of the town, v/hen he was shot dead. 
 Still the citizens, in spite of the overwhelming force brought 
 against them, resisted bravely, until their powder failed, when 
 
320 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XLTII, 
 
 they were obliged to surrender at discretion. Meanwhile, the 
 rest of the imperialists had entered at two undefended gates, and 
 a scene ensued too horrible for description. Even a humane ge- 
 neral might have found it impossible to restrain such troops in 
 the moment of victory : but this the ferocious old man who com- 
 manded the imperialists did not even attempt. Some officers, 
 Avho implored him to have mercy on the unresisting citizens, were 
 ordered to return in an hour ; " I will then," said he, " see what 
 can be done, but the soldier must have something for his labour 
 and danger." In less than half that time, the work of blood was 
 at its height. The furious soldiers spared neither age nor sex. 
 Almost all the men were beheaded, and a great number of the 
 women. Two clergymen were slain as they stood before the 
 altar. On entering the town Pappenheim had ordered some 
 houses to be set on fire : the wind being strong the flames soon 
 spread, and in a short time the whole city, with the exception of 
 a few houses and the cathedral, was a heap of ashes. These 
 scenes continued until the 13th, when Tilly himself entered, and 
 restored discipline. Four thousand persons, who had taken refuge 
 in the fire-proof cathedral, were admitted to quarter, and for the 
 first time during three days obtained something to eat. It is 
 said that they owed this favour to the vanity of Tilly, who was 
 flattered at being addressed in a Latin oration by one of their 
 preachers. The terrible commander, Avhose singular style of 
 dress gave him the appearance of a lunatic mountebank, rode 
 slowly through the town, gloating on the heaps of dead bodies, 
 with M hich the streets were covered. In a letter to the Emperor, 
 he speaks of this scene of murder and desolation as the greatest 
 victory that had been achieved since the taking of Troy and Je- 
 rusalem. " And sincerely," he adds, " do I j^ity the ladies of 
 your imperial family, that they could not be present as spectators 
 of the same." Gustavus Adolphus now resolved, come what 
 might, no longer to spare the electors whose indecision had caused 
 this terrible calamity. On the 1 1 th of June he appeared before 
 Berlin, and offered George William the choice either of instantly 
 joining him, or seeing his capital laid in ashes. The terrified 
 Elector, after a little resistance, signed the treaty of alliance ; and 
 Gustavus garrisoned the fortresses of Berlin, Spandau, and Kiis- 
 trin. Tilly, having been repulsed on the Hessian frontier, had 
 marched to the great plain of Leipsic, in the hope of terrifying 
 the Elector of Saxony into an alliance : but that prince now de- 
 
A.D. 1G31. BATTLE OF LEIPSIC. 321 
 
 clared himself on the side of the Swedes ; and eighteen thousand 
 Saxons having' joined Gustavus Adolphus, the allied army ad- 
 vanced on Leipsic, which was already in the hands of Tilly. The 
 dif-jerence between the Swedish and imperial armies was very 
 remarkable. In the camp of Gustavus religious service was re- 
 gularly performed, sometimes to the army in general, on which 
 occasions the King was always present, sometimes by the chaplain 
 of each regiment to those more immediately intrusted to his 
 charge. The kindness with which the Swedish soldiers treated 
 the unarmed citizens and peasants, the strict morality of their 
 lives, and the gentleness of their manners, rendered them univer- 
 sally objects of respect and love, and presented a striking contrast 
 to tire fearful oatlis and shouts of licentious revelry with which 
 Tilly's camp resounded day and night, and to the cruelties prac- 
 tised by his soldiers on the defenceless inhabitants. Tlie Swedish 
 troops had lately been equipped by Gustavus Adolphus with a 
 view to rapid movements : they therefore wore no armour, and 
 were accompanied by only a very light train of field artillerj^ 
 The imperialists on the contrary wore cuirasses, greaves, and 
 helmets, had much less discipline among them than the Swedes, 
 and were encumbered by heavy ordnance. Tilly had intended 
 to await the coming up of two of his generals with reinforcements, 
 before he engaged the enemy ; although his own force amounted 
 to 40,000 men, a number equal to that of the united Swedish and 
 Saxon army : but the impetuous Pappenheim having entangled 
 himself in a skirmish w ith the Swedes, Tilly was obliged to march 
 to his assistance, muttering as he went, " That fellow will ruin 
 me yet in honour and reputation, and the Emperor in land and 
 people." Gustavus Adolphus, dressed in a simple grey surtout, 
 with a white hat and green feather, rode in front of the line, and 
 exhorted his men to fight bravely. The Swedes composed the 
 right wing, the Saxons the left. Tilly's army formed, according 
 to the ancient mode of warfare, one long line, but G ustavus had 
 broken his force into several small masses. The imperial 
 artillery was planted on tlje ridge of a low hill immediately 
 behind the army. Tlie battle began on the 7th of September, 
 1631, with a furious cannonade, which lasted two hours. Then 
 Tilly, abandoning his position on tlie hills, marched to meet the 
 Sweden ; but tlieir fire was so galling, that he was obliged to 
 make a movement to the right, and attack tlie Saxons, who soon 
 fled in confusion. Meanwliile, Pappenheim, at the head of his 
 
322 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XLYII. 
 
 terrible cuirassiers, had seven times charged the Swedes, and as 
 often been driven back with great loss. Whilst Tilly was 
 engaged with the Saxons, the Swedes attacked him in flank, 
 captured his artillery, and turning it against himself, threw 
 both him and Pappenheim into irrecoverable confusion. Four 
 regiments of veterans, who had become grey in the imperial ser- 
 vice, resolved to be cut to pieces rather than yield. In detached 
 bodies, they forced their way through the midst of the victorious 
 army, and reached a little wood, where they continued to fight 
 until night came on. The rest of the army fled in disorder, pur- 
 sued by the Swedes, who cut down hundreds of the fugitives. In 
 all the villages around the tocsin was rung, and the peasants 
 rushed out to wreak vengeance on their oppressors. Meanwhile 
 Tilly, now a veteran of seventy-two years of age, who had never 
 before either sustained a defeat or been wounded, stood like a 
 monument of despair, stupified and motionless. Three bullets 
 had already pierced his body ; but he refused to surrender himself, 
 and an oflficer belonging to the regiment of the Count Palatine 
 (called by the soldiers " Long Fritz") was in the act of cutting 
 him down, when he was rescued by Duke Rudolph of Lauenburg. 
 The miserable remains of his army took refuge in Halberstadt, 
 where Tilly joined them. During his flight the curses of the 
 peasants rang in his ears, and he was exasperated beyond measure 
 at hearing everywhere the words of a rude song, in which his 
 defeat was celebrated, and the chorus " Fly, Tilly, fly ! " howled 
 by hundreds of voices. After this victory the country people rose 
 in a mass, and joined the standard of Gustavus in such numbers, 
 that in a few days his army was stronger than it had been before 
 the battle. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER XLYII. 
 
 Narrow escape of Gustavus Adolphus. — The great personal 
 qualities of Gustavus, and the bold enterprise which he had under- 
 taken for the succour of the Protestant Church in Germany, ex- 
 cited the alarm and hatred of the Jesuits, who laid many plans 
 against his life. From one of these he very narrowly escaped. 
 An Italian colonel named Quinti del Ponte, in the service of the 
 imperialists, in order to carry out his designs against Gustavus, 
 deserted to the Swedes, by whom he was received without sus- 
 picion. Hearing one day that Gustavus intended to reconnoitre 
 the camp of the imperialists attended by only a small guard of 
 
Sup. Crap. XLYII. PASEWALK. 323 
 
 horse, Del Ponte hastened to Garz, and liaving obtained from 
 Conti a body of 500 Neapolitan cuirassiers, posted them on 
 both sides of a hollow way through which the Swedish king 
 y^mst necessarily pass. They were commanded to take Gustavus 
 alive, if possible ; and with this view, as well as to avoid giving 
 tlie alarm, not to fire. No sooner had Gustavus entered the 
 defile than the Neapolitans broke from their ambush and sur- 
 rounded ids little guard on all sides. The Swedes pressed around 
 tlieir king and defended him with desperate resolution. As they 
 had the advantage of using their fire-arms, they succeeded for 
 some time in keeping their assailants at bay ; till Del Ponte be- 
 coming impatient, and fearing that the reports of the Swedish 
 carabines would bring assistance to the King, ordered his men 
 also to fire. The aflfair now became desperate. Gustavus's horse 
 was shot under him, and one of the Italian troopers seized him by 
 the belt, thougii, from tlie plain style of the King's dress, without 
 being aware of the value of liis capture. At tliis critical juncture 
 a welcome but not unexpected succour arrived. By way of pre- 
 caution three troops of horse and a company of infantry had been 
 ordered to follow the King at some distance — an arrangement 
 which had not come to the knowledge of Del Ponte. These troops, 
 alarmed by the firing, now arrived at full speed, fell upon the 
 surprised Neapolitans, who had already suffered considerable loss, 
 and drove them from the field. Gustavus escaped in the confusion, 
 and after lamenting the brave men who had fallen in his defence, 
 returned in safety to the Swedish camp, where he was received 
 with cries of joy. 
 
 Not long afterwards the life of Gustavus was again attempted 
 in a still more insidious manner. Some Bavarian Jesuits incited 
 a fanatical monk to enter the Swedish camp in the disguise of 
 an English priest, and to deliver to the King a letter impregnated 
 with a poison of the subtlest kind, the mere vapour of which would 
 cause certain death. Oxenstiern, however, was informed of the 
 matter by some trusty spies, and the diabolical design was frus- 
 trated. 
 
 Pascwalk. Horrors of the Thirly Years' War. — At some dis- 
 tance west of Stettin lay the little town of Pasewalk, wliicii the 
 industry and love of order of its inhabitants had rendered thriving 
 and handsome. In the year 1627, three troops of AVallenstein's 
 cavalry appeared before it, and requested to be accommodated 
 with quarters for three weeks. The unsuspicious citizens con- 
 
324 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XLYII. 
 
 sented, and opened their gates. Three years passed over and 
 their unwelcome guests were still there, but in three or four times 
 greater numbers. The inhabitants, on the contrary, had dwindled 
 down to little more than a third, the rest having either died or 
 fled the place. The wealth of the little town had decreased in 
 the same degree, and it was reckoned that 147,000 dollars had been 
 extorted over and above the usual war taxes. Such was Wallen- 
 stein's method of supporting his troops. 
 
 But it would have been happy for the inhabitants had their 
 misfortunes ended here. After Stettin had gone over to the 
 Swedes, the Emperor directed Tilly to show no mercy towards 
 Pomerania. The imperial commanders now proceeded to divide 
 the towns of that unfortunate province amongst themselves by lot, 
 Pasewalk fell to the share of Colonel Hans Gotz, who demanded 
 from the inhabitants a contribution of 18,000 rix-dollars. They 
 scraped together what they could, but were unable to make up 
 the whole sum, and begged for indulgence. Gotz, however, was 
 inexorable. He seized the burgo-master and seven of the princi- 
 pal citizens, whom he sent to the camp at Garz ; where, loaded 
 with heavy chains, they were exposed without any sort of shelter 
 to the inclemency of the weather, and to the brutal jests and ill- 
 usage of the soldiery. Meanwhile troops of cavalry and lansque- 
 nets were marched into the ill-fated town to plunder it at discre- 
 tion until the balance of the impost should be paid. The inhabi- 
 tants now collected what goods they possessed, and offered to pay 
 in kind what they could not liquidate in money. A great part of 
 these goods, however, was pillaged on the way to the camp ; and 
 Gotz, who was the valuer, declared that the debt had not been 
 satisfied. But worse remained behind. On the 3rd Sept., 1630, 
 the approach of the Swedes was announced. The imperialists 
 evacuated the town, which was entered by the Swedes amidst 
 shouts of joy from the inhabitants. In a few days, however, Gotz 
 returned with a reinforcement, took the town by assault, and put 
 all the Swedes to the sword. A dreadful vengeance was now at 
 hand. The town was abandoned to pillage. The officers them- 
 selves rushed into the more opulent houses, and by the exhibition 
 of thumb-screws and other instruments of torture compelled the 
 owners to produce their valuables. Then came the turn of the 
 common soldiers, who stripped the miserable inhabitants even of 
 their clothes. The men were murdered, the women outraged ; 
 the streets were strewed with the dead and dying. These horrors 
 
A.D. 1G32. 
 
 DEATH OF TILLY. 
 
 0:^0 
 
 lasted for three days, and then the town was fired. A eonsidera- 
 ble portion havinj^ escaped the flames, Gotz commanded the fire 
 to be rekindled. A Protestant clergyman who had escaped the 
 massacre with only a few wounds, threw himself at Gotz's feet 
 and entreated him to spare the houses and churches which still 
 remained. '' No !" answered the brutal soldier ; '•' I have sworn 
 an oath to destroy the heretical and treacherous nest, and I will 
 not break it." At his signal, troops of Croats with lighted brands 
 rushed to the houses which were still standing, and completed the 
 Mork of plunder, massacre, and desolation. The imperialists then 
 marclied out, whilst the lurid flames of the burning town lighted 
 iij) the horizon for miles around. 
 
 CHAPTER XLVIII. 
 
 DEATH or TILLY. — BATTLE OF LUTZEX. — DEATH OF 
 GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 
 
 A T). 1G3-2. 
 
 The Swede's Stone, marking the spot on the field of Liitzen where Gusta^•u3 Adolphus fell. 
 
 Leaving his generals Baudis and Banner to follow np his suc- 
 cesses in Northern Germany, Gustavus marched to Erfurt, and 
 Gy. " u 
 
'i^2(5 HISTOKY OF GEKJfANY. Chap. XL VIII. 
 
 tlience through the Thuringian forest to Wurtzburg, Frankfort, 
 and Mentz. He crossed the Rhine at Oppenheim, and in com- 
 memoration of his passage caused a high pillar to be erected, having 
 on the top the figure of a lion, with its head encased in a helmet, 
 and bearing a sword in its claws. Charles of Lorraine and the 
 imperialist colonel Ossa endeavoured to defend the left bank of 
 the river, but Gustavus defeated them. After the taking of 
 Mentz, the valuable library of the archbishopric was despatchea 
 to Sweden by sea, but, unluckily, the vessel on board of which it 
 had been shipped foundered during a storm m the Baltic. This 
 was an irreparable loss, as Mentz was the most ancient seat of 
 German literature and science, and contained immense collec- 
 tions. Spires, Landau, and many other places had already 
 declared for the Swedes ; and the banks of the Rhine and the 
 Neckar resounded with shouts of joy as the army of the liberator 
 advanced. The Swedish soldiers, on tlieir part, delighted with 
 tlie beauty of the country, and revelling in the unaccustomed 
 luxuries of wine and wheaten bread, were eager to hold out the 
 right hand of fellowship to men who received them so kindly. 
 Ulm sent a deputation to congratulate Gustavus on his successes. 
 The Count Palatine Christian of Birkenfeld recruited for his 
 army ; Frederick King of Bohemia returned to his Palatinate ; 
 and to crown the satisfaction of the Swedish King, his wife Elea- 
 nora joined him at Frankfort. Meanv/hile " that old devil, Tilly" 
 (as Gustavus always called him), had begun to rally, and after 
 taking the town of Rotenburg, was entrenching himself in a strong 
 position at Rain on the Lech, in order to cover Bavaria. Maxi- 
 milian with a considerable force was also encamped in the same 
 neighbourhood. The works on the Lech were nearly completed, 
 when Gustavus advancing to the opposite bank of the river com- 
 menced a cannonade, which was kept up during three days without 
 intermission. At the end of that time the imperialists became 
 first aware that the enemy's engineers, under cover of the smoke, 
 had succeeded in constructing a bridge, over which a considerable 
 portion of their army had already crossed the river. In a trans- 
 port of rage, Tilly rushed forward to meet the Swedes ; but his 
 course was arrested by a cannon ball, which shattered his thigh, 
 and produced so ghastly a wound, that he shortly afterwards died 
 in great agony, advising Maximilian, with his last breath, at what- 
 ever sacrifice of life or treasure, to secure Ratisbon, the key of 
 Austria and Bavaria. Gustavus noAV marched to Augsburg, 
 
A.D. 1G32. WALLENSTEIN REINSTATED. 327 
 
 where he caused the Gospel to be proclaimed, and thence to 
 ]\Iunich, the gates of which were opened to him on his promising 
 to spare the ^ilace. By his side rode Frederick, the deposed King 
 of Bohemia, accompanied by his Queen, and a large monkey 
 dressed in the frock and hood of a Capuchin friar. The Bava- 
 rians had buried their cannon under the floor of the arsenal, 
 which came to the ears of Gustavus. " Let the dead arise," said 
 he, and 140 pieces were dug up, mostly filled with ammunition. 
 One of them contained 30,000 ducats. Maximilian would gladly 
 have made peace, but Gustavus Adolphus in no very courtly lan- 
 guage told him that he was not to be trusted, adding some coarse 
 remarks better suited to the manners of that day than to the more 
 refined taste of modern readers. The loss of Tilly now compelled 
 the Emperor to enter into negotiation with the only general who 
 was capable of commanding an imperial army at this critical junc- 
 ture. Since his disgrace, Wallenstein had been living at Prague 
 in more than regal state. His palace stood on the sites of several 
 hundred houses, which had been pulled down to make room for 
 the building : his gardens were full of handsome fountains and 
 aviaries, some of which were so large that tall trees were enclosed 
 within their wires : boys of noble family waited upon him as 
 pages, and many of his former oflftcers were still in his service. 
 During his retirement he had been endeavouring to bring about 
 an alliance between Denmark, Saxony, and the Empire, under the 
 auspices, as it was generally supposed, of the Emperor himself, 
 although he afterwards thought proper to deny that he had corre- 
 sponded with the Duke of Friedland on that or any other subject 
 during his banishment. The overtures of Ferdinand were received 
 very coldly by Wallenstein, who refused to listen to any proposals 
 until he was satisfied that the Emperor was willing to reinstate 
 him on terms dictated by himself The conditions, which secured 
 to him an irresponsible command, and which he extorted on the 
 grounds that a dictatorship was indispensable in the present 
 distracted state of the empire, were as follows : 1st, that he should 
 have the sole command of the imperial forces, and that not even 
 the Emperor himself should interfere in it ; 2nd, that he should 
 have the sole disposal of all the conquests that he made ; 3rd, that 
 the Emperor should reward him with one of the imperial hereditary 
 possessions, besides some other estate ; 4th, that for the maintenance 
 of his army he should be at liberty to confiscate what, and where, 
 and how he liked. These conditions having been at last conceded, 
 
 u 2 
 
328 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XLVIII. 
 
 the new dictator commenced recruiting, and ni a few months 
 found himself at the head of a considerable army, with which he 
 easily drove the Saxons out of Bohemia. A junction was now 
 formed at Eger between Wallenstein's army and that of his old 
 enemy, Maximilian, but only on the conditions prescribed by the 
 former ; namely, that he should have the sole command, and that 
 the army should not be marched into Bavaria, but towards Niirn- 
 berg. This was in June 1632. " Now," cried Wallenstein, " \ve 
 sliall see soon whether Gustavus Adolphus or I am to rule the 
 world." Gustavus had wished to return to Bavaria, and carry 
 the war into the heart of the Romanist states ; but intelligence 
 having reached him that Wallenstein had taken LeijDzic, lie at 
 once determined to march northwards, and on the 27th of October 
 arrived at Erfurt, v.here he took leave of his wife, with a melan- 
 choly foreboding that they were to meet no more on this side the 
 grave. On the 1st of November he reached Naumburg, wliither 
 the inhabitants of the surrounding country, which had been deso- 
 lated by the march of Wallenstein, flocked in cro^^•ds to gaze on 
 the hero. Wherever he appeared shouts of joy and affection wel- 
 comed him, thousands flijiging themselves on their knees and 
 struggling with one another for the privilege of kissing his feet or 
 the sheath of his sword. This homage, although only the out- 
 pouring of gratitude and admiration, grievously disconcerted 
 Gustavus. " Is it not," he said to his attendants, " as though this 
 people were making a God of me ? I pray that the vengeance of 
 the Almighty may not fall on us for this audacious mummery, 
 and show these foolish crovvds but too soon that I am only a poor, 
 weak, sinful mortal." "Thus," says Schiller, "did he prove 
 himself doubly worthy of their tears, as the moment drew nigh 
 ^^hich was to bid them flow." Having discovered through an 
 intercepted letter that Pappenheim had been detached to lay siege 
 to Halle, and that the imperial troops were dispersed in winter 
 quarters, Gustavus abandoned his intention of joining the Elector, 
 and advanced at once to attack Wallenstein. Three guns from 
 the castle of Weissenfels gave the signal to the imi3erialists that 
 the Swedish army was in sight. Wallenstein instantly drew his 
 regiments together, and dispatched messengers to command the 
 immediate return of Pappenheim. On the 6th of November Gus- 
 tavus drew up his forces in nearly the same order which the year 
 before had insured him the victory at Leipzic. The whole army 
 formed two lines, having a canal on their right and in their rear, 
 
A.i\ ir,;i2. r.ATTLE of lutzex. 3'_>9 
 
 the high road in front, and the village of Liitzen on their Jaft. 
 The infantry, under Count von Brake, occupied the centre, the 
 cavalry the wings, and the artillery the front of the whole line. 
 Duke Bernard of Saxe Weimar commanded the left win"-, and 
 tlie King himself with his Swedish cavalry took up his position 
 on tlie right. The order of battle of the second line was the same 
 as tliat of the first ; and behind it was stationed a corps de reserve 
 under the command of Henderson, a Scotchman. On the evening 
 before the battle WaUenstein deepened the trenches on each side 
 of the high road which divided the two armies, and placed a strong 
 body of musketeers behind the mounds formed by the earth 
 thrown out of them. In the rear of these was a battery of seven 
 heavy guns ; and on an eminence behind Liitzen, on which stood 
 a winchnill, were planted fourteen lighter pieces, which com- 
 manded a great part of the field. The infantry, in five unwieldy 
 divisions, were stationed about three hundred paces in the rear of 
 the high road, their flanks being covered by cavalry. To conceal 
 his weakness, Wallenstein ordered all the horse-boys and camp- 
 servants to mount and form on the left wing, where they were to 
 remain until the arrival of Pappenheim should supply their places 
 with more efficient warriors. All these dispositions were made in 
 the dead of night ; and the two armies awaited the dawn of that 
 bloody morning which should prove \^hether Gustavus v»as in- 
 debted for his previous successes to his own genius, or to the 
 unskilfulness of his opponents. The day at length broke, but an 
 impenetralile fog lay spread over the whole plain, and prevented 
 any movement of tlie two armies until near midday. In front of 
 tlie Swedish line Gustavus Adolphus knelt down, and offered up 
 liis prayer to the God of battles, whilst the whole army raised 
 Luther's battle-hymn, " A steadfast fortress is our God,"* the field 
 music of tlie different regiments playing a solemn accompaniment. 
 The King then mounted his horse, with no defence but a buff 
 coat, the pain of a recent wound rendering the weight and pres- 
 sure of his armour insupportable ; and rode through the ranks, 
 speaking cheerfully to the soldiers, and striving to inspire them 
 with hopes which his own melancholy forebodings prevented him 
 from feeling. " God with us," was the battle-cry of the Swedes ; 
 " Jesu INIaria," that of the imperialists. The fog in some measure 
 dispersing about eleven o'clock, the two armies began to be visible 
 to each other, and at the same moment the village of Liitzen was 
 * " Ein' feste Burj? ist miser Gott." 
 
330 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XLVIII. 
 
 niscovered to be in flames, having been set on fire by order of the 
 Duke of Friedland, lest he should be outflanked on that side. 
 Half an hour later Gustavus gave the signal of attack, and the 
 Swedish infantry rushed forward to carry the trenches, but a mur- 
 derous fire of artillery and small arms compelled them to retreat. 
 The voice of Gustavus soon rallied them, and they fought with 
 great fury, but without making any impression on the imperial- 
 ists, until Colonel Winkel, with a regiment of cavalry, forced his 
 way across two of the trenches, followed by the Swedish body- 
 guard. The battery was soon carried and the guns turned against 
 the imperialists,— then re-taken by AVallenstein,— and again 
 carried by the Swedes, wdiose right wing was everyw^here victo- 
 rious, but their left, galled by the heavy fire from the windmill 
 battery, was beginning to give way, when Gustavus rode forward 
 for the purpose of rallying them. The swiftness of his horse 
 renderino- it impossible for the heavy cavalry to keep pace with 
 their leader, he soon found himself almost alone in the midst of 
 the enemy. Here a subaltern of the imperial army, observing 
 the respect wdth which the unknown officer was treated by his 
 few followers, naturally concluded that he was a person of im- 
 portance, and called out to a musketeer, " Shoot that man, for 
 I am sure he is an officer of high rank." The soldier immedi- 
 ately fired, and the king's left arm fell powerless by his side. At 
 this^Boment a wdld cry was raised, " The king bleeds ; the king 
 is wounded." "It is nothing," shouted Gustavus; "follov/ 
 me." But the pain soon brought on faintness, and he desired the 
 Duke of Lauenburg in French to lead him out of the throng. 
 Yf hilst the duke was endeavouring to withdraw^ him wdthout being 
 noticed by the troops, a second shot struck Gustavus and deprived 
 him of his little remaining strength. " I have enough, brother," 
 he said in a feeble voice to the duke ; " try to save your ovrn 
 life." At the same moment he fell from his horse, and in a short 
 time breathed his last. His horse, bathed in blood, and galloping 
 wildly about the field, gave the first intimation to the Sw^edish 
 cavalry that their king had fallen : a furious struggle for the 
 recovery of his remains then took place between them and the 
 Croatians ; and the disfigured corpse of Gustavus was soon buried 
 beneath a heap of dead. Meanwhile the sorrowful tidings had 
 reached the main body, and goaded the Swedes almost to despera- 
 tion. They fought with a fury w^hich nothing could resist ; and 
 the enemy was already retreating, when Pappenheim appeared, 
 
A.D. 1032. r.ATTLE 0¥ LUTZEN. 831 
 
 and tlie battle began afresh. NoUiiiig could exceed the fierce- 
 ness of this second engagement. The Swedish yellow regiment, 
 the flower of their army, lay dead, each man in his rank, without 
 having yielded an inch of ground. Count Piccoluomini, one of 
 the imperial generals, had seven horses shot under him, and re- 
 ceived six wounds, but would not quit his post until the battle 
 was decided. Wallenstein rode through the field like one bearing 
 1 charmed life : right and left his attendants fell, and his cloak 
 was pierced through and through with bullets ; yet he escaped 
 un wounded, to fall at last by the hand of an assassin. Pappen- 
 heim received two shots in his breast and was carried out of the 
 battle. Whilst they were conveying him to the rear, a rumour 
 reached him that his great rival was slain. The countenance of 
 the dying man brightened at this intelligence. " Tell the Duke 
 of Friedland," he said, " that I lie here without hope of life, but 
 I die in peace, knowing that the enemy of my faith has also 
 fallen." The mists of evening put an end to the fight. So little 
 were the Swedes aAvare of the advantage which they had gained, 
 that the question of an immediate retreat was seriously discussed 
 between Bernard of Saxe Weimar and General Kniphausen ; and 
 great was their surprise when the light of morning made them 
 aware that Wallenstein had Mdthdrawn his troops and left them 
 masters of the field. Had Pappenheim's reinforcement arrived a 
 few hours earlier, the event would probably have been dififerent ; 
 and even as it was, something might have been done to save the 
 materiel of the army from falling into the enemy's hands ; but 
 Pappenheim's fall and the disabled condition of most of his men 
 seem to have paralysed the hitherto fearless spirit of Wallenstein ; 
 for leaving his artillery, his colours, and the greater part of his 
 small arms on the field, he commenced a disorderly retreat to- 
 v.-ards Leipzic, and the next morning was followed by the 
 miserable remnants of his army. He made, it is true, a feeble 
 attempt to regain the ground, by sending out a body of Croatians 
 to hover round the scene of action ; but the sight of the S\Aedish 
 army, drawn up in good order between Liitzen and Weissenfels, 
 soon scared away these irregular skirmishers; and Bernard of 
 Saxe Weimar, who succeeded Gustavus in command of the 
 Swedes, retained undisturbed possession of the field. But the 
 victory was dearly purchased. More than nine thousand men lay 
 dead on the field of battle : the whole plain, from Liitzen to the 
 canal, was strewed with the wounded and the dying ; the bodies 
 
332 HISTORY OF GERMANY. CiiAr. XLYIII. 
 
 of knights and nobles were mingled with those of the common 
 soldiers ; and even an ecclesiastic, the Abbot of Fulda, %vhose 
 zeal for his faith had brouglit him to the field as a spectator, paid 
 the penalty of his rashness Mith his life. But the most melan- 
 choly feature of the Swedish triumph was the loss of him who 
 had died to achieve it. For a long time the body of Gustavus 
 Adolphus lay concealed under the heaps of nameless dead, who 
 had fallen later in the day. At length it was discovered near a 
 large stone between Liitzen and the canal, covered with the most 
 ghastly wounds, trampled on by the horses' hoofs, and stripped of 
 its clothes and ornaments by the hands of those wretches who 
 follow a camp for the sake of plunder. Tears streamed down the 
 cheeks of the rough soldiers as they followed in melancholy pro- 
 cession the remains of him wlio had so often led them to victory ; 
 and when the bereft widow embraced his corpse at Weissenfels, a 
 dismal murmur ran through the ranks, like the wailing of children 
 over the grave of a beloved father. The buff coat of Gustavus, 
 covered with blood, had been torn from his body by the plun- 
 derers, and found its way to Vienna, where it was exhibited to 
 the Emperor, who, bursting into tears at the sight, exclaimed, 
 " Gladly would I have allowed the unhappy man a longer life, 
 and a joyful return to his country, if his death had not been 
 necessary to the repose of Germany." Thus fell in the thirty- 
 eighth year of his age Gustavus Adolphus, the great protector of 
 Protestantism m Germany. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER XLVIII. 
 
 The Swede's Sto7ie. — The Schwedenstein, or Swede's Stone, 
 which marks the spot where Gustavus Adolphus fell, is a rude 
 block of granite standing on the right hand of the road leading 
 from Liitzen to Leipzic. On its face are inscribed the letters 
 G. A., with the date of the battle. In the year 1837, on the 
 anniversary of the Swedish hero's death, a monument of cast-iron, 
 which had been erected over the stone, was solemnly uncovered, 
 and a suitable oration pronounced by Dr. Draeseke, Bishop of 
 the Prussian evangelical church. On the side of this monument 
 nearest the high road is the following inscription : — " Hier fiel 
 Gustav Adolph, am 6 November, 1632." 
 
 Count Pappenheim. — Godfred Henry Count Pappenheim was 
 the son of a marshal of the imperial household, and was born on 
 
A.D. ir.;^,3. COUNT PAPPEXIIEIM. 33B 
 
 the 29tli May, 1594. At liis birth lie is said to liavo borne on 
 his forehead two red marks resembliiif^ swords, wliich, however, 
 were not visible in later years except when violent passion caused 
 the blood to rush into his face, when they gave a strangely savage 
 expression to his whole countenance. Pappenheim completed his 
 education at the university of Tubingen, after which he travelled 
 through the Netherlands, France, and Italy, and acquired the 
 languages of those countries. He began his military career under 
 the Duke of Bavaria and soon rose to a high rank in the service. 
 As a second in command he was excellent, but liis overboiling 
 courage, amounting often to rashness, unfitted him for the sole 
 direction of an army. Tilly always maintained that the battle of 
 Leipzic was lost through his temerity. In person he bore some 
 resemblance to Gustavus Adolphus, wl.ich he sought to increase 
 by his dress and manner, and even by the way in which lie 
 arranged his hair. But though he entertained a great respect for 
 the Swedish king, he considered him as a sort of personal oppo- 
 nent, and in battle always chose his place exactly facing him. 
 lie died of his wounds in the castle of Pleissenburg at Leipzic, a 
 day or two after the battle of Liitzen : a hundred cicatrices were 
 found upon his body. A messenger was on the way from Madrid 
 to bring him the order of the Golden rl-^ece, when death ren- 
 dered all worldly distinctions valueless. 
 
 CHAPTER XLIX. 
 
 DEATH OF WALLEXSTEIN. 
 A.D. 1633. 
 
 The deatii of Gustavus Adolphus would iiave been fatal to the 
 Protestant cause, had not the Swedish Cliancellor Oxenstiern and 
 Duke Bernard of Saxe Weimar exerted themselves to repair tiie 
 loss by assembling the German princes and representatives of 
 cities at Heilbronn, where Oxenstiern was named head of the 
 alliance in the room of his deceased master. The command of 
 tlie army was divided between Duke Bernard and General Horn , 
 but the Swedes had lost much of that discipline which had ren- 
 dered their character so estimable in Germany during the lifetime 
 of Gustavus, and now committed acts of plunder and violence 
 
 IT 3 
 
334 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. XLIX, 
 
 with as little scruple as the imperialists. Some advantages were 
 obtained by Bernard and his colleague ; but the unfortunate city 
 of Leipzic, liaving surrendered for the third time to the impe- 
 rialists, was sacked and pillaged by Wallenstein's general, Hoik. 
 The plague, which was raging at Leipzic, soon afterwards attacked 
 the conqueror ; and as he lay on his sick bed without hope of 
 recovery, the stings of conscience became so insupportable, that 
 he offered six hundred dollars to any one who Mould bring him a 
 Lutheran minister. But all had either been murdered by his 
 OM^n order, or had concealed themselves so closely, that the at- 
 tempts of his officers to discover them were utterly fruitless. 
 Whilst the Swedes were overrunning Germany, Wallenstein re- 
 mained inactive with his army in Bohemia, until the desertion of 
 some mercenary troops suggested to him the expediency of ascer- 
 taining exactly the temper of his men, by tendering his resigna- 
 tion to the Emperor. The experiment succeeded. Most of the 
 German troops remained faithful to their commander ; and the 
 principal officers, being invited to a banquet, signed a paper, in 
 which they pledged themselves to support the Duke of Friedland 
 against any who should seek to disturb him in his command. It 
 was afterwards pretended that the signature of these officers had 
 been obtained by fraud, inasmuch as a paper containing the words 
 " saving our duty to the Emperor," which lay on the table at the 
 beginning of the banquet, had been withdrawn when the guests 
 were too drunk to detect the manoeuvre, and another substituted, 
 which pledged them simply and unconditionally to the support of 
 their general. But this story, although universally believed in 
 the days of Schiller, has been pronounced by modern historians to 
 be an invention of Wallenstein's enemies, -^vho hoped in some 
 measure to justify their deed of blood by representing the mur- 
 dered man as a dishonoured traitor. These proceedings of the 
 Duke of Friedland were betrayed to the Emperor by Ottavio 
 Piccoluomini, an officer who had insinuated himself into the 
 general's confidence by false professions of friendship. The Em-? 
 peror now issued secret instructions to those officers who could be 
 relied on to seize Wallenstein and his two principal associates, 
 Illow and Terzky ; alive, if possible, but in any event dead or 
 alive. An order for superseding Wallenstein in his command 
 v/as also forwarded from the imperial court to General G alias, 
 who took care to communicate it to none but the foreign mer- 
 cenary officers. Wallenstein, surpised by the desertion of Piccol- 
 
A.D. 1G33. DEATH OF WALLENSTEIN. 335 
 
 uoniiiii and the other Italian generals, tlu'cw himself into Eger 
 (a strong fortress on the western frontier of Bohemia), and now 
 for the first time entered, it is said, into negotiations with the 
 Swedes. But Bernard of Weimar, doubtful of liis sincerity, re- 
 ceived these advances coldly. " One who did not believe in 
 God," he said, " ought not to be trusted by men." Perhaps Wal- 
 lenstein might eventually have succeeded in removing this unfa- 
 Aourable impression : but Ids hours were now numbered. On the 
 2ot]i of February, 1633, Gordon, a Scotch soldier of fortune, who 
 connnanded the garrison, and two mercenary officers named Butler 
 and Leslie, the one Irish, the other Scotch, met at midnight in the 
 citadel of Eger, and swore on the crosses of their swords, that 
 they would put to death the Duke of Friedland, Illow, Terzky, 
 Kinski, and an officer of inferior rank named Neumann, all of 
 wliom were invited to an entertainment at the citadel on the 
 following evening. This dark plot was communicated to three 
 other Irishmen and two Italians; and an arrangement made 
 that Gerald ino, one of the Italians, and another officer named 
 Deveroux, should conceal themselves with thirty men in a 
 room adjoining the banqueting hall, whence tliey were to rush 
 out at a given signal, and aid the other conspirators in their 
 bloody work. At six o'clock in the evening of the 26th, all the 
 doomed men, with the exception of Wallenstein, who excused 
 himself on the plea of severe indisposition, entered the citadel of 
 Eger, where they were received with affected cordiality by Gordon 
 and his fellow conspirators : but no sooner had the last of them 
 crossed the moat, than the drawbridge was raised, and the keys of 
 the fortress placed in the hands of Leslie. Then followed one of 
 those scenes with which the wild mercenaries of that day were but 
 too familiar. Whilst the wine-cup passed from hand to hand, and 
 the unsuspecting guests were drinking deeply to the health of 
 tlieir treacherous entertainers, a side door was suddenly thrown 
 open, and Geraldino, at the head of six dragoons, armed with 
 pikes and sabres, rushed towards the table, shouting in Italian 
 " Viva la Casa d' Austria !" " Long live the House of Austria !" 
 whilst from the opposite side a loud cry was heard, " Who is on 
 the Emperor's side, who ?" and Deveroux with four-and-twenty 
 soldiers marched into the hall. Gordon and Leslie then ex- 
 tinguished the lights, and the assassins, falling on Kinski and 
 Illow, despatched them before they could snatch their sabres from 
 the wall : but Terzky, who had possessed himself of his sword 
 
336 HISTORY OP GERMANY. Chap. XLIX. 
 
 during the first confusion, fought so desperately that two of the 
 assailants were stretched dead at his feet, and many more wounded, 
 before the assassins could effect their purpose. Neumann had 
 rushed out at the first appearance of danger, but being unac- 
 quainted with the conspirators' pass-word, was soon detected and 
 put to death by the soldiers. The conspirators then proceeded to 
 Wallenstein's quarters at the burgomaster's house, where they 
 were admitted by the guard in the belief that they were the bearers 
 of some important communication to their general. As they 
 ascended the staircase, one of the servants implored them not to 
 disturb his lord, who, worn out by long watching and the pain of 
 an imperfectly healed wound, had just fallen into an uneasy 
 slumber. " This is the time for disturbance," shouted Deveroux 
 in a voice of thunder ; and striking the servant down, he passed 
 on to the chamber of Wallenstein, and bursting open the door 
 found himself in presence of his victim, who had risen from bed 
 at the first alarm, and advanced to meet the intruders. " Art 
 thou not," exclaimed the assassin, " the villain mIio would carry 
 over our army to the Swedes, and pluck the crown from our 
 Emperor's head?" Wallenstein stretched out his arms without 
 uttering a word, and Deveroux plunged a halberd into his breast. 
 The body of the murdered man was then wrapped in a piece 
 of tapestry, and conveyed to the citadel, whence it was after- 
 wards removed to the Duke's burial place at Gitschin. Bernard 
 of Weimar arrived soon afterwards, and found Eger in possession 
 of the imperialists. The assassins Butler and Leslie Avere raised 
 by the Emperor to the rank of Count, as having done good ser- 
 vice to his cause. The landed possessions of Wallenstein were 
 divided among his murderers ; and what little remained of his 
 personal property (for his false friend Piccoluomini had appro- 
 priated the greater part to himself immediately after the Duke's 
 death) was distributed among the soldiers. As soon as the 
 Emperor received intelligence that his powerful general had 
 ceased to live, he drew up and published a proclamation, in which 
 an attempt was made to justify the murder. The character of 
 Wallenstein was painted in the blackest colours : and acts which 
 were afterwards proved by authentic documents to have been 
 done with the consent, and even at the suggestion, of the Emperor 
 himself, were brought forward as proofs of his guilt. The whole 
 of Wallenstein's army, with the exception of a few regiments, 
 which went over to the Swedes or Saxons, remained faithful to tlie 
 
?^vr. Cuxr. XLTX. CIIAIIAOTEU OF WALLENSTETN. 337 
 
 Emperor, whose eldest son Ferdiiicaiid was appointed general-in- 
 eliief, and Gallas second in command. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER XLIX. 
 
 Character of Wallenstein. — AYallenstein's appearance was not 
 much calculated to inspire either confidence or love. In person 
 he was tall and meaj^re. A lofty forehead, beneath which 
 flashed small and coal-black eyes, was surmounted by a head of 
 coarse and short-cropped hair. His complexion was yellow and 
 cadaverous ; his mouth never relaxed into a smile, and was 
 seldom even opened, except to utter a few words in a loud harsh 
 voice, whose disagreeable tones he was unable to modify. His 
 whole demeanour betrayed the coldness and severity of his dis- 
 position ; but he was at the same time temperate and industrious. 
 Suspicion and dissimulation were his ruling- characteristics, though 
 he sometimes assumed the appearance of openness and confidence. 
 He punished every breach of discipline with immoderate severity. 
 When informed of an act of disobedience committed by a soldier, 
 he would often exclaim without further inquiry, " Hang the 
 dog!" Nevertheless the liberality and magnificence of his dis- 
 position won him the love of his troops. He held it beneath his 
 dignity to make a present of less than 1000 florins. He wa? 
 solicitous for the comfort and well-being of his soldiers, and left 
 them all the liberty they could desire to enrich themselves 
 by plunder. His way of life was princely. In his stables at 
 Prague 300 horses of the best breed were fed out of marble 
 mangers. His household consisted of 900 persons, and on his table 
 covers were daily laid for 100 guests. Yet he seldom made his 
 appearance there himself. He regarded mankind with feelings of 
 misanthropy, and shunned them as a base, ungrateful race. 
 Even his wife and daughter he saw but seldom ; an intimate 
 friend he never possessed. Shut up in his lonely palace, his time 
 was mostly spent either in consulting the stars with the astrologer 
 Seni, or in brooding over his plans of immeasurable ambition. 
 Yet from that palace he may almost be said to have ruled all 
 Germany. The Emperor himself was frequently obliged to wink 
 at liis disobedience, for which Wallenstein never took the trouble 
 to apologize. 
 
338 HISTORY OF GERMANY. ChAP. L 
 
 CHAPTER L. 
 
 DEATH OF FERDINAND II., AND OF BERNARD OF SAXE WEIMAR, — 
 END OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 
 
 From A.D. 1633 to 1648. 
 
 Had Bernard of Saxe "Weimar been able to avail himself of the 
 first moments of confusion consequent on the death of Wallen- 
 stein, he might have found means to disperse the im.perial troops, 
 which were in disorder for want of a leader. But the Swedes, 
 jealous of the confidence reposed by Bernard in his German 
 soldiers, refused to co-operate with him until it was too late. 
 The consequence of this indecision Avas the loss of Ratisbon, 
 which fell into the hands of the imperialists before it could be 
 relieved. This calamity was soon followed by a bloody defeat 
 at Nordlingen, where the Protestants lost 16,000 men. In 
 Swabia, the citizens of Augsburg, after subsisting for some time 
 on the dead bodies of men and all sorts of garbage, were com- 
 pelled to purchase their lives at the expense of all their property 
 and to embrace the Romish religion. These disasters had the 
 eifect which might have been anticipated on the wavering counsels 
 of the Elector of Saxony, who, in the expectation that the 
 Emperor's cause would soon be triumphant, hastened to conclude 
 a peace on the best terms that he could obtain. The Elector of 
 Brandenburg and the Duke of Llineburg followed his example ; 
 and a convention was signed at Prague, in which these princes 
 pledged themselves, as the price of their restoration to the 
 Emperor's favour, to surrender to his tender mercies all their 
 Protestant brethren in western and southern Germany. Mean- 
 vrhile the Emperor was not idle. Preparations were made on a 
 large scale for continuing the war ; and the Dukedom of Fran- 
 conia was promised to Bernard of Saxe Weimar, on condition of 
 his joining the imperialists. Bernard saw that utter ruin to the 
 Protestant cause would be the certain consequence of his abandon- 
 ing it ; but on the other hand, the introduction of the French into 
 Germany, which seemed the only resource left to the allies, vras a 
 ■ measure full of danger to the liberties of his country. After a 
 severe struggle religious zeal prevailed over patriotism, and he 
 refused the Emperor's offer. In the year 1636 Bernard visited 
 Paris, ^vhere he was honourably received by Louis XIII. , who 
 
A.u. 163' 
 
 DEATH OF FERDINAND II. 339 
 
 made promises to him in abundance, which were never fulfilled ; 
 for the French, notwithstanding the interest which they affected 
 to take in the affairs of the German Protestants, were in reality 
 only desirous that the two parties should wear each other out m a 
 long struggle, when it would be easy for a French army to enter 
 Germany and satisfy their ambitious cravings. It was on this 
 occasion that, in an interview with Richelieu and his confidant, 
 Father Joseph, the latter, who piqued himself on his military 
 talents, opened a map and pointed out a plan of the campaign. 
 " Ach," exclaimed Duke Bernard in his broken French, '' that is 
 all very good, Vater Jousef, if we could take towns with our 
 fingers." Bernard returned to his camp, and soon afterwards, 
 during the bombardment of Zabern, narrowly escaped death from 
 a ball, which shattered his bed to atoms. A remarkable change 
 had taken place in his character. Formerly he had allowed his 
 soldiers the most unlimited licence ; but during his residence at 
 Paris, the queen, Anne of Austria, having implored him for her 
 sake to have mercy on the weaker sex, Bernard promised faith- 
 fully to obey her commands, and so strictly kept his word, that 
 the nuns of Remberville, surprised and delighted at a forbearance 
 so uncommon in those days, overwhelmed him M'ith expressions of 
 gratitude, and presented him with a sword-belt of exquisite work- 
 manship. Whilst the war was proceeding thus languidly, an 
 episode was enacted worthy the brightest days of chivalry. The 
 Cardinal Infant of Spain and Piccoluomini having invaded 
 France from the Netherlands, Richelieu sent a force to repulse 
 them. Whilst the two enemies lay in their encampments at 
 Liege, General von Werth determined on his own responsibility 
 to lead the cavalry of Piccoluomini to the very gates of Paris. 
 Desperate as the attempt seemed, it was fully successful. The 
 French troops fled before him, cities opened their gates, and the 
 magistrates on bended knees presented their keys to the invader. 
 Paris was panic-struck ; and Werth might easily have made him- 
 self master of the place had not liis troopers wasted time in 
 plundering the surrounding country. This delay enabled Cardinal 
 Richelieu to arm and send against the enemy all the disposable 
 troops ; but it was not until the autumnal rains brought sickness 
 into his camp that the chivalrous invader abandoned his design, 
 and rejoined the imperial army. In the year 1637 the aged 
 Emperor died. Almost the last act of a life whicli had been one 
 long display of ferocious cruelty, was to order the drowning ol 
 
340 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. L. 
 
 some insurgents in Carinthia, and the infliction of horrible 
 tortures on the peasants of Upper Austria. Few sovereigns have 
 left behind them a more odious name. Under the cloak of 
 religious zeal he sent fire and swoid through his native land ; and 
 that not so much from an honest conviction that the tenets of the 
 Ilomish faith \Aere true, as from an anxious desire to establish, at 
 whatever cost of human suffering, the detestable principle " cujus 
 regio, ejus religio," which both Romanist and Protestant sove- 
 reigns had been too ready to assert from time to time since the 
 days of Luther. Heretics were therefore to be exterminated, not 
 because their doctrines were damnable, but because those who 
 presumed to differ from their sovereign were in his eyes guilty of 
 rebellion. More than ten millions of human beings were sacri- 
 ficed to this unjust and cruel policy. The Jesuits had impressed 
 Lipon him the devilish maxim, that a land had better lie waste 
 ilian harbour heretics and rebels ; and on this principle he had 
 acted through life, and reduced the fair plains and fields of 
 Germany to the condition of a howling wilderness, through Avhich 
 dissolute soldiers and half-starved miserable peasants, in whose 
 breasts famine and suffering had extinguished the feelings of 
 humanity, wandered like fiends, ready to devour alike friends arid 
 foes. The year in which the Emperor died a frightful famine 
 vras added to the other horrors of war. So ghastly was this 
 visitation that men, to save their lives, disinterred and devoured 
 the bodies of their fellow-creatures, and even hunted down humari 
 beings that they might feed on their flesh. The effect of this 
 unnatural and loathsome diet was a pestilence, which swept away 
 the soldiery as well as the people by thousands. In Pomerania 
 hundreds destroyed themselves, being unable to endure the pangs 
 of jiunger. On the island of Riigen many poor creatures were 
 found dead with their mouths full of grass, and in some districts 
 attempts were made to knead earth into bread. Throughout 
 Germany the licence of war and the misery consequent on famine 
 and pestilence had so utterly destroj^ed the morality which was 
 once the pride and boast of this land, that the people, a few years 
 before the most simple and kind-hearted in Europe, now vied witli 
 the foreign mercenaries who infested their country in setting at 
 nought the laws of God as well as of men. " Germany," says 
 Betkius, in his ' Excidium Germanise,' " lieth in the dust. 
 Shame is her portion, and poverty and sickness of heart. The 
 rurse of God is on her, because of her cruelties, and blasphemie-«, 
 
A.D. 1639. DEATH OF BERNARD OF SAXE WEHIAR. 341 
 
 and bloodshed. Ten tliousand times ten tliousand souls, the 
 spirits of innocent children butchered in this unholy war, cry day 
 and night luito God for vengeance, and cease not : whilst those 
 M ho have caused all these miseries live in peace and freedom ; 
 and the shouts of revelry and the voice of music are heard in their 
 dwellings." 
 
 Ferdinand was succeeded on the imperial throne by his son 
 Ferdinand III. Towards the end of this year (1637) Bernard 
 of Saxe AYeimar a second time visited Paris, and being supported 
 by the confidential agent of Oxenstiern (the renowned Hugo 
 Grotius, then an exile from Holland) succeeded in obtaining 
 from the French government a sum of money sufficient to pacify 
 his starving soldiery, who were committing horrible ravages in 
 Champagne. In the following year the Protestants made them- 
 selves masters of the strong fortress of Breisach, during the siege 
 of which Bernard, although lying sick of a fever, sprang from his 
 bed, and mounting his charger, put to flight a body of the enemy 
 who M'ere coming to the relief of the place. Bernard's last hour 
 was now approaching ; and he seems to have had a melancholy 
 foreboding of his death. '• I am weary of my life," said he, after 
 his soldiers, contrary to his express commands, had plundered 
 a to\\'n which had fallen into his hands, " for I can no longer 
 continue with a safe conscience amidst such lawless proceedings." 
 And when the people thronged to pay homage to him on the 
 road, he exclaimed, '•' I fear it will be with me as it was with the 
 King of Sweden — as soon as the people honoured him more 
 than God, he died." A few days later he was seized with an 
 incurable illness, which he himself believed to be the effect of 
 poison. They brought him by easy stages to Neuburg, where 
 he died on the 8th July, 1639. " Germany," writes Grotius, 
 '• lost in him her ornament and her last hope ; in a word, almost 
 the only man who was worthy the name of a German prince." 
 Rumour almost miiversally attributed his death totheFiench; 
 although there were not wanting some Avho accused the Emperor 
 of having poisoned him, and a few who believed that he died of 
 fever. Thus was the Protestant cause a second time deprived of 
 its head. Like his great master Gustavus Adolphus, Bernard 
 died in the flower of his age, and was followed like him to the 
 grave by the lamentations of those whom he had so often led to 
 victory. In person he was well formed, with long hair flowing 
 over his shoulders in a manner v/hich would have given liim an 
 
342 nrsTORY of Germany. Chap. l. 
 
 appearance of effeminacy, but for tlie expression of liis marked 
 and sun-burnt features. Relig-ion and war v/ere the occupations 
 of liis blfe. Every day he devoted several hours to the study of 
 the BilDle, which he knev/ ahnost by lieart. Only two regiments 
 of his army wore uniforms ; the rest were dressed in such clothes 
 as they could obtain, and presented a wild and motley appear- 
 ance. On their standard they bore the inscription " perque 
 enses perque ignes," (through sword and fire) — or, " fortiter 
 agere et pati Bernardinum est " (to do and to suffier bravely is 
 the part of Bernard's followers). They carried their swords 
 always naked, having no sheath for them, as we are told, but the 
 bodies of their enemies. After Bernard's death the war was 
 carried on for nine years longer, during which Generals Banner, 
 Torstenson, and Wrangel succeeded one another in command of 
 the Protestant army, and the imperial general Gallas was re- 
 placed by a renegade Calvinist named Melander von Holzapfel. 
 The last event of this long and disastrous war was the taking of 
 Prague by the Swedish general Konigsmark. On the 24th of 
 October, 1648, articles of peace were signed at Miinster and 
 Osnabriick in "Westphalia. The Emperor agreed to pay the 
 Sv/edes five millions of dollars as an indemnification for the 
 expenses of the war, and to deliver up to them the bishoprics of 
 Bremen and Verden, the island of Rligen, and the greater part 
 of Pomerania. The French were to continue in possession of 
 Metz, Toul, and Verdun, and the whole of Alsace, except Stras- 
 burg and the imperial cities in that country, instead of which 
 they were to occupy Breisach, and the fortress of Philipsburg, 
 the keys of Upper Germany. Peace was at the same time con- 
 cluded between Spain and Holland, and the independence of the 
 United Provinces fully recognised. Romanists and Protestants 
 were now placed in all respects on an equal footing. All eccle- 
 siastical property v/hich had been apropriated by Protestants was 
 to remain in their hands. The Emperor conceded this point, 
 partly because it would have been hopeless to oppose it, and 
 partly because he began himself to be aware of the advantages to 
 be gained by robbing the church of her possessions. The Lu- 
 tlierans and Calvinists had now the good sense to lay aside their 
 disputes, and to obtain the abrogation of that foolish and wicked 
 law which would compel ever}^ subject to follow the religion of 
 his sovereign. Thus terminated the Thirty Years' War, during 
 which the best and bravest of the land had flillen victims to the 
 
Sup. CiiAr. L. RELIGION. 343 
 
 ami)ition of tlieir own princes, or died in fighting against the 
 oppressors of their country. It was reckoned that half the popu- 
 lation of Germany had perished in the war. In Saxony 900,000 
 men were destroyed in two years. The population of Augsburg 
 was reduced from 80,000 to 18,000, and so in proportion through- 
 out the country. Meanwhile commerce and manufactures had 
 been transferred to more favoured lands; whilst true religion, 
 political freedom, and the arts of civilization were almost totally 
 destroyed. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER L. 
 
 Religion. — More than two centuries had now passed away 
 since the first attempt was made to reform the Church of Eome. 
 The greater portion of that long period had been occupied in 
 fierce struggles between the advocates of religious liberty, and 
 those who would regulate according to their own depraved views 
 the intercourse of man with his God. The cause of truth seemed 
 at length to have triumphed over its enemies; yet tlie results 
 were far different from those anticipated by the courageous 
 reformers who had cheerfully renounced ease and reputation, 
 and even life itself, for Christ's sake and the Gospel's. The 
 northern part of Europe had indeed been brought out of dark- 
 ness into comparative light : but the clouds of superstitious error 
 lowered as murkily as ever over the fair regions of the south. 
 Even the reformed churches were distracted by differences of 
 belief and practice, which gave birth to incessant wranglings. 
 The Protestants, it is true, rarely burnt at the stake those who 
 differed from them on religious questions ; but they stained their 
 hands in the blood of helpless old women, whom their half- 
 enlightened understandings condemned for unlawful intercourse 
 with the powers of darkness. — Still much was gained by the 
 establishment of man's right to learn from the Creator's ov^^n 
 word the terms on which eternal life is promised, facilitated as 
 the study of the Bible has been by the invention of printing, and 
 the translation of the sacred writings into the languages of 
 modern Europe. The South remained, as we have seen, subject 
 to the see of Rome : Germany was partly Lutheran and partly 
 Romanist; whilst in Holland as well as in all tlie Protestant 
 cantons of Switzerland, the dominant religion was that of Zwingli 
 and Calvin. Sweden, Norway, and Denmark Avere Lutheran, 
 
344 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. L. 
 
 France Eomanist, with a numerous party belonging to the 
 Reformed or Calvinistic faith. The Scotch embraced, generally- 
 speaking, the tenets of Calvin, with still more severe simplicity 
 in the forms of public worship. In England the usurped autho- 
 rity of the Pope and the errors of Romanism were renounced 
 without altogether abandoning that Catholic discipline which we 
 believe to have been derived from the Apostles. 
 
 Manners and Customs. — In the manners and domestic habits 
 of the people, great changes had taken place. The old German 
 vice of drunkenness still remained ; but the wines drunk were now 
 generally imported from abroad : the tables of the A\'ealthy were 
 also furnished with the most luxurious dishes and the richest fo- 
 reign sauces. In the time of Charles V. the Spanish garb became 
 fashionable, but was afterwards supplanted by that of France. 
 That the style of dress in those days w^as somewhat preposterous 
 may be collected from the old German writers. One of them, a 
 divine, thus addresses his congregation from the pulpit : " Your 
 long frizzled hair looketh as if young cats had been sucking it, or 
 as if the devil had dragged them through it by their tails. Out of 
 the broad, stiff ruff, sticketh a long, lean, scraggy neck: and for 
 your sleeves I can compare them to nothing but the bread-bag of 
 a Landsknecht." To this quaint apparel was superadded a pair 
 of what were called trunk hose ; a sort of trowsers, which were 
 often so extravagantly ornamented, that a pair of them cost the 
 year's rent of several villages. 
 
 The amusements of the people were sporting, shooting at the tar- 
 get, games of tennis, skittles, cards and dice, and theatrical exhibi- 
 tions, which were introduced, or at least greatly improved, by Hans 
 Sachs. Among the Romanists religious processions were in high 
 favour. We are told that at an exhibition of this kind given by 
 AYilliam, Duke of Bavaria, in 1580, on Corpus Christi-day, all 
 the saints of the Old and New Testament appeared dressed in 
 character. Adam and Eve were nearly in a state of nature — St. 
 Augustine wore a superb pair of whiskers. There were also six- 
 teen Maries, of whom the most beautiful stood under a canopy of 
 clouds, with the moon beneath her feet. The procession was closed 
 by a group of Scribes and Pharisees, gods of Olympus, hangmen, 
 shepherds, giants, and Pharaohs. In such disturbed times the 
 fine arts were but indifferently cultivated. Albert Diirer, Holbein, 
 Cranach, and a few others were distinguished as painters. In 
 architecture the old German style had generally given place to 
 
Sui'. CllAP. L. INCREASE IN i'HE NUMBER OF ELECTORS. 345 
 
 the Italian. Music uas chiefly cultivated by Italian artists m 
 the imperial chapel at Vienna : although tlie exertions made by 
 Luther to improve the choirs in the Protestant churches were l)y 
 no means unsuccessful. During the progress of the Reformation, 
 the German language underwent a complete revolution. Lu- 
 ther's translation of the Bible, his hymns and sermons, all in that 
 tongue, liaving prepared the way for its general adoption by the 
 learned in tlie place of Latin, the dialect wliich he spoke (that of 
 tlie province of Meissen) became the foundation of the High 
 German or language of literature. Popular poetry was culti- 
 vated by the master-minstrels (Meistersanger) who formed guilds 
 in the cities, and made a trade of versification, and the Christmas 
 and Shrovetide mummeries. A better style was introduced dur- 
 ing the Thirty Years' War by Martin Opitz, and his contem- 
 poraries, Paul Gerhard (a sacred poet of great eminence), and 
 Paul Flemming. In astronomy, Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, and 
 Kepler were distinguished. Fifteen new universities were founded 
 between 1500 and 1623 : yet the absurd sciences of alchymy and 
 astrology, and the belief in the philosopher's stone, revelation 
 by dreams, and witchcraft, flourished as much as before. In the 
 beginning of the seventeenth century Valentine Andrea founded 
 the sect of the Rosicrucians, who chiefly followed the wild al- 
 chymical dreams of Paracelsus. ^Ye have also a long list of 
 chroniclers and writers of satirical poetry, none of whom are 
 worthy of particular notice. Watches began to be manufactured 
 in great quantities at Nuremberg in the sixteenth century. They 
 were called Nuremberg eggs. Homelius made a curious astro- 
 nomical clock for Ciiarles V. The telescope and microscope were 
 invented by Zacharias Jansen at Middelburg in the year 1590. 
 The first German newspaper was printed ut Frankfort on the 
 Main, in 1645. Lotteries were established in 1520 ; the spinning- 
 wheel was invented in 1530 by Jiirgen of Brunswick, and the 
 air-pump in 1650. 
 
 Increase in the number of Electors. — At the peace of AYest- 
 phalia the Palatine of the Rhine was re-admitted to the privileges 
 of which he had been unjustly deprived in 1623, and the Duke of 
 Bavaria being at the same time allowed to retain his electoral hat, 
 with the Upper Palatinate, the number of electors was increased 
 to eight. 
 
 Hugo Grotius. — Hugh de Groot, commonly called Hugo 
 Grotius, was born at Delft in Holland, on the lOtli of April, 
 
346 HISTORY OF GEKMAKY. OuAP. L. 
 
 1583, and in 1613 was made one of the Syndics of Rotterdam. 
 Being brought to trial for his political conduct, he was condemned 
 to imprisonment for life, but escaped through the contrivance of 
 his wife, who conveyed him out of prison in a chest which had 
 been carried into his room full of books. He resided a long time 
 ill France under the protection of Richelieu. In 1634 Grotius 
 entered into the service of Sweden, and was appointed Swedish 
 minister at the French court. Travellino; throuo-h Holland on 
 his journey back to Stockholm, he was received with enthusiasm 
 by his countrymen, who now regTetted "having driven him from 
 liis native land. Grotius died at Rostock in Pomerania on the 
 28th of August, 1645. Few men have united such various 
 talents. As a lawyer his works on the law of nations, and 
 particularly on maritime law, deserve great praise ; and his com- 
 mentary on the Old Testament, and essay ' De Veritate Reli- 
 gionis Christianae,' place him in a high rank among theologians. 
 His poetical works in Latin and Dutch have also been greatly 
 admired. 
 
A.D. 1G48. 
 
 FERDINAND III. 
 
 347 
 
 CHAPTER LI. 
 
 FEllDINAJsD 111. — LEOPOLD I. — PEACE OF AIX-LA-CnArL;LLE.-— PEACE 
 OF NIMEGUEN. 
 
 From A.D. 1G48 to 1078. 
 ^^ ^^ ^^ ^^ \\ 
 
 The Imixrial Hall at Frankfort. 
 
 The century wnicn succeeded the peax3e of Westphalia has been 
 called " le siecle de Louis Quatorze," from the prominent posi- 
 tion occupied by that luxurious tyrant, and the consequent 
 influence of French example on the political as well as moral 
 character of other states. "It is, alas! but too notorious," 
 says an honest German writer of that day, '' that ever since the 
 French devil hath possessed us Germans a sore change hath taken 
 place in our way of living, our manners and usages. Formerly 
 the French were held cheap by us, but now-a-days everything 
 must be French — French speech, French clothes, French dishes, 
 French furniture, French dances, French diseases: and I fear 
 me, French death, as a necessary consequence of the same ; for 
 nothing better can be expected from the excesses in which we 
 indulge." The brilliant court of Louis XIV. was the school 
 at which the nobles of Germany acquired the art of squandering 
 in shameless luxury the gold which it taught them to wring from 
 the hard hands of an impoverished and broken-spirited peasantry. 
 Young men were sent thither to complete their education, and 
 
348 HISTOUY OF GERMANY. Chap. LJ. 
 
 returned to their own country, each fully determined to play the 
 part of a Louis on the small stage which Providence had assigned 
 to him. In Saxony, which had been impoverislied and well-nigh 
 depopulated during the Thirty Years' War, the Elector John 
 George II. remodelled his court on a scale of splendour which 
 for a time rivalled that of Versailles. A numerous and w^ell- 
 appointed body-guard, attendants in gorgeous uniforms, luxurious 
 banquets, hunting parties, theatrical exhibitions, operas (a luxury 
 wliich it had been lately the fashion to import at an enormous 
 expense from Italy), regattas, and displays of fireworks on the 
 Elbe, collections of rarities and cabinets of art, exhausted tlie 
 electoral treasury, and at last reduced the nation to bankruptcy. 
 In Bavaria the Elector built the palaces of Schleisheim and 
 Nymphenburg, in imitation of Versailles and Marly, and gave 
 entertainments in the French style. In Brunswick-Liineburg 
 the sovereign carried his affection for foreign artists so far as to 
 make his Italian singing-master his prime minister. Frederick 
 AYilliam of Brandenburg, whom the people always called the 
 Great Elector, was, by his political and military abilities, his true 
 German feelings, and the purity of his character, an honourable 
 exception from this herd of depraved princes. At the imperial 
 court the old Spanish etiquette still reigned with absolute sway. 
 Ferdinand III. was succeeded by his son Leopold in 1657, in 
 spite of the intrigues and bribery of Louis XIV., who had ex- 
 pended an enormous sum in corrupting the Electors. Leopold, 
 surnamed " The Thicklipped," had been originally educated for 
 the priesthood; and when, on the death of his elder brother, 
 he emerged from the cloister, his habits and demeanour were 
 more monkish than princely — cold, reserved, and solemn, he ex- 
 hibited to the casual observer an appearance of wdsdom which ill- 
 accorded with the contemptible weakness of his political conduct. 
 " What a pity," said a music-master, whom his performance on 
 the violin had thrown into a paroxysm of delight, " what a pity 
 that your majesty is a king, and not a fiddler !" It wdll readily 
 be understood that such an Emperor, endued by nature with a 
 very moderate share of ability, weak of purpose, and only eighteen 
 years of age, could offer but a feeble resistance to the machina- 
 tions of Louis, who had concluded with the Electors of Mentz 
 and Cologne, the Bishop of Miinster, and other princes, an alli- 
 ance called the Ehenish Confederacy, the avowed object of which 
 was the maintenance of the Westphalian peace, although it was 
 
A.D. JG71. LEoroLi) I. 349 
 
 well known that the real intention of the French king was to 
 insulate the Emperor, and thus prevent any interference witli 
 those operations in the Netherlands which were intended as a 
 prelude to an attempt on the imperial crown itself. Frederick 
 AYilliam of Brandenburg alone, immediately after the conclusion 
 cf tliis ill-omened alliance, protested against it in the following 
 proclamation addressed to the people of Germany: — "Country- 
 men ! your native land has been sorely misguided under the pre- 
 tence of religion and freedom. We have sacrificed our blood, 
 our honour, and our name, and received nothing in return but 
 the privilege of serving foreign nations, who now enjoy the lofty 
 reputation wiiicli once was ours. What are the Ehine, the Elbe, 
 the Weser, the Oder — but prisoners in the hands of our enemies? 
 and our freedom and our religion, what are they, but the play- 
 tliings of haughty and insulting foreigners?" He concludes by 
 calling on his countrymen to assist the Poles, then tlneatened by 
 the Swedish king, Cliarles Gustavus, and support tlicm as one of 
 the '"outworks" of the German Empire. MeauMhile Louis had 
 conciliated Holland by a promise of sharing with her the fruits 
 of his conquests in the Spanish Netherlands ; but scarcely had a 
 French army under Marshal Turenne taken possession of that 
 countr}^, when the Dutch recollected that a weak neighbour like 
 Spain was less dangerous than their new allies; and forming a 
 triple alliance with England and Sweden, compelled Louis to 
 conclude a peace at Aix-la-Chapelle, by the terms of which he 
 was allow^ed to retain twelve Netherlandish toAvns. — (a. d. 1668.) 
 This compact was soon broken by Louis, who sought to ruin 
 Holland by withdrawing her allies. The Dutch, who might 
 easily have made head against him, were now exhausting their 
 resources in struggles with England for the supremacy of the 
 seas. Ever since the year 1650 the country had been ruled by 
 the republican party, at the head of which was the famous De 
 Witt. During Cromwell's usurpation the Dutch republic had 
 made peace with England ; but no sooner was Charles II. re- 
 stored than the clashing interests of the two nations again brought 
 on a war, which continued until the year 1667. In 1671 Louis, 
 who had persuaded the Emperor and Ciiarles II. to join him, 
 entered Holland with an army of 200,000 men. At the same 
 time the warlike Bishop of Miinster invaded the country on the 
 opposite side. The Dutch, not anticipating such an attack, had 
 allowed their fortified places to become ruinous, and could hardlj 
 Gy. X 
 
350 HISTORY OF GERMANY. CiTAP. LI. 
 
 bring 20,000 men into the field. As a necessary consequence, 
 town after town fell into the hands of the French, but the brave 
 determination of the Zealanders (who pledged themselves to 
 fight under the Prince of Orange, and if all were lost to yield to 
 the English rather than the French) revived the drooping 
 courage of their countrymen. De Witt was reproached \^dth 
 having suffered their fortresses to fall into decay, and his life 
 attempted by an assassin, who inflicted a severe wound. Mean- 
 while the partisans of William of Orange, then in his twentj^- 
 second year, were rousing the nation with the cry of " Oranije 
 boven," Up ivith Orange. Hats were decorated with orange- 
 coloured ribbons, and on every tower waved a banner with the 
 inscription — 
 
 Up ^nth Orange, do\rn with Witt ; 
 Him Avho says uay, may thunder split. =•' 
 
 At the same time the dykes were cut, and many acres of rich 
 land inundated, in order to wash away, as they phrased it, the 
 French pollution from the free soil of Holland. At Coeverden 
 the dyke gave way and drowned 1400 of the bishop's soldier,^'. 
 During these proceedings Louis quitted Holland, leaving Tu- 
 renne with a force which could only act as an army of observa- 
 tion. The immediate cause of this movement was the withdrawal 
 of the Emperor from the French alliance and the sending of a 
 German army to co-operate with the Dutch. Meanwhile the 
 city of Amsterdam was the scene of a bloody tragedy. John 
 de Witt, scarcely recovered from his wound, was murdered with 
 his brother Cornelius by a furious mob, who cut their bodies in 
 pieces and sold the mangled remains to the partisans of Orange. 
 In the year 1673 Louis returned in person to Holland, deter- 
 mined to put an end to the war. In this cayipaign the most 
 atrocious acts of barbarity were perpetrated by the French 
 soldiers, who drove the unfortunate peasants barefoot tlu'ough the 
 snow or buried them up to the neck in ice. Women were hung 
 up by the hair of their heads and served as targets ; and one poor 
 old creature had a cat fastened to her body which tore her to 
 pieces, amidst shouts of ferocious merriment. The fail of Ghent 
 and Ypres, and a severe check received by William of Orange 
 near St. Omer, disposed the Dutch to listen to proposals of 
 
 * Oranije boveu, en Witt onder : 
 Die' et anders meent, sla de donder. 
 
A.D. 1G80. CHRISTINA OF SWEDEN. 351 
 
 peace,* which was concluded at Nimegueii in the year 1678, oii 
 terms not very creditable to the Spaniards, who were compelled 
 to yield possession of Burgundy and the twelve frontier towns 
 of the Netherlands. The following year the Elector of Bran- 
 denburg, who had been fighting successfully against the Swedes, 
 was obliged to restore all the places which he had Avon in Pome- 
 rania, because the Emperor, prompted by the French, had de- 
 clared that he would have no new Vandal kings on the shores of 
 the Baltic. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER LI. 
 
 Christina of Siceden. — Christina, the daughter of Gustavus 
 Adolphus, became a Romanist, and abdicated in the year 1654 
 in favour of Prince Gustavus of Zweibriicken-Birkenfeld, who 
 had gained the affections of the Swedes during the Thirty Years' 
 War. After his death in 1667 Christina made an ineffectual 
 attempt to resume the crown. 
 
 CHAPTER LII. 
 
 THE BEUKION CHA FIBERS. — DEATH OF THE GREAT ELECTOE. — PEACE 
 OF RTSWICK. 
 
 Erom A.D. 1680 to 1697, 
 
 The peace of Kimeguen, concluded under circumstances so 
 favourable to France, imtated, instead of satisfying, the ambi • 
 tious longings of Louis XIV. In the insolence of his triumph, 
 he caused a statue to be cast, representing himself in the attitude 
 of a conqueror, treading under foot four slaves loaded witli 
 fetters, and severally distinguished by the emblems of Germany, 
 Spain, Holland, and Brandenburg : and commanded an ingenious 
 mechanician to construct a timepiece, in which a cock (Gallus) 
 crowed the hours, whilst an eagle, the emblem of Germany, was 
 made to quake and tremble at the sound. This outbreak of 
 childish exultation was soon followed by an act of more suli- 
 stantial wrong. Suddenly, and without any previous hint of Ins 
 
 * Charles II. of England Lad been compelled by his parliament to re- 
 nounce the French alliance, and make peace with the Dutch in 1673. 
 
352 HIST OK Y OF GERMANY. Chap. Lll. 
 
 design, Louis announced to the Emperor tliat he required the 
 restitution of all cities which liad at any time belonged to the 
 German provinces now incorporated with France, and appointed 
 boards of commissioners, called the " Reunion Chambers," to 
 make diligent search among the ancient records of Burgundy and 
 Alsace. Having received their report, Louis at once took pos- 
 session of seignories, convents, and abbeys, many of which had 
 been separated for more than a thousand years from the provinces 
 to which he now sought to reunite them. 
 
 The intelligence of this atrocious act sj)read consternation 
 througliout the Empire : but while, with the phlegmatic slowness 
 proper to their race, the members of the Germanic diet continued 
 to sit in deliberation at Eatisbon, their active and unscrupulous 
 assailant followed up his first measures by a stroke of still more 
 daring insolence. Among all the cities on the Rhine none con- 
 tained inhabitants more thoroughly German in language, in 
 manners, and in feelings than the great commercial town of 
 Strasburg : but a liberal distribution of French gold having 
 secured for Louis a party among the magistrates, one G (Inzer, 
 who, on account of his acquaintance with the French language, 
 had long been employed as the medium of communication be- 
 tween Louis and liis German partisans, was commissioned to 
 organize a conspiracy within the Malls ; whilst the French troops 
 were advanced cautiously and silently nearer and nearer to the 
 town. At length in the month of September, 1680, when most 
 of the substantial citizens were absent at the fairs, which are held 
 at Frankfort and other towns at that season of the year, the place 
 was suddenly summoned to surrender. After a feeble resistance 
 (for the defenders were few and dispirited, and their weapons, 
 through the foresight of Giinzer, in an unserviceable condition), 
 Strasburg, the seat of German learning, and the centre of her 
 manufacturing industry, fell into the hands of the French, none 
 daring to protest against the surrender except one old man, and 
 he a tailor. The gates being thrown open, Louis at the head of 
 a splendid train of knights and courtiers entered the town, and 
 bowed to receive the blessing of tlie bishop, who blasphemously 
 adapted to this occasion the language of Simeon, " Lord, now 
 lettest thou thy servant depart in peace, according to thy word : 
 for mine eyes have seen thy salvation." A strong French 
 garrison was placed in the town, and thousands of M-oikmen em- 
 ployed in strengthening the fortifications, so that in a few weeks 
 
A.D. leSi. Till': REUNION CHAMBERS. 353 
 
 Strasbur^ \vas in a condition to bid defiance to any force which 
 tlie Emperor might bring against it. The great minster, which 
 had long been used for Protestant worship, was given up to the 
 bishop ; all Protestant functionaries suspended from tiieir offices 
 the Lutheran clergy driven from the city, and their flocks com- 
 pelled to wander fortli in search of that protection which the con- 
 queror refused to grant, although the maintenance of Protestantism 
 was the condition on which they had consented to surrender the 
 place. French names were given to the streets, and the inha- 
 bitants commanded, under heavy penalties, to lay aside the Ger- 
 man costume, and adopt the newest fashions of France. The 
 princes and cities drew up a protest, which Brandenburg, still 
 smarting under his wrongs, refused to sign : and the Turks having 
 about the same time invaded Austria and threatened the Emperor 
 in his capital, nothing remained for a man of Leopold's feeble 
 temper but to conclude a discreditable peace, by which he yielded 
 to France all the possessions claimed by the report of the " Re- 
 union Chambers," with the addition of Luxemburg and the city 
 of Strasburg. Had Brandenburg been true to his country, or 
 Leopold possessed tlie firmness and sagacity of Charles V. Ger- 
 many would have been spared this foul disgrace. '^ I swear " 
 said Charles, '' that if the French were before Strasburg, and the 
 Turks at the gate of Vienna, I would leave Vienna to its fate, 
 and march to the relief of Strasburg." Leopold chose the oppo- 
 site course, and inflicted a wound on Germany which rankles to 
 the present hour in the hearts of her patriots. Whilst Louis was 
 thus employed in the west, his emissaries were labouring success- 
 fully to raise a storm which should burst on tlie Empire from its 
 eastern frontier. Leopold's own violence soon brought on the 
 crisis. A conspiracy of the nobles having been discovered in 
 Hungary, all the leaders were put to death : and before men's 
 minds were well recovered from the surprise and terror into 
 which this act of severity had thrown tiiem, two hundred and 
 fifty Lutheran ministers were summoned to Presburg to be tried 
 on a similar charge, and sold as galley-slaves to the Neapolitans, 
 although no evidence of their guilt had been brought forwards. 
 The people, thus deprived of their pastors, and persecuted beyond 
 endurance by the Jesuits, broke out into rebellion, and in their 
 despair invoked the assistance of the Turks, who, yielding at 
 last to the unwearied solicitations of the French emissaries, con- 
 sented to send 280,000 men into Hungary under tlie conmiand of 
 
 X 3 
 
354 HISTORY OF GERMANY. CnAP. LTI. 
 
 their grand vizier Kara Mustapha. A panic ^vent before this 
 overwhelming force, whicli advanced almost without opposition 
 to the very walls of Vienna, the Hmigarians, under Tekeli, taking 
 the left bank of the Danube, and Kara Mustapha the right. The 
 city was on the point of surrendering after a siege of two months, 
 when the commandant Count Stahrenberg ordered, as a last re- 
 source, a flight of rockets to be let off from the tower of St. Ste- 
 phen's church. A few moments of anxious suspense followed, 
 and then a bright flame shooting upwards from the mountain of 
 Kahlenberg announced to the besieged that succour was at hand. 
 The Emperor had assembled a force more rapidly than he had 
 anticipated, and was now advancing with a large army of Ger- 
 mans and Poles, under the command of the Polish King John 
 Sobieski. So ignorant were the Turks of military tactics, that 
 they had neglected to occupy the passes, and were in consequence 
 surprised by the imperial forces, and utterly defeated, their artil- 
 lery, baggage, and treasure, with the whole correspondence be- 
 tween Louis XIV. and the Grand Vizier, falling into the hands 
 of the conqueror. The following day the King of Poland en- 
 tered Vienna amidst the acclamations of the citizens, whom his 
 valour had saved from death or slavery : but the Emperor, with 
 the mean jealousy which belonged to his character, received him 
 with insulting coldness, and refused to provide quarters for his 
 army. No sooner was the Empire delivered from the Turks 
 than Leopold suffered the full weight of his vengeance to fall on 
 the devoted Hungarians, hundreds of whom were imprisoned, 
 tortured, and put to death by sentence of a court called, from its 
 atrocious cruelty, the '• Shambles of Eperies." The right of 
 electing their own king was at the same time taken from the 
 Hungarians, and the crown made hereditary in the family of 
 Habsburg. Meanwhile Louis XIV. Avas straining every nerve 
 to obtain the Palatinate, vacant by the death of the Palatine 
 Lewis, a mild and tolerant prince, whose life had been passed in 
 ineffectual attempts to reconcile the conflicting religious parties. 
 The German princes formed a confederacy for the purpose of 
 resisting this aggression, but all remained tranquil until the year 
 1688, when a trifling accident fired the train. It is said that 
 Louis, whilst inspecting the building of one of his castles, dis- 
 covered a fault in the construction of a w indow, for which he 
 rated liis minister of war Louvois so roundly, that the minister, 
 anticipating an mieasy life if tlie active mind of his master were 
 
A.D. 1G92. DEATH OF THE GREAT ELECTOR. 355 
 
 allowed to employ itself in trifles, resolved to find liim more 
 serious occupation, and proposed a fresh war with Germany. 
 Louis readily adopted the suggestion, and commenced the cam- 
 paign by sending an army into the Palatinate under General 
 Melac, who burnt Worms, Mannheim, Oppenheim, Baden, and 
 many other towns, and violated the tombs of the German Empe- 
 rors at Spires. The inhabitants were treated with the most 
 brutal and relentless cruelty. In the spring of this year the 
 *• Great Elector," Frederick William of Brandenburg, died. 
 For many months he had been suffering severely from dropsy, 
 which at last reached such a heiglit as to baffle all medical skill. 
 Feeling that death was near, he summoned his son and counsellors 
 to his chamber, and solemnly bade them farewell. He had carried 
 on many wars, he said, had suffered care and anxiety himself, and 
 inflicted grievous ills on other men ; " but God knoweth," con- 
 tinued the dying man, "in wJiat a state I found the country at 
 my father's death, and what 1 have done for it." He then ex- 
 horted his son to follow his example, to act circumspectly, be 
 always prepared to defend his native land, to love his subjects, 
 and listen to the suggestions of his faithful counsellors. Having 
 thus set his house in order, the Great Elector died in peace on 
 the 29th of April, having governed Brandenburg and Prussia 
 eight and forty years, and laid the foundation of one of the 
 mightiest European powers. So universal was the feeling of 
 alarm excited in Germany by the intrigues of French agents, 
 that it was resolved, at a diet held at Ratisbon, to prohibit all in- 
 tercourse with France : and at the same time, in order to make 
 the confederation of German princes more firm and united, the 
 Emperor created a ninth Elector in the person of Ernest Augustus 
 Duke of Brunswick-Hanover.* Germany, England, and Spain 
 then formed an alliance, and declared war against France : but 
 little was done until the year 1690, when the DutcJi general 
 Waldeck was utterly routed by the Marshal de Luxembourg at 
 Fleurus ; and in the following year Namur was carried by storm, 
 and Liege bombarded. In 1692 AYilliam HI. of England, wlio 
 had just taken the command of the allies, sustained such a defeat 
 at Steenkirk as M'ould have tarnished his military reputation, but 
 
 * The Electoral College now consisted of the following members : — 
 Saxony, Braudeubi;rg, Hanover — Protestant ) Temporal 
 Bohemia, Bavaria, the Palatinate — Eomanist / Klectorp. 
 INIentz, Treves, Cologne— Sinritual Electors. 
 
356 HISTORY OF GERMANY, Chai-. Lll 
 
 for the masterly style in which his retreat was conducted : and 
 about the same time the French gratified their ferocious love of 
 mischief by blowing up the castle of Heidelberg. Hendersdorf, 
 the cowardly commandant of the place, was degraded from the 
 Teutonic Order, and drawn on a hurdle to the imperial camp, 
 where his sword was broken before his face by the common 
 executioner. At length a peace was concluded at Ryswick 
 (a.d. 1697) on terms sufficiently humiliating to the allies, the 
 French King being allowed to retain all his conquests except 
 Lorraine, the Palatinate, and Philipsburg. It is worthy of 
 remark that this treaty was drawn up in French instead of Latin, 
 the language hitherto employed in such instruments. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER LII. 
 
 Political Character of the Great Elector. — The measures of 
 the Elector, both in Brandenburg and Prussia, were exceedingly 
 arbitrary. Those who opposed his encroachments on the ancient 
 privileges of the nobles and burghers were arrested, and punished 
 with perpetual imprisonment or death. In Brandenburg base 
 money was coined, and heavy taxes imposed in order to raise 
 funds for the payment of his troops. The illiberality of the 
 Lutheran clergy w^ould have been some excuse for his severity 
 tow^ards them, had ho not himself been guilty of similar into- 
 lerance, in endeavouring to force on them his own (the reformed) 
 religion. Paul Gerhard, the renowned preacher and poet, chose 
 rather to go into exile than sign the articles which the Elector 
 sousylit to iiiiposG on the Prussian community. 
 
.D. 1700. WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION. 
 
 :^57 
 
 CHAPTER LIII. 
 
 WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION. — JOSEPH I. — CHART.ES VI. — PEACE 
 OF UTRECHT. 
 
 From A.D. 1700 to 1711. 
 
 
 Convent of MiJlk on the Danube— bnilt between 1707 nnd 1736. 
 
 It soon appeared that Louis had wished for peace in onier to 
 obtain a breathing-time, during which he might collect liis forces 
 for a fiercer struggle. In the year 1700 Cliarles II., King of 
 Spain, died witliout issue, bequeathing the whole of his inheritance 
 to the Prince of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV. As the crafty 
 Frenchman had anticipated, this bequest was disputed by the Em- 
 peror, who claimed the Spanish crown for his son, as being a 
 lineal descendant of Charles V., the first Spanish monarch of the 
 race of Habsburg. Of all tlie European nations the Spaniards 
 alone viewed the approaching struggle witli indifference, for to 
 them it was a matter of little moment under wliat task-master tiiey 
 were in future to groan. The rest sided with France or Germany 
 as their fears or their inclination dictated. England and Holland, 
 
358 HISTORY OF GERMANY, Chap. LIII. 
 
 the liereditary enemies of France, naturally supported the claims 
 of the Archduke Charles; whilst the Electors of Cologne and 
 Bavaria, the Dukes of Savoy and Mantua, and tlie Pope, declared 
 themselves favourable to Philip of Anjou. Tlie grant of an elec- 
 toral hat to Hanover had made that prince a firm ally of Austria. 
 Frederick III. of Brandenburg, son of the Great Elector, was 
 also conciliated by permission to assume the title of King of 
 Prussia. Saxony, although favourable to the Emperor, was too 
 much engaged with the Poles to take any part in the war. 
 William of England, who had visited the Continent for the pur- 
 pose of settling an alliance between Austria, England, and Hol- 
 land, died in 1702, and was succeeded in the command of the 
 army by John Churchill, Earl (afterwards Duke) of Marlborough, 
 the most renowned general of his timxC. The com.mand of the 
 Imperialists was given to Eugene of Savoy, who had served seve- 
 ral campaigns under the generals of Louis XIV., but, being dis- 
 gusted at his slow promotion, had entered the Imperial service, 
 where he rose so rapidly that in 1697 he was entrusted with a 
 force destined to act against the Turks in Hungary. Neither the 
 person nor costume of Prince Eugene had greatly improved since 
 the days when Louis XIV. nicknamed him his little '' Abbe." 
 An ill-made, shabby blue surtout, with large tarnished brat-s but- 
 tons, hung in folds about Ms meagre figure ; whilst his head, 
 loaded with one of the enormous wigs then in fashion, and sur- 
 mounted by a battered and napless cocked hat, seemed too heavy 
 for the little feeble body which sustained it : and as he rode through 
 the ranks, perched on a tall raw-boned charger, the soldiers could 
 scarcely conceal their laughter at his grotesque appearance. But 
 his personal bravery, the kindness of his manners, and above all 
 his attachment to the country of his adoption, soon rendered him 
 popular among the troops ; whilst his great and varied talents, 
 and the unspotted integrity of his life, procured him the unbounded 
 confidence of Leopold, who invested him witli an authority which 
 no commander-in-chief had been permitted to exercise since the 
 days of Wallenstein. The French opened the campaign in 1701, 
 in Italy, where their generals Catinat and Villeroi were totally 
 defeated by Prince Eugene. Meanwhile Marshal Boufflers, who 
 had entered the Netherlands with a French army, was kept in 
 check by Marlborough. In June, 1703, the Elector of Bavaria 
 entered the Tyrol at the head of 16,000 men, leaving Marshal 
 Villars to watch the movements of the Imperial army. Having 
 
A.u. 1704. WAU OF TJIK SPANISH SUCCESSION. 359 
 
 made themselves masters of Innsbruck, t]ie main body of tlie 
 Bavarians began to ascend the Brenner, leaving a detachment 
 under General Nouvion to follow up their advantages on the banks 
 of the Inn. As night closed in, a line of signal-fires announced 
 to the invaders that the people were on foot, and prepared to 
 oppose their progress. Still Nouvion's detachment continued 
 their march until tliey reached the broken bridge of Pontelao-j^nd 
 were endeavouring to ford the river, when a storm of bullets from 
 the Tyrolese marksmen (who took their aim with deadly accuracy 
 from behind the crags which concealed them from the enemy) 
 compelled the Bavarians first to halt, and then to retreat to the 
 bank which they had just quitted. Scarcely liad they reached 
 their foniier position when the mountains above them seemed to 
 burst asunder and discharge huge fragments of rock, which fell 
 with a terrible crash on the heads of the soldiers. A general 
 panic now seized the Bavarians, who fled in disorder towards the 
 bridge of Zams. But here also they found the bridge broken 
 dovrn and the river unfordable ; and being thus hemmed in on 
 every side, and finding resistance and fliglit equally impracticable, 
 they laid down their arms and surrendered to Martin Sterzinger, 
 the Tyrolese commander. Meanwhile the Elector, after retreat- 
 ing from the Brenner, had cut his way through the Tyrolese and 
 returned to Bavaria, with the loss of more than two-thirds of his 
 army. 
 
 The campaign of 1704 was opened with great spirit by the 
 allies. On the 13th of August the French were defeated at 
 Blenheim or Hochstildt by Prince Eugene and the Duke of Marl- 
 borough, who had given Marshal Yillars the slip, and effected a 
 junction with the prince. Out of 58,000 men 20,000 were slain, 
 and 15,000, includir.g the French commander. Marshal Tallard, 
 and 818 other officers, were taken prisoners. A rich military 
 chest, 117 pieces of cannon, 24 mortars, 300 stands of colours, 
 5300 waggons, 3600 tents, 330 laden mules, 34 coaches full of 
 ladies, and two floating bridges, fell into the hands of the allies ; 
 who, on their side, lost 12,000 men in killed, wounded, and 
 prisoners. For this service Marlborough was created a Prince of 
 the Empire, and presented with the estate of Mindelheim. TJie 
 following year Barcelona was taken by the Earl of Peterborough ; 
 but in the midst of a career of ^dctory almost unparalleled in history, 
 he was suddenly recalled and the command given to the Earl of 
 Gal way, who was shortly afterwards defeated and compelled to 
 
360 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. LIIL 
 
 abandon the whole of Spain, with the exception of Gibraltar, 
 which had been previously taken by the English Admiral Sir 
 George Rooke. Leopold died in the same year. Josepli I., who 
 had been elected King of the Romans during his father's lifetime, 
 succeeded as a matter of course to the Imperial throne. Prince 
 Eugene, now free from the trammels in which he had been held 
 by tJie government of the late Emperor, entered Italy, whicli he 
 compelled the French to evacuate, after defeating them at Turin. 
 In the Netherlands Marlborough pursued his career of victory, 
 defeating the French at Ramilies in 1706, and at Oudenaarde, in 
 conjunction with Prince Eugene, in 1708. They rallied, how- 
 ever, in the following year only to be overthrown at Malplaquet, 
 where tlie two great commanders carried into eifect the combiricd 
 movements which they had previously planned. In this battle 
 Eugene was wounded, but refused to quit the field. ''If I live 
 until the evening," said he, " it will then be time enough to dress 
 my wound." Marshal Villars was also wounded in the knee, but 
 continued to give his orders until faintness overj)owered him. 
 Louis XIV. now sued for peace ; but the allies, intoxicated, it 
 would seem, by their recent successes, refused to listen to any 
 terms of accommodation unless Louis pledged himself not oiily 
 to renounce his grandson, but to send an army into Spain to com- 
 pel his abdication. Tliis was an insult which the proud spirit of 
 the French monarch could not brook, and the negotiations were 
 broken off, never again to be renewed under circumstances so 
 favourable to the Germans. Marlborough had been driven from 
 the councils of Queen Anne, and the Tories, who succeeded him, 
 were by no means desirous that Cliarles VI. (now raised to the 
 Imperial throne by the death of his father in 1710) should wear, 
 like Charles V., the crowns of two iiiighty kingdoms. The 
 Dutch having also withdraM'n from the German alliance, the 
 two powers concluded a peace with the French at Utrecht. Whilst 
 the negotiations were pending Prince Eugene visited London, in 
 the hope of averting from his adopted country the evils to which 
 she ^^'ould be exposed if England left her to struggle alone. 
 But the sun of Marlborough had set, and Queen Anne, although 
 she received the illustrious stranger with every external mark of 
 honour, and presented him with a diamond-hilted sword, gave him 
 no encouragement to appear a second time at court. The com- 
 mon people alone greeted the liero of Turin and Malplaquet \vith 
 a hearty welcome, following him \vherever he went, and display- 
 
Sur. Chap. Lirr. OCCUPAXrON OF ULM. 3G1 
 
 ing- their courage and anti-Tory zeal in street skinnislies, dnring 
 one of which the nephew of Eugene lost his life. Altliongh 
 abandoned by 1^'ngland and Holland, tlie Empire might yet liave 
 made head against ihe French, and forced from them an advan- 
 tageous peace, but for the shameful want of unanimity winch dis- 
 graced the councils of her princes. In vain did Eugene implore 
 them to rise in a mass, like the brave Tyrolese, and crush their 
 enemies. " I stand," says he, in one of his letters, " like a sen- 
 tinel on the Rhine; and as mine eye wanders over those fair 
 regions, I think within myself how happy, and beautiful, and un- 
 disturbed in the enjoyment of Nature's gifts they miglit be, if 
 they possessed courage to use the strength which God hath given 
 them. With an army of 200,000 men I would engage to drive 
 the French out of Germany, and (as I once told the Elector of 
 Mentz) would forfeit my life if I did not obtain a peace which 
 should gladden all our hearts for the next twenty years. The 
 Elector only stared at me. Truly the days of Charlemagne are 
 past. AVe are more polished now, but I fear me in rubbing off 
 the roughness we have also got rid of the spirit and energy of the 
 olden times." After some discussion peace was concluded at 
 Baden in the year 1714. The peace of Utrecht was fully recog- 
 nized ; Philip retained Spain, and England Gibraltar, whilst 
 Charles YI. received as an indemnification all the Spanisl pos- 
 sessions in Italy (of which in point of fact he Mas already 
 master), Sardinia, the Netlierlands, and the fortresses of Kehl, 
 Friburg, and Breisach. The following year Austria exchanged 
 Sardinia for Sicily with the Duke of Savoy, who immediately 
 assumed the title of King of Sardinia. Frederick of Prussia 
 obtained Neufchatel, in Switzerland, as heir of its former possessor, 
 Marie de Nemours, a relation of the house of Brandenburg, 
 Thus ended the war of the Spanish succession, in which streams 
 of blood were shed, and millions of treasure squandered, with no 
 rcoult beyond that of placing the contending parties in nearly the 
 same position which they had occupied before it began. The 
 same year Louis XIV. and Queen Anne of England died. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER LIII. 
 
 Occupation of Ubn by the Elector Maximilian. — A pub- 
 lication of that day describes quaintly enougii the entry of 
 Maximilian into Ulni, Avhich liad previously admitted some 
 Gy. y 
 
362 HISTORY OF G]-:iJMAXY. Chap. LIII. 
 
 Bavarian officers in the disguise of peasant-girls. " His High- 
 ness came down in propria persona, mounted on a cropped grey 
 horse, in a red coat, and his hat slouched over his face. One 
 peasant started so at his Highness's aspect that he upset his 
 waggon in the middle of the street. Hardly had he reached the 
 Spittal-garden (where a butcher's man stopped the way with the 
 carcase of a dead cow, until the people with sundry blows and 
 thwacks compelled him to go on) when he was welcomed with a 
 salvo of artillery, which had like to have proved fatal to his 
 Highness, through two of the pieces being overladen. At the 
 hostelry of t-he Swan, the Bavarian officers drank the King of 
 France's health with loud acclamations, and such hearty goodwill, 
 that the street in front of the hostelry was strewed with fragments 
 of broken glasses. Mine hostess must perforce drink with them : 
 but she cried out ' Leopold for ever !' and flung the glass over 
 her head — and it remained unbroken ! Soon afterwards the 
 French entered the town and dealt with us far worse than the 
 Bavarians. One of their soldiers leaped into the pulpit where 
 the pastor Lomer was preaching, and woidd have wrested tlie 
 prayer-book out of his hands ; but Master Lomer, being a strong 
 man, did deal him such a cutf as sent him staggering into the 
 midst of the church, to the great delight and edification of the 
 people." 
 
 Charles XII. of Sweden. — The accession of Charles XII., a 
 lad of fifteen, was hailed by the enemies of Sweden as affording 
 them an opportunity of avenging the wrongs which they had 
 sustained at the hands of liis father and grandfather. No sooner 
 however did the intelligence of an alliance between Denmark, 
 Poland, and Russia reach the ears of the young monarch, than 
 he called together his council and addressed them in these 
 memorable words : — " I am resolved never to wage an unjust 
 war, and never to abandon a just one until I have utterly 
 destroyed my enemies." In the summer of 1700 Charles bom- 
 barded Copenhagen, and having forced the King to sue for peace, 
 marclied into Livonia, where he twice defeated the Czar of 
 Tvussia, Peter the Great. In the year 1707 (after a series of 
 victories over the Poles) he conceived the design of confronting 
 the Czar in the ver}^ centre of his dominions. But the Russian 
 armies, no longer the ill-disciplined and half-armed hordes whose 
 crowded ranks had been mowed down by the Swedes at Narva 
 and on the banks of the Dvxina, were now regularly exercised 
 
L.T>. 1720. lilSH OF THE KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA. 3GJ3 
 
 in the military manoeuvres of civilized Europe. TJie nucleus of 
 a fleet had also been created by tlie Czar, whose residence in Eji^. 
 land and Holland had given him a practical acquaintance with 
 naval architecture: and a fair city was rapidly covering- the 
 marsliy ground on tlie banks of the Neva, at an inconsiderable 
 distance from the Gulf of Finland, within the very frontier of 
 Sweden herself. On the 9tli .of July, 1709, the Swedisli army, 
 reduced by cold and hunger to eigliteen thousand men, was utterly 
 routed by an overwhelming Russian force at Pultawa in the 
 Ukraine. After a series of almost incredible hardships and 
 dangers, Charles reached the frontier of Turkey, and fixed liis 
 residence in the city of Bender, where he remained until the year 
 1714. On the 20th of December, 1715, he landed at Carls- 
 crona, having escaped in a small boat from Stralsund, which 
 he had been endeavouring to defend against the armies of Den- 
 mark and Prussia. Three years later he w^as slain by a cannon- 
 ball whilst reconnoitring the fortress of Frederichshall in Norway. 
 
 CHAPTER LIY. 
 
 r.ISE OF THE KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA, — FIIEDERICK I. 
 
 FIIEDERICK WILLIAM I. 
 
 The elevation of the electorate of Brandenburg to the rank of a 
 kingdom, as mentioned in the preceding chapter, w^as owing to tixe 
 vanity of Frederick III., the son of " the Great Elector." Yon 
 Kolbe, an artful and unprincipled favourite, who had ingratiated 
 iiimself with the elector by introducing to liim as a mistress his 
 own wife, the daughter of a publican at Emmerich, sought to 
 retain his favour by flattering his ruling passion. With this 
 \ iew he inspired his master with the idea of becoming a king, and 
 artfully excited his envy and ambition by citing the examples of 
 AVilliam of Orange, who had become king of England, and of 
 Augustus of Saxony, w^ho not long before had renounced liis 
 religion and accepted the crown of Poland. According to tJie 
 notions of that age, it was, however, impossible for Frederick, as 
 a })rince of the Empire, to become King of Brandenburg, though, 
 as Duke of Prussia, there was nothing to prevent his assuming 
 tlie royal dignity. But the matter was one of no small difficulty 
 
 Y 2 
 
364 HISTORY OF GEKMANY. CiiAP. LIY. 
 
 and labour. There was no precedent for the creation of so small 
 a kingdom ; and it was necessary that the new dignity should be 
 recognized not only by the Emperor, but by the surrounding 
 states. Kolbe, however, was indefatigable ; and by means of 
 bribes, in which he is said to have spent six millions of Prussian 
 dollars (or nearly a million sterling), at length succeeded in pro- 
 curing the desired honour. The- coronation of Frederick I. of 
 Prussia took place at Konigsberg in 1701. He placed the 
 crown on his own head, and afterwards on that of his queen. 
 Frederick, though deformed in person in consequence of a fall 
 when an infant from the arms of his nurse, was a great lover of 
 state and pageantry. The new court was as stiff and ceremonious 
 as that of Spain itself. The king surrounded his person with 
 Swiss guards, built a splendid palace at Berlin, and introduced 
 into that capital a taste for fine clotlies, luxury, and show. It was 
 these qualities which caused his grandson, the Great Frederick, to 
 characterize him as " great in little things, and little in great ones." 
 
 The erection of the Prussian kingdom, which, in the manner of 
 its origin, seemed only a piece of egregious and childish vanity, 
 was however in reality an important epoch in the history of 
 Germany. Prince Eugene had sagacity enough to foresee the 
 consequences to which it might lead ; and is said to have observed on 
 hearing that Austria had consented to it — " The Emperor ought 
 to hang the ministers who gave him such advice." Tlie present 
 age has witnessed the justness of this prediction, and has beheld 
 Prussia not only taking a first rank among the states of Europe, 
 but even ready to dispute ^^ath Austria the headship of the 
 German nation. The vanity of Frederick had at least the effect of 
 inciting his successors to render themselves worthy of their new 
 title. Nor was Frederick himself so deeply sensual and degraded 
 as many of his contemporary princes. He was not altogether un- 
 mindful of the future. He caused the Prussian army to be 
 improved by Prince Leopold of Anhalt-Dessau, Eugene's pupil 
 in the art of war. He showed an enlightened tolerance of liberal 
 opinions, which Protestantism had naturally fostered in northern 
 Germany, and favoured the efforts of Professor Thomasius to reform 
 the obsolete pedantry of the universities, as well as the manners 
 and customs of the age. 
 
 The frugal habits and prejudiced nationality of his son, Frede- 
 rick William L, contributed not a little, in spite of his eccentricity, 
 to augment tlie power and resources of Prussia. 
 
A.D. 1713. FREDERICK WIELIA]\[ I. 365 
 
 Frederick AVilliam I. was twenty-five years old when the death 
 of his father Frederick I. in 1713 jilaced him on the throne of 
 l*ru>;sia. His early education had been entrusted to a lady, 
 Madame de Rocoulles, to whom lie seems to have caused frequent 
 anxiety and terror by the darings recklessness of his character. 
 On one occasion, we are told, when the gouvernante threatened to 
 chastise him for some childish fault, Frederick ran to an open 
 window, and getting- astride on the ledge, swore that he would 
 throw himself into tlie court below, unless she promised to forgive 
 him. At six years of age he \vas placed under the tuition of 
 General von Dohna, a man of unblemished character and simple 
 manners, from whom he probably acquired the distaste for un- 
 necessary parade, and the hatred of Frenchmen, which were 
 distinguishing characteristics of his subsequent life. The pedantry 
 of his French tutor, Monsieur Rebeur, appears also to have en- 
 gendered in his mind a contempt for learned men, which after- 
 wards displayed itself in such practical jokes as dressing up his 
 monkey in academical robes, and placing a professor, who had 
 l)een carried drunk and helpless from the royal table, in bed 
 between two young bears. At a period when ignorance of the 
 French language and neglect of French fashions were grave 
 offences against the regulations of German society, it was curious 
 to observe the King of Prussia dressed in a plain dark blue 
 uniform with red facings, his head ornamented with a small bob- 
 wig instead of a French perruque, his sword by his side, and a 
 stout cane in his hand, abusing the courtiers for " spitting and 
 spluttering" French in his face. "I am no Frenchman," he 
 used to say, " I don't want to be a Frenchman — German is good 
 enough for me. — As soon as my children are born I will place a 
 sword and pistol in their cradles, that they may learn betimes to 
 drive these intruding foreigners out of Germany." 
 
 Almost the first act of his reign was the dismissal of some 
 hundreds of chamberlains, lacqueys, and pages, and the sale of all 
 the objects of taste and luxury, with M'hich the palaces were 
 crowded. So rigid was his economy, that only one bedchamber 
 woman was allowed to the Queen, who was obliged to secure the 
 services of a second attendant when she travelled, by concealing 
 her in the waggon which conveyed the pots and kettles of the 
 royal kitchen. The eflTect of these reductions was soon visible in 
 the improved state of the exchequer, wiiich enabled Frederick 
 AVilliam to found more than four hundred schools, an ()!-])han 
 
3G6 HISTORY OF GERMANY. ClIAP. LIY. 
 
 house for 2500 soldiers' children, and settlements for the French 
 Protestants who had sought an asylum in Prussia in the days of 
 the Great Elector, besides strengthening the fortresses of Magde- 
 burg, AVesel, Stettin, and Memel, and raising his favourite 
 residence of Potsdam from the rank of a village to that of a well- 
 built country town. 
 
 His subjects were expected to be as simple and frugal in their 
 habits as himself, and to contribute, according to their means, 
 towards the improvement of his capital. " That fellow is rich 
 —must build " was generally the form in which he signified his 
 pleasure that some wealthy citizen should employ his superfluous 
 treasure in the embellishment of Berlin. The hours which were 
 not devoted to public business, or the inspection of his troops, 
 were generally passed by Frederick AVilliam in strolling about 
 the streets: but he would tolerate no other idlers, and often 
 applied his heavy cane to the backs of fashionable loungers or 
 loitering workmen, whom he would chase from street to street, 
 until the unfortunate wretches half dead with pain and terror 
 fell at his feet and roared for mercy. " Why did you run away 
 from me, rascal ?" said he to a miserable Jew wlio had tried to 
 escape as soon as he saw the well-known blue uniform. " I was 
 afi-aid, an please your Majesty," replied the trembling culprit. 
 '' How da,re you be afraid. Sir?" retorted Frederick, raising his 
 cane and applying it vigorously to tlie man's head and shoulders ; 
 " do you not know, dolt, that I am the Father of my people, 
 and that I expect to be loved, and not feared?" Frederick's 
 notions of strict justice, although reasonable enough in them- 
 selves, were not always in accordance with the laws of his king- 
 dom, which he was accustomed to set aside with very little 
 scruple, whenever he disliked their provisions. A nobleman 
 had been condemned to close imprisonment in a fortress for some 
 act of gross extortion. " Nonsense," said the King, when the 
 sentence was submitted to liim for his approbation, " if a poor 
 starving wretch steals a few miserable dollars, you put him to 
 death ; but a fellow like this, who has ruined whole families by 
 his villany, must be spared, because he is noble forsooth — let his 
 lordship be hanged without delay." The \\Tetched criminal, 
 horror-struck at this irregular sentence, pleaded his privilege of 
 nobility, and offered to restore the money which he had taken. 
 " I want not thy rascally dollars," was the stern reply, " a noble 
 thief must be hanged like any other thief:" and within a few 
 
A.D. 1740. FUEI.KRICK WILTJAM L 307 
 
 hours tlie, sciiteiice was executed in front, of tlie war-offiee. 
 Nothing annoyed the King so much as effeminacy, or unwillir)*'-- 
 ness to encounter danger, jjarticularly in members of iiis family. 
 His son, afterwards Frederick the Great, was subjected to the 
 discipline of the cane for years, because his father thought proper 
 to doubt his courage, and was seldom addressed by any title more 
 endearing tiian those of " Coward, dolt, coxcoujb, puppy, and ass." 
 On one occasion* the King lost all control over his passion, and 
 Hying at his son, beat him over the face with his fists until the 
 blood flowed in streams. " Never," said the Prince, " had the 
 face of a Brandenburg been so handled before." The discipline 
 of his household was exceedingly rigid, and any violation of the 
 rules which he had laid down was sure to be visited with his 
 severest displeasure. The Queen, it appears, had sometimes 
 offended by allowing company to remain in her apartments after 
 nine o'clock, the hour which Frederick had fixed for the closing 
 of all private dwellings, as well as houses of public entertainment. 
 One night a man, nmftled in a cloak, knocked at the door of the 
 court confessor Reinbeck, and delivered him a note, written in a 
 disguised hand. " It would be well," said this anonymous cor- 
 respondent, "if the Queen's confessor warned her Majesty to 
 close her apartments at seasonable hours, lest it shoulfl come 
 to the ears of the King." — The messenger was Frederick himself. 
 The great object of Frederick's life, to which all his other 
 plans were in some degree subservient, was the raising and dis- 
 ciplining a military force powerful enough not only to protect 
 Prussia against foreign aggressions, but to obtain for her an influ- 
 ential position among the nations of Europe. His celebrated 
 giant guard was recruited at an enormous expense from other 
 countries, where agents were regularly employed to kidnap the 
 tallest men and send them into Prussia. Peter the Great, who 
 wanted artificers more than grenadiers, agreed to send him all the 
 giants in his dominions, on condition of being permitted to carry 
 off an equal number of Westphalian whitesmiths ; but in Holland 
 his agent was arrested and punished with death as a man-stealer. 
 Frugal as Frederick was in his general expenditure, no limits 
 \sere set to the reckless profusion with which he scattered his 
 money for the gratification of this darling object. A batch of 
 forty-three giants cost him 43,000 dollars ; and 9000 were once 
 
 * Oil board a boat at Frankfort, iiinnecl lately after the di.scovery of 
 Fredorick'.s meditated escape from hh tyranny. 
 
368 HISTORY OF GERMA^'Y. Chap. LIV. 
 
 paid for an individual : but he was nearly seven feet high, and 
 stout in proportion. The price seems to have varied according 
 to the value of the article, and the difficulty or facility with 
 w liich it could be obtained. Sometimes a man might be cajoled 
 by fair promises and a trifling present ; but more frequently it 
 was necessary to purchase him from his master, or perhaps to steal 
 him, in which case the connivance of government functionaries 
 must be purchased by heavy bribes. The average yearly expense 
 of keeping up a brigade of 1500 guardsmen seems to have been 
 300,000 dollars, more than four times the sum requisite for the 
 support of the same number of men in regiments of the line. 
 A great part of Frederick's time was passed in playing with 
 these gigantic toys. Sometimes the most distinguished among 
 them were required to sit to the king for their portraits ; but if, 
 as often happened, the artist proved unsuccessful, the mistake 
 was remedied, not in the usual manner, by altering the picture, 
 but by painting the man until he bore some resemblance to his 
 representative. The domestic habits of Frederick William were, 
 as we have said, exceedingly simple. His evenings were gene- 
 rally s})ent in the society of five or six of his ministers and 
 generals, the Austrian ambassador, and any foreign princes who 
 happened to be at his court. At Potsdam a few of the more 
 respectable burghers were generally conmianded to join the circle, 
 and even the village schoolmaster vv^as a constant guest. The 
 firmness with which this personage administered the affairs of his 
 miniature kingdom seems first to have recommended him, as a 
 congenial spirit, to the favour of his sovereign. Frederick, in 
 one of his rambles, had entered the school and required the pupils 
 to shout out, "Our master is an ass!" The boys refusing, 
 Frederick told them that he was the king, and could command 
 obedience. "That may be true enough," retorted a saucy 
 urchin, " but our master can command it too, and we are more 
 afraid of him than of you." From that day the schoolmaster was a 
 regular guest at the royal palace. All formality M'as banished 
 from these convivial meetings. Even when the king entered the 
 room none were permitted to rise from their seats. Frederick 
 himself sat on a three-legged stool and his guests on wooden 
 benches, each with a short Dutch pipe in his mouth and a mug of 
 beer on the table before him. In the middle of the room stood a 
 chafing dish filled with burning turf, at which they lighted their 
 pipes. Those wlio could not smoke were required at least to hold 
 
Sup. Chap. LIY. HERRNTIUTERS. 369 
 
 a pipe in their mouths and pufF in concert willi tlie rest. The 
 most important atlairs of state were often discussed in these 
 asu^emblies ; and strang-e scenes were sometimes enacted when 
 foreign })rinces, who liad any point to gain, were content to smoke 
 lor tiie first time in their lives i)ipe after pipe of strong- tobacco, 
 in order to gratify the King-. So attached was Frederick AVilliam 
 to his tobacco-college, as he called it, that in his last illness 
 he was often carried into the smoking-room or assembled tJie 
 members round his bed. The magnificent army wliich he hud 
 spent his days in organising was never called into the field 
 during his life-time, for the sandy wastes of Brandenburg were 
 at that time scarcely deemed a prize worth fighting for; and 
 foreign princes contented themselves with calling the King of 
 Prussia in derision the Arch saiid-strewer of tlie holy Roman 
 Empire. 
 
 Frederick William died on the 3rd May, 1740, in the fifty- 
 second year of his age, bequeatiiing to his son the task of follow- 
 ing out his plans of military glory, and treasure, partly in specie 
 and partly in vessels of gold and silver, to the amount of eight 
 million seven hundred thousand dollars. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER LIV. 
 
 Herrnhuters. — The first colony of these sectaries, called also 
 the Moravian Brethren, was established by Count Zinzendorf, a 
 Saxon nobleman, who granted an asylum to a considerable body 
 of exiles from Austria, during the persecution which raged in 
 tliat country in the year 1721. On the 17th of June, 1722, 
 Cln-istian David, one of the new settlers, felled the first tree, in 
 order to clear ground for the colony in the midst of a wild tract 
 of forest between Lobau and Zittau in Upper Lusatia, on the 
 road from Dresden to Breslau. In a short time these industrious 
 strangers had erected a neat little village, to which they gave 
 tlie name of Herrnhut, from the text " Ich will lieber der Thiir 
 Jiliten in meines Gottes [or IIkhkn] Hause, denn lange woJnien 
 in der Gottlosen Hfitten."* The discipline of this connnunity, 
 which now numbers about 1400 souls, closely resembles that of 
 the Quakers, except that miLsic and dancing are permitted to 
 their younger members. They hold that man is so utterly 
 
 * " I harl i-atlicr be a doorKKKPEU in the house of my God [Lorio] than 
 to dwell in the tents of unradline.ss."— Psiihn Ixxxiv. 10. 
 
370 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. LY. 
 
 Corrupt by nature, that iie cannot help himself, but must rely 
 vvliolly on Divine grace, wliich is so inexhaustible, that in the end 
 even the devil will be converted ; and that our whole duty con- 
 sists in blind obedience to the will of God, as indicated by the 
 casting of lots. The society is governed by elders chosen in 
 this manner, and sends out from time to time missionaries to 
 heathen countries. Some of their notions are exceeduigly wild 
 and visionary. 
 
 CHAPTER LV. 
 
 TUE PRAGMATIC SANCTION, DEATH OF CHARLES VI. 
 
 From A.D. 1714 to 1740. 
 
 The Empire had not long enjoyed the blessings, such as they 
 were, of a peace with France, when her armies were again called 
 into the field to oppose the Turks, who, happily for Germany, 
 had allowed her to remain unmolested during the whole of the 
 late war. Eugene again took the command, and compelled the 
 invaders, after losing their Grand Vizier and the flower of their 
 army in the bloody engagements of Peterwardein and Belgrade, 
 to sue for peace ; which was granted them on condition of their 
 ceding Belgrade and a portion of Wallacliia and Servia to the 
 Austrians. As a protection against future invasions, mili<^ary 
 colonies were planted by Eugene along the whole line of the 
 Turkish frontier. The anxious desire of Charles VI., whose only 
 son had died in infancy, was to secure the succession to his 
 daughter Maria Theresa, wife of Francis Duke of Lorraine ; an 
 object which he endeavoured to accomplish by means of a Prag- 
 matic Sanction, that is to say, a guarantee of the succession to 
 his daughter, not only by the imperial diet, but by the principal 
 sovereigns of Europe, most of whom were induced by his promises 
 to acquiesce, for the present at least, in this notable arrangement. 
 In 1734 France, Spain, and Sardinia suddenly declared war 
 against the Emperor, on the ground of his having supported the 
 claims of Augustus III. of Saxony to the throne of Poland, in 
 opposition to those of Leczinsky, the favourite of the French 
 party. Russia sent 30,000 men to the assistance of Charles, but 
 ))eace had been concluded before they reached the frontier. 
 Towards the end of 1736 the brave veteran, Prince Eugene, died 
 
Sup. Chap. LY. CirAllACTEU OF THE GERMAN COURTS. 371 
 
 at the ag-e of seventy-three, lamenting ahiiost witli his last breath 
 the dejjracled eoniiitiun of Germany. TJie noble army whicli it 
 had been his pride to collect and discipline was now intrusted 
 to unprincipled favourites, who knew little of war, and seemed 
 incapable of uniting in opinion on any subject, except the expe- 
 diency of enricliing tiiemselves at the public expense, and by the 
 plunder of their half-starved soldiery. Instead of 120,000 men, 
 therefore, the force actually levied amounted scarcely to 40,000 ; 
 the funds necessary for the equipment of the rest having been 
 siuired among the ministers of war and field-marshah^, who played 
 into each other's hands with the most unblushing dishonesty. 
 The consequences of all these abuses were an ill-advised campaign 
 against tiie Turks, and a disgraceful treaty of peace, by which 
 Servia and Wallachia were restored to their former masters 
 (a.d. 1739). The following year the Emperor Charles VI. died. 
 During his long reign he had contributed even more than his 
 fither to impress on the character of the Austrians that peculiar 
 stamp which is not yet wholly effaced. In the olden time they 
 had maPiifested a taste for military glory, had been turbulent 
 asserters of their own rights, and ferocious assailants of those who 
 presumed to differ from them on religious questions : but these 
 stormy propensities had long since settled down into an easy, 
 joyous tranquillity of character, which was content to snatch the 
 amusements of the passing hour, leaving the cares of state to their 
 l^'.mperor, and the extermination of heresy, as well as the super- 
 intendence of their own spiritual concerns, to the Jesuits. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER LV. 
 
 Character of the German Courts in the Eighteenth Century. — ■ 
 The ceremonial of the imperial court, which was conducted ac- 
 cording to the strictest pattern of Spanish etiquette, was not, it 
 is true, calculated to inspire very lively emotions ; but the un- 
 limited expenditure of the imperial establishment, to which no 
 fewer than 40,000 persons were in some form or other attached, 
 helped to consume the public revenue, whilst the profligacy of 
 courtiers, hangers-on, and lacqueys imparted its tone to the society 
 of all ranks. Eating and drinking were considered the main 
 business of life, and pleasures still more questionable were eagerly 
 pursued both by the nobles and citizens. At court, marshals and 
 chamberlains, and counsellors, and equerries, with tiie foreign 
 
372 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. LY. 
 
 ambassadors (of whom every count, prelate, and free city claimed 
 tlie privilege of sending one), formed a society of many hundreds, 
 who were entertained with solemn feasts, processions, and fire- 
 works. Half Vienna was fed from the court kitchen and the 
 court cellar. The bread for the Empress's parrots was steeped 
 in Tokay wine, of which two hogsheads were expended daily. 
 Twelve gallons of the finest wine were also allowed for her 
 possets and twelve barrels for her baths. In Saxony the court 
 vvas equally profligate and infinitely less dignified. Augustus 
 tlie Strong died in 1733, leaving 352 children, among whom was 
 tlie renowned Maurice, ex-Duke of Courland, who afterwards, 
 under the name of IMarshal Saxe, led the French armies to vic- 
 tory. The reign of this vulgar-minded and licentious tyrant had 
 been one long scene of coarse debauchery and the most \vanton 
 expenditure. The entertainments of the court were a display of 
 tasteless profusion. On one occasion, at a feast given in lionour 
 of a favourite mistress, Neptune appeared on the Elbe, attended 
 bv frigates, Venetian gondolas, and gun-boats, the crews of which 
 were dressed in satin jackets and silk stockings : Turkish janis- 
 saries, Moors, and Swiss halberdiers guarded the banks; and a 
 blazing pile of wood threw its light on an allegorical picture 
 v/hich covered 6000 yards of canvas. A gipsy party at Miihlberg 
 cost three millions of dollars, of which five thousand were ex- 
 pended in the purchase of porcelain vessels for the bed-chambers 
 of the Elector and his guests, Frederick William I. and the 
 Crown Prince of Prussia. The private treasury or green vault 
 was crowded with precious stones and gold, wrought into gro- 
 tesque figures, columns of ostrich eggs, musical clocks, and hun- 
 dreds of other toys, collected at a vast expense. Carpets of 
 feathers covered the floors of the Japan palace ; and one room 
 was entirely filled with ostrich and heron phmies which were used 
 at the court festiwals. The only portion of tliis gigantic toy-shop 
 that reflected any credit on its founder was the galleiy of pic- 
 tures. His son and successor, Augustus III., if less lavish in his 
 personal expenditure, was too weak and indolent to restrain the 
 extravagance of an unworthy favourite. Count Briihl, whose ward- 
 robe displayed hundreds of rich dresses, any one of which might 
 have been worn by the wealthiest monarch in Europe, a curious 
 collection of embroidered shoes, and wigs of Parisian manufactm-e 
 arriuiged in chronological order in a splendid cabinet. 
 
 In Ikivaria Maximilian II., the miserable puppet of Marshal 
 
Pur. Chap. I.Y. CHARACTER OF THE GERMAN COURTS. 375 
 
 Villars and his French mistresses, was sncceedecl in 1726 l)y liis 
 son Charles Albert, who died in 1746, leaving beliind liini a 
 reputation scarcely more respectable tlian that of his fiitlier. 
 Keyszler, who travelled in Bavaria in 1729, gives an amusing 
 description of this court. " The Electress Maria Amelia (a small 
 ami delicate lady) is an excellent shot at the target as well as in 
 the field, and often follows the chase up to her knees in mud. 
 She wears a man's habit of green cloth with a small white 
 pcrruque. She is a great fancier of dogs, which stand round her 
 table ready to empty the dishes as fast as they are set down. 
 Near her bed one of them sleeps on a cushion in a sort of tent. 
 In tlie adjoining room are twelve more dogs, and one at least 
 always kennels in the bed-room of his highness." The traveller 
 also speaks of other favourites on whom the " small and delicate 
 lady," maddened by jealousy, sometimes inflicted corporal chas- 
 tisement with her own hands. Similar scenes were enacted in 
 Baden, where the Elector Charles William had lately built the 
 beautiful city of Carlsruhe {Charles's rest) in the midst of a 
 forest. 
 
 The history of the northern states presents the same disgusting 
 picture, varied only in the case of Hanover, by the transfer of 
 arbitrary power from the Elector to the nobles, consequent on the 
 removal to England of George I. with all his mistresses in the 
 year 1714. Nowhere was court etiquette so strictly observed as 
 at Hanover after it had lost its prince. The courtiers assembled 
 every Sunday in an apartment of the palace, where a portrait of 
 the king was set upon an arm-eliair, and, as if they had been in 
 the real presence, did not venture to speak above a whisper. 
 After an hour spent in this manner they adjourned to the dining- 
 room, where a good dinner, and still better wines, were provided. 
 Lastly, the ecclesiastical princes, on whom the rough discipline 
 of the Reformation ought to have impressed some regard at least 
 for pulilic opinion, were for the most part as profligate and 
 debauched as the worst of the laity. Tlie Council of Trent had, 
 it is true, enacted stringent laws for the suppression of clerical 
 luxury and immorality ; but now that the northern courts them- 
 selves set the example of vicious indulgence, and the wliolesome 
 restraint was withdrawn which the dread of their more rigid 
 neighbours had at first imposed on the Romanists; the higlier 
 orders of tlie priesthood (most of whom were younger sons of 
 noble families) practised without scruple the lessons which they 
 
374 HISTORY OF GERMANY. CiiAP. LV. 
 
 had learnt at the courts of their fathers or relatives. Duclos, in 
 his Memoirs, relates a curious instance of the total disregard of 
 decency manifested by the Archbishop of Cologne. During his 
 sojourn at Versailles tliis prelate gave notice that he intended to 
 preach in the court chapel on the 1st of April. A large congre- 
 gation being assembled, the preacher ascended the pulpit and 
 bowed gravely to the audience, then shouting " April fools all I'* 
 he ran down the stairs amidst the laughter of the court, and the 
 clang of horns, trumpets, and kettle-drums. 
 
 Persecution in the Mountains of Salzburg. — Whilst the Ro- 
 manist and Protestant princes thus disgraced their religious pro- 
 fession, a few unknown and simple peasants were studying Luther's 
 translation of the Bible in an obscure valley among the mountains 
 of Salzburg, without formally separating from the communion of 
 the Romish church, or puzzling themselves with the endless con- 
 troversies wliich agitated tlie Protestant and Reformed conmiu- 
 nities. For a long time their conformity to the discipline of the 
 church, and the care with which they concealed their religious 
 meetings, baffled the jealous scrutiny of the priests ; but at lengtli 
 a curious accident brought all to light. It was observed that at 
 convivial meetings certain individuals, when addressed in the 
 vvords of the Catholic greeting, " Praised be Jesus Christ !" 
 instead of repeating the salutation, turned away in silent disgust. 
 TJiis singular behaviour was sure to j)i'ovolce remark among the 
 inhabitants of a secluded village. The recusants were summoned 
 before the local authorities, and, being strictly questioned, con- 
 fessed that they could not endure to hear the Saviour's name 
 uttered amidst scenes of revelry and drunkenness. Instantly the 
 cry of heresy was raised, and a formal complaint laid before the 
 Archbishop, who commanded that all persons refusing to repeat 
 the Catholic watchword should be subjected to the discipline of 
 the cudgel until their prejudices were overcome. But the peasants 
 were stout-hearted, and bore manfully all the tortures inflicted on 
 them. A commission of inquiry was then issued, and the recusants 
 v/ere questioned as to their belief. Were they Lutherans or 
 Zwinglians? The honest peasants replied that they understood 
 little of those matters : their wish and endeavour was to be 
 " evangelical." Their number had now increased to twenty thou- 
 sand ; and a confederacy was formed, the members of which swore 
 to be faithful to the Gospel " even unto death." Each person 
 then dipped his forefinger into a vessel full of salt, whence, or in 
 
Sup. Chap. LY. PEKSECUTION OF PROTESTANTS. 375 
 
 allusion to the text, " Ye are the salt of the eartli," or to the name 
 of their country, the confederacy was called the " Salt-League." 
 They niig-ht have made head against their enemies had not the 
 Archbishop devised the cruel expedient of proscribing them, not 
 as heretics, but as disturbers of the public peace, who, bein"- 
 neither Lutherans nor Calvinists, had no right to the aid of Pro- 
 testant princes. In the simplicity of their honest hearts they 
 tln-ew tiiemselves on the protection of the Emperor, and sent 
 twenty-one delegates to remind him of his duty, as sworn guardian 
 of the German nation. Six thousand soldiers brought them hi.-s 
 reply, and for a whole month hunted down the peasants like wild 
 beasts. At length the Archbishop, wearied out by their obstinacy, 
 commanded that all who refused to take the test should be 
 banislied from their country — a sentence which was immediatelv 
 executed w4th great rigour. IMen who were at work in the 
 fields were seized and hurried across the frontier without being 
 allowed even to provide themselves with a change of clothing ; 
 and all their little property was confiscated by the Archbisliop's 
 commissary, who granted at his own discretion a trifling sum to 
 defray the expenses of their journey. But the most atrocious 
 act of cruelty was the forcible separation of more than a thou- 
 sand parents from their children. In vain did the unhappy 
 mother pray that she might be left behind with her little ones, 
 though it were to suflfer nakedness and cold and hunger. " It is 
 the Emperor's will," was the only reply vouchsafed to them ; 
 and tlie broken-hearted creatures, urged on by blows and terrified 
 by the shouts of their Romanist neighbours, went fortli alone to 
 die in a foreign land. A few of the boys afterwards escaped from 
 tiie custody of the Jesuits, and begged their way through Ger- 
 many until they joined their parents on the shores of the Baltic. 
 The banished men were soon followed by crowds of voluntary 
 emigrants, most of whom settled in Prussia and Holland, whilst 
 a few crossed the Atlantic and joined their brethren in America. 
 
376 
 
 HISTORY OF GER^MANY. 
 
 Chap. LXl. 
 
 CHAPTER LVI. 
 
 CHARLES VII. — FRANCIS I. PEACE OF AIX-LA~CHAPELLE. 
 
 From A.D. 1740 to 1748. 
 
 Great Tun of Heidelberg, constructed in 1751. 
 
 The accession of Maria Theresa was opposed by a formidable 
 league, consisting of the Elector of Bavaria (Avho claimed the 
 dominions of Habsburg, in right of his desceni from the eldest 
 daughter of Ferdinand I.), the King of France, and the King of 
 Prussia, Frederick II. Since the days of the Great Elector of 
 Brandenburg, Prussia had been rapidly rising into importance, 
 and possessed at this time a well-disciplined army of 72,000 men, 
 which the young king was eager to bring into the field without 
 delay. Availing himself, therefore, of some anticpiated claims on 
 certain duchies in Silesia, he suddenly invaded that country in 
 December, 1740, and in the spring of the following year over- 
 threw the Austrians in a bloody engagement near Molwitz. This 
 victory, however, was due to the experienced talent of Marslial 
 Schwerin, and not to Frederick himself. This success emboldened 
 other powers to resist the claims of Maria Theresa, and in a short 
 
A.D. 1742. CHARLES VIT. 3y7 
 
 time the names of Saxony, Spain, and Poland were added to tlie 
 list of eonfederates. A French army tlien crossed tlie Khine, 
 imder the eonnnand of Marshal Belleisle, overran a g-reat part of 
 Austria and Bohemia, and took the city of Prague, where Albert 
 of Bavaria (whom Louis XV. had nominated lieutenant-general 
 of his forces) halted to receive the homage of the Bohemians 
 ]Meanwhile the Queen of Hungary and Bohemia, abandoned by 
 all her allies except the King of England, and surrounded by 
 enemies, was compelled to purchase the forbearance of the most 
 formidable among them by the cession of Silesia, Frederick 
 merely stipulating that the treaty should be kept secret for three 
 months, lest his allies should suspect him of treachery to the 
 cause. In the autumn of the same year Maria Theresa called 
 together the estates of Hungary. Since the annexation of their 
 country to Austria the Hungarian nobles had rather submitted 
 to the right of the strong hand, than acquiesced cordially in an 
 arrangement which took from them the privilege of electing their 
 own king. It was with feelings, therefore, of doubt and im- 
 easiness that the queen appeared before them to demand their 
 co-operation in the measures which she intended to adopt for the 
 defence of her crown ; but the sight of their beautiful sovereign, 
 who entered the hall of the diet in the Hungarian costume, bear- 
 i!ig her infant son in her arms, and called on them by their oath 
 of kniglithood to succour a persecuted woman, at once melted the 
 hearts of the chivalrous magnates, who, rising with one accord, 
 drew their swords and declared themselves ready to shed their 
 blood in defence of their " king" Maria Theresa.* In an incre- 
 dibly short space of time a formidable army was assembled, con- 
 sisting of Pandours, Croatians, and other wild hordes, whose very 
 names were unknown in civilized Europe. Within a week the 
 ^^ iiole of Upper Austria was free ; and the victorious barbarians 
 marching into Bavaria made themselves masters of Munich on 
 tlie day tiiat Charles Albert, who had been elected Emperor of 
 Germany, received the imperial crown at Frankfort. In the 
 mean time Frederick of Prussia, so far from respecting the terms 
 of liis secret treaty, had renewed the war in Silesia, where he de- 
 feated the Austrian troops in 1742, and soon afterwards granted 
 })eace to the Queen of Hungary on condition of receiving the 
 whole of Upper as well as Lower Silesia. At the same time tlie 
 Elector of Saxony was gained over to the queen's cause by the 
 * Moriauuu- pro Rege uo.-troj I\Iaria Thci'e.sia. 
 
378 HISTORY OF GEraifVXY. CiiAP. LYI. 
 
 grant of large estates in Bohemia to his favourite, Count Briihl. 
 In tlie following year the French were defeated near Dettingen 
 by George II. of England and the Duke of Cumberland ; and 
 the Duke of Lorraine, crossing the Rhine, ravaged the French 
 province of Alsace. At Dettingen, George II. 's horse took 
 friglit at the cannonading, and ran away with him towards the 
 enemy's lines, but was fortunately stopped by one of his attendants. 
 The king now dismounted and fought on foot at the head of his 
 Hanoverians with his sword drawn, and in the attitude of a 
 fencing-master about to make a lunge. A second Silesian war 
 between the Prussians and Austrians was terminated in December, 
 1744, by the peace of Dresden; and early in the next year 
 Charles VII. died and was succeeded on the imperial throne by 
 the queen's husband, Francis I. 
 
 The war continued some time longer in Flanders and Holland, 
 where Marshal Saxe defeated the Duke of Cumberland at Fon- 
 tenoy, and took the strong fortress of Bergen-op-Zoom, which 
 v/as bravely defended by the Dutch and two battalions of Scotch 
 soldiers in the pay of Holland. At length a general peace was 
 concluded at Aix-la-Chapelle October 7th, 1748, all the contract- 
 ing powers becoming guarantees to the King of Prussia for the 
 Duchy of Silesia, and the county of Glatz, and insuring to Maria 
 Theresa the undisturbed possession of her hereditary dominions 
 accordin<? to the terms of the Pragmatic Sanction. 
 
A.D. 17o6. 
 
 Tin-: SEVEN YEARS WAR. 
 
 379 
 
 CHAPTER LVII. 
 
 THE SEVEN YEAKs' WAl!.— PEACE OF I'AHIS AND IIUBKRTSBUm. 
 
 From A.D. 175G to 1703. 
 
 Frederick the Great and his Generals. 
 
 The eight years which intervened between the peace of Aix-la- 
 Chapelie and the breaking out of the Seven Years' AVar resembled 
 a season of truce, during which men's minds are agitated by the 
 restless anticipation of future hostilities, rather than a period of 
 settled tranquillity. The loss of her Silesian dominions still 
 rankled in the breast of Maria Theresa, who shed tears whenever 
 she compared her own forlorn condition with the rising greatness 
 of Frederick, and wearied her able minister Kaunitz witli entrea- 
 ties that he would devise some mode of removing this stain from 
 the honour of Austria. In Russia the unprincipled chancellor of 
 the Empress Elizabeth persuaded his mistress to form an alliance 
 with the Austrians because the King of Prussia had ridiculed ins 
 vidgar profusion and rapacity— an exainphj which was followed 
 
380 HISTOEY OF GERI\rANY. Chap. LYII. 
 
 by the Elector of Saxony at the instigation of his favourite Count 
 Brahl, who had also felt the lash of Frederick's satirical wit. 
 England was at this time engaged in a fierce conflict with France 
 for the possession of her North American colonies, and looked for 
 assistance to Prussia. On the other hand the Prussian ambas- 
 sador at Paris was strongly urged to advise the invasion of 
 Hanover, a suggestion which would probably have been adopted 
 by Frederick, had he not feared the danger of embroiling himself 
 with Eno'land whilst Russia was making hostile demonstrations 
 on his frontier. Instead therefore of following the advice of his 
 minister, Frederick judged it more prudent to conclude a treaty 
 of alliance with England, which was signed at Westminster in 
 the month of January, 1756. 
 
 In the first alarm occasioned by the intelligence of this unex- 
 pected conjunction, Maria Theresa, by the advice of Kaunitz, 
 condescended to write with her own hand a flattering letter to 
 Madame de Pompadour, the mistress of Louis XV., calling her 
 " her dear cousin," and imploring her to obtain the King's con- 
 sent to a treaty of alliance between France and Austria. The 
 result of this overture was a convention between the two powers, 
 which was signed at Versailles on the 1st of May, 1756. By 
 the terms of this agreement the spoils of Prussia were to be 
 divided between the two continental powers and the Empress of 
 Russia, who subsequently became a party to the treaty. Frede 
 rick called this compact, in derision, " L'Alliance des trois cotil- 
 lons." The negotiations of the French, Russian, and Austrian 
 ministers with the governments of Sweden and Saxony being 
 regularly reported at Berlin by a secretary of the Saxon govern- 
 ment, who had been bribed to act as a spy, Frederick thought it 
 best to anticipate their designs ; and, having made his prepara- 
 tions with such secrecy that no suspicion was entertained of his 
 intention, suddenly appeared in Saxony at the head of 70,000 
 men, and demanded permission to pass through that country on 
 his way to Bohemia. Finding that he could obtain nothing from 
 Count Briihl beyond the promise of remaining neutral, Frederick 
 blockaded the little army of Saxony between Pirna on the Elbe 
 and the fortress of Konigstein. An Austrian force under General 
 Brown, which had been dispatched in haste to their assistance, 
 was totally defeated by the Prussians near the town of Lowositz. 
 Tlie Saxons then surrendered at discretion, aiid were drafted into 
 the Prussian army, the officera being liberated on their parole of 
 
A.D. 1757. I'lll'^ SEVEN YEARS* WATI. 381 
 
 honour. In tlie following spring- (1767) preparations were made 
 by tlie rtllies for resuming the war on a more extensive scale. 
 Austria and France contributed each 1 50,000 mer), Russia 
 100,000, Sweden 20,000, and the German Kmpire generally 
 60,000. At 'he same time the ban of the Empire was pro- 
 nounced againsv Frederick by the diet at Ratisbon ; but by an 
 unfortunate clerical error* the diet pledged itself, instead of 
 "speedy aid," to render "miserable aid" to the allies — an ex- 
 pression only too prophetical of their subsequent disasters. Fre- 
 derick opened the campaign by again invading Bohemia, and 
 attacking the allies, who w^ere intrenched in a strong position 
 near Prague, under the command of Prince Charles of Lorraine, 
 brother-in-law of the Empress-Queen. With his usual impe- 
 tuosity the king urged his troops through a green morass, whicii 
 he had mistaken for meadow ground. Marshal Schwerin im- 
 plored him to delay the attack until the following morning ; but 
 the contemptuous retort of his master so piqued the old man, 
 that, leaping from his horse and seizing a standard, he rushed 
 wildly forward, and fell pierced with four balls. After a pro- 
 tracted and bloody struggle the Austrians fled in all directions, 
 leaving their general. Brown, among the dead. Some of the 
 fugitives took refuge in the city of Prague, whilst others joined 
 the army of Marshal Daun, who was stationed in the neighbour- 
 hood. On the 18th of June another battle was fougiit near 
 Kollin, in which the Prussians were utterly routed, losing 14,000 
 men, with all their artillery and baggage. On the evening of 
 this terrible day Frederick was found by his officers seated on a 
 hollow tree, which served as a water-course, and tracing figures 
 with his stick on the sand. The sound of their voices roused him 
 from this melancholy reverie ; but his eyes filled with tears when 
 they told him that of the magnificent brigade of grenadier-guards 
 not a man had escaped. " It has been a day of sorrow for us, 
 my children," said the King ; " but patience, and all will yet be 
 well." A few weeks after this disaster Frederick received the 
 mortifying intelligence that his ally the Duke of Cumberland 
 had been disgracefully defeated by the French near Hastenbek on 
 the Weser, and had signed a convention at Kloster-Seven, by wliich 
 he engaged to disband his troops and give up Hanover, Bruns- 
 ^^ick, and the whole of the country between the Weser and 
 
 * By the omission of one letter the word appeared as "eleude" instead 
 of "eilende." 
 
382 HISTORY OF GERMANY. CiiAP. LVIT. 
 
 Rhine. This convention the King of England, acting under the 
 advice of his prime minister Pitt, peremptorily refused to ratify. 
 On the 5th of November Frederick again took, the field and at- 
 tacked the united army of the Imperialists and French, who were 
 encamped near the village of Rossbach, not far from Leipzic. 
 The enemy, who were three times as numerous as the Prussians, 
 were so assured of victory that they had filled their camp with 
 women and French friseurs ; but tiie first charge of the Prussian 
 cavalry threw them into confusion, and the whole army, with the 
 exception of a few Swiss mercenaries, fled without firing a shot. 
 There seems to have been little sympathy between the Imperialists 
 and their allies. A Prussian soldier was conveying a French 
 prisoner to the rear, when he was attacked by an Austrian. 
 '■ Brother German," said the captor, "leave me the Frenchman." 
 '•Take him," growled the Imperialist, loosening his hold of the 
 prisoner, whom he had probably at first sight mistaken for a 
 countryman : " take him and keep him, if you can." So ridi- 
 culous was the whole affair (for the Prussians only lost 160 men) 
 that Frederick, in his glee, proposed as a conundrum to his 
 officers, " What German prince has the largest retinue ?" Answer: 
 '^ The Prince of Hilburghausen (commander of the defeated 
 army), for he has 50,000 rimncrs:' " It is all very well," said 
 Louis XV., when intelligence was brought to him of this dis- 
 graceful flight ; " that fellow, Frederick, knows how to gain a 
 battle, but let me see him make a pdie de foie gras /" Seidlitz, 
 who liad led the cliarge which dispersed the Imperialists, was 
 considered the best cavalry officer of his time. We are told that 
 he once rode between the revolving sails of a windmill ; and on 
 another occasion, when asked by Frederick what he would do if 
 the enemy were before and behind him on the bridge of Frank- 
 fort on the Oder, leaped his horse into the river and swam to 
 shore. Exactly a month after the battle of Rossbach, Frederick, 
 with only 30,000 men, gained a complete victory over 80,000 
 Imperialists near Leuthen, and soon afterwards captured Breslau. 
 He now proposed terms of peace, which were rejected by Maria 
 Theresa, and the v/ar began afresh. The Prussian army, aug- 
 mented by large reinforcements from England, was placed under 
 the conmiand of the Duke of Brunswick, a general appointed by 
 Frederick himself. In the spring of 1758 Frederick entered 
 Moravia and besieged Ollmiitz, but without success; and the 
 news tliat the Russians, under Fermor, had crossed the Oder, and 
 
A.D. 17G0. TIIIG SEVEN YEARS' WAR. 383 
 
 were carrying devaFitation to the very gates of Berlin, o])lige(i 
 him to retire. He came up with the Russians at Zorndoif, and 
 totally defeated tliem, tliough their force ^vas twice as large as 
 his; but the victory cost him 11,000 men, for the Russians stood 
 like walls. Frederick presented some Cossacks he had taken to 
 one of his friends, exclaiming, " See here, Sir ; I am obliged to 
 go about fighting with rabble like this." In the following Octo- 
 ber, however, Frederick sustained a severe defeat at Ilochkircli 
 in Lusatia from the Austrians under Daun and Laudon, who sur- 
 prised his camp in the night. The Prussian soldiers were 
 awakened by the sound of their own cannon, which the enemy 
 had seized and turned against them. Frederick lost on this occa- 
 sion many of his bravest officers, 9000 men, and 100 guns. He 
 was destined to suffer still more serious reverses in the fo-llowing 
 year. Towards the west, indeed, the Duke of Brunswick kept 
 the French in check by his victory at Minden ; but on the opposite 
 side of his dominions Frederick was threatened by the united 
 armies of the Russians and Austrians, who had learnt by expe- 
 rience that the Prussian monarch gained his advantages by encoun- 
 tering them singly. On the 12th of August, 1759, Frederick 
 offered them battle at Kunnersdorf, near Frankfort on the Oder, 
 but sustained one of the most serious defeats he had ever suffered. 
 Shortly afterwards a division of his army 10,000 strong, under 
 General Fink, was forced to surrender in a body. His next loss 
 was Dresden, w^hich fell into the hands of the Austrians : but on 
 the 9th of October Berlin itself surrendered to the Russians and 
 Austrians, under Generals Tottleben and Lacy. The Russian 
 general prevented the town from being plundered, but the Saxons 
 destroyed the palace of Charlottenburg, with its splendid collec- 
 tion of antiquities, out of revenge for Frederick's having devas- 
 tated Count Briihl's palaces at Dresden. Frederick's ill fortune 
 pursued him the following year, till his victory at Torgau, 3rd 
 iS^ovember, 17G0, put the Prussian monarchy out of danger. 
 On the evening before the battle he called his generals together, 
 and pointing out to them the necessity for finishing the war, told 
 them that if they were beaten they must all perish, and expressed 
 his own determination to die on the field. It was one of the 
 bloodiest battles he ever fought. The enemy's cannonade from 
 400 pieces was so terrific that Frederick, the hero of so many 
 l)attles, could not help frequently exclaiming to his aides-de- 
 camj), " What a fearful cannonade ! Did you evei- hear the 
 
384 HISTORY OF GEraiANY. Chap. LVII. 
 
 like ?" When the shades of night fell upon the combatants the 
 engagement seemed still undecided. Frederick, who had been 
 wounded, passed the night in the greatest anxiety, which was, 
 however, relieved towards morning by the appearance of General 
 Ziethen, who came with the news that he had pursued the combat 
 m the night, and that the Austrians were in full retreat. Fre- 
 derick was accustomed to ridicule the old hussar general, who 
 before battle used always to cut a cross in the air with his sabre, 
 by way of recommending himself to the Almighty ; but now he 
 clasped him in his arms with the deepest emotion. Frederick's 
 resources were, however, very much diminished by the refusal of 
 George III. of England to continue the subsidy which had been 
 paid to Prussia by his predecessor : nor were the funds of his 
 enemies in a much better condition. In the year 1762 the Em- 
 press Elizabeth died, and her successor, Peter III., immediately 
 formed an alliance with Frederick, an example which was soon 
 followed by Sweden. All Europe seemed now desirous of re- 
 pose. France and Spain, humbled by their losses in the West 
 Indies and on the high seas, were anxious to put an end to a war 
 which had brought tliem nothing but defeat and disgrace. A 
 general peace was therefore concluded at Paris on the 10th of 
 February, 1763 ; and soon afterwards Maria Theresa, abandoned 
 by her allies, was compelled to sign a convention, by which pos- 
 session of Silesia was again secured to Frederick. This treaty, 
 which was signed at Hubertsburg in Saxony on the 1 5tli of P^e- 
 bruary, placed Prussia and Austria in precisely the same position 
 which they had occupied before the war. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER LYII. 
 
 Frederick II., surnamed the Great, born 1712, died 1786. — 
 The same Madame de Rocoulles, who had been his own nursery 
 governess, was selected by Frederick William to superintend the 
 early education of his son, under the direction of the Queen, 
 Dorothea Sophia, a sister of George II. In his fifth year he was 
 appointed to the command of a company of little boys, and 
 practised military tactics so successfully, that at twelve years old 
 he was able to manoeuvre them in a style of wliich the oldest 
 general in his father's army need hardly have been ashamed. A 
 miniature arsenal was also fitted up for practice in tlie art of 
 gunnery, under the superintendence of his governor, Count 
 
Sur. Chap. LVIT. FREDERICK II. 3S5 
 
 Finkenstein, whose son was Frederick's favourite companion 
 durino- his boyhood, and afterwards his prime minister. Du 
 Hon, a Frencii officer of considerable reputation both as a scliohir 
 and a military man, was appointed to assist the prince in his 
 studies, with an express stipulation that no attempt should be 
 made to teach him either Latin or Greek. Under this instructor 
 Frederick acquired a competent knowledge of general history 
 and science, witli a taste for French literature, which he retained 
 to tlie latest moment of h.s life. His leisure hours were occupied 
 in learning to play on the flute and in drawing. Religious 
 instruction seems to have been either entirely omitted, or admi- 
 nistered so injudiciously as to create iu the mind of Frederick a 
 contempt for sacred things, which rendered him an apt disciple 
 of the infidel French school founded in the eighteenth century 
 by Voltaire and other self-styled philosophers at Paris. In the 
 vear 1728 Frederick, in company with his father, visited Frederick 
 Augustus the Strong at Dresden. Here a new world presented 
 itself to the eyes of the young prince, who entered with eagerness 
 on tiie enjoyment of pleasures scarcely known by name at the 
 austere court of his father. The chosen companion of his revels, 
 a young man of lax morals and infidel profession, named Katte, 
 seems at this time to have exercised a most unfortunate influence 
 over the mind of Frederick, whose effeminate habits were ren- 
 dering him more and more an object of dislike to the King, and 
 preparing the w^ay for an explosion, of which Katte liimself M-as 
 the victim. A less exceptionable acquaintance was the celebrated 
 flute-player Quanz, whom he privately invited to Berlin, and 
 treated with great familiarity. Frederick's greatest delight on 
 returning from parade was to throw off* his military coat arid 
 supply its place with a richly embroidered robe de chambre — 
 then he would amuse himself for hours together with his books, 
 or play duets on the flute with Quanz, whilst Katte watched tlie 
 door. One evening, whilst they were thus engaged, Katte sud- 
 denly announced the approach of the King ; — the music books 
 were instantly laid aside, Quanz and his flute thrust into tlie 
 chiumey, and the robe de chambre exchanged for a uniform coat, 
 in which the prince was expected to appear at all seasons. Un- 
 fortunately he had forgotten to remove the silk cap wliicli he 
 generally wore in his hours of recreation. The sight of this 
 un military liead-gear so annoyed the King, tliat he rated Fred- 
 erick severely for his disobedience of orders, kicked Katte down 
 Gy. * z 
 
386 IIISTOllY OF GERMANY. Ckap. LVII. 
 
 stairs, and sent all liis son's books back to the bookseller from 
 whom they had been purchased. After a tmie the severity of 
 his father became so insupportable that Frederick resolved to 
 take the earliest opportunity of escaping to England, where he 
 intended to marry his cousin, and wait until some favourable 
 change of circumstances enabled him to return to his own 
 country. This project was discovered by the Elector, who 
 succeeded in persuading Frederick not to make the attempt until 
 he had crossed the Saxon frontier. It was in the beginning of 
 the year 1730 that Frederick AYilliam and his son quitted 
 Dresden for the purpose of making a tour through tlie southern 
 countries of Germany. Between Heiibronn and Heidelberg the 
 party halted for the night in a barn. As this seemed a favourable 
 opportunity for the execution of his plan, Frederick despatched 
 one of the court pages named Keith to secure horses, and soon 
 afterwards effected his own escape from the royal quarters : but 
 his proceedings had been closely watched, and before daybreak 
 the fugitives were overtaken and brought back. The King was 
 roused from sleep and informed of his son's disappearance and 
 capture ; but as Frederick solemnly declared that he had only 
 ridden out for the purpose of gratifying liis curiosity, and no 
 actual proof appeared of an intention to elope, little notice was 
 taken of his offence. Frederick now wrote to his friend Katte, 
 who was in garrison at Berlin, informing him of his determina- 
 tion to escape from his father's tyranny at all hazards, as soon as 
 a tolerable opportunity presented itself. Meanwhile Katte and 
 Keith were to hold themselves in readiness to desert and join 
 him in England. A second letter fixed the day of his flight. 
 Unfortunately in his haste Frederick omitted the direction of 
 this letter, which was simply addressed " To Lieutenant Katte, 
 by way of Nurnberg," and fell into the hands of another officer 
 of the same name, who instantly forwarded it to the King. 
 Frederick was at Frankfort, and on the point of going on board 
 a small vessel which was to convey them down the Rhine, ^Yhen 
 this unlucky epistle w^as put into his hands. Almost speechless 
 with rage he rushed on board the vessel, collared his son, and 
 would probably have nmrdered him had not his officers inter- 
 fered, and at last prevailed on him to continue his voyage in 
 another boat, whilst Frederick was conveyed as a state prisoner 
 to tlie fortress of Wesel. Keith, who had just been appointed to 
 a lieutenancy in a regiment quartered there, received a note in 
 
Sup. Chap. LYII. FREDERICK H. 387 
 
 pencil, with the words " Save yourself: all is discovered," and 
 contrived to escape a few minutes before the arrival of tiie prince 
 and his guards. From Wesel he was removed to Mittemwald, 
 and subsequently to Kiistrin. The King returned by another 
 road to Berlin, and ordered immediate preparations to be made 
 for the trial of all who had aided Fredericlc in his attempt. 
 Keith, who had escaped, was condemned to be hanged in ethgy. 
 Tiie unfortunate Katte was dragged into the presence of his 
 master, who instantly knocked him down, and danced like a mad- 
 man on Ids body as he lay on the floor. A court-martial was 
 then held, wliich condemned him to several years' detention with 
 hard labour in a fortress — but this judgment by no means satis- 
 tied the King, who at once annulled the decision of the court, 
 and commanded him to be beheaded. The announcement of this 
 sentence, so disproportionate as it seemed to the offence, filled 
 Berlin with consternation. The father and grandfather of the 
 culprit, botli officers of the highest rank, threw themselves at the 
 King's feet and prayed for mercy. But Frederick William was 
 inexorable, and even added to the severity of the sentence, by 
 commanding that it should be executed in front of his son's 
 apartments. On the 6th of November, 1730, the wretched 
 Katte was conducted to the scaffold. As the procession passed 
 the windows of Frederick's prison at Kiistrin, the condemned 
 man looked up, and made a farewell sign. " Dearest, dearest 
 Katte," said the unhappy prince in a voice of agony, " forgive 
 me !" " Death is sweet for such a Prince," replied the prisoner, 
 in a firm voice. Frederick then retired from the window, and fell 
 iiUo a fainting fit, wliich continued so long that apprehensions 
 v.ere entertained for his life. The prison of Frederick was a 
 room in the Jiouse of the President von Milnchow, to which none 
 had access but his guards and personal attendants. All instru- 
 ments which could be used for the purpose of self-destruction 
 were witiiheld from him so carefully, that he was obliged even 
 to eat his dinner with a wooden spoon, the meat having been 
 previously cut into small morsels by a servant. The furniture 
 of his apartment consisted of a bed and two wooden chairs. 
 Tlie only books allowed him were a Bible and hymn-book. 
 In this dreary solitude he was often visited by the son of his host, 
 a child of seven years old, who generally brought his little pina- 
 fore filled with such delicacies as the guards would permit him to 
 carry into the prisoner's apartment. The kind-hearted president 
 
 z 2 
 
388 HISTORY OF GEKMANY. Cn^P. LYJI. 
 
 nimself contrived also to converse with him through a hole bored 
 lor that purpose in the ceiling of Frederick's room and the floor of 
 his own bedchamber, which was immediately above it. Mean- 
 -svhile a court-martial had been assembled by command of the 
 King, to try " Lieutenant-Colonel Fritz" for desertion. After a 
 short deliberation the members almost unanimously pronounced 
 him guilty, declaring at the same time that although as a military 
 c<mrt they were obliged to pass sentence of death on " Colonel 
 Fritz," they had no power over the person of the Crown Prince. 
 Frederick AYilliam laughed this subtle distinction to scorn, and 
 proceeded to give orders for the execution of his son. The 
 whole court was panic-struck at this display of unnatural cruelty, 
 and all the foreign ambassadors joined liis favourite generals in 
 imploring the father not to dye his hands in the blood of his own 
 child. Still the King persisted in his resolution, when one of the 
 oldest of his officers, General von Buddenbrock, tearing open his 
 vest, exclaimed, " If your Majesty wants blood, take mine : but 
 his you shall not have, as long as I have life and strength to 
 protest against it." Whether the devoted courage of this veteran 
 r<^ally shook the King's resolution, or whether (as we may hope 
 for the honour of human nature) he wanted an excuse for remitting 
 a sentence which he had never really intended to carry into effect, 
 at least it is certain that soon after this interview with Budden- 
 brock, Frederick VV^illiam announced his intention of sparing his 
 son's life. This act of clemency was acknowledged Mnth grati- 
 tude by the young man, whose stubborn disposition had already 
 begun to yield to the gentle influence of Miinchow, and the pious 
 exhortations of a pastor named Mllller, who had attended the 
 imfortunate Katte in his last moments, and been the bearer of an 
 affectionate request, that the Prince " would, as he had done, 
 acknowledge the righteous judgment of God, submit hhnself to 
 the authority of his father, and hold those for his best friends 
 who told him the truth." This voice from the grave seems to 
 have made a deep impression on Frederick, whose change of dis- 
 position was so favourably reported by Miiller to the King, that 
 in a short time an order arrived for his liberation, subject only 
 to the condition of his still residing within the walls of the town. 
 At the same time his sword and orders were restored to him, and 
 a s^.iitable house prepared for his reception. In August, 1731, 
 the King visited his son, expressed himself satisfied with his 
 coiKhict, and embraced liim aff'ectionately in presence of his suite. 
 
Sur. Chai'. LVH. FREDERICK If. 389 
 
 111 the followiiij^' November permission was granted him to l)e 
 present at tiie marriag-e of iiis favourite sister Wilhelinina to tiie 
 INLargrave Freilerick of Baireuth. The ceremony had alieady 
 connneneed, when Frederick, dressed in a plain grey frock, with- 
 out any order or decoration, was discovered among the servants, 
 and dragged forward by his fatlier, Mho presented him to the 
 Queen with these words, " See, Madam, our Fritz is returned.'* 
 Tlie following day he was restored to his military rank, and 
 returned to Kiistrin, where he continued to reside for some 
 montiis, emj)loying himself diligently in the office of war and 
 royal demesnes. In 1732 he married the Princess Elizabeth of 
 Brunswick-Bevern : but this alliance, which was chosen for him 
 by the King, was productive of very little happiness. From this 
 period until the death of his father, Frederick continued to 
 reside in the castle of Rheins1)erg, near Ruppin, enjoying the 
 society of his friends, and studying with infinite relish the 
 writings of Voltaire and French translations of the classics. It 
 was here that he instituted in sport a new order of chivalry 
 named the Order of Bayard, whose famous motto, '* Sans peur 
 et sans reproche," was borne on the collars of the knights. In 
 the spring of 1740, Frederick was summoned to attend the 
 deathbed of his father, who offered up w4th his last breath a 
 thanksgiving to God for having granted him so worthy a son and 
 successor. 
 
 Frederick now entered in earnest on the functions of govern- 
 ment, to which his employment in the war-office at Kiistrin had 
 been an excellent introduction. " Our frolics are at an end," 
 said he to the jovial companions of his revels at Rheinsberg ; 
 " henceforth let us study how l^est we may fulfil the grave dutie;3 
 of a sovereign." The beginning of his reign was exceedingly 
 popular. Many burdensome imposts were removed, the examina- 
 tion of prisoners by torture forbidden, and a considerable saving 
 effected in the department of war by the reduction of the giant 
 brigade to a single battalion. During the eight years that inter- 
 vened between tne conclusion of peace at Aix-la-Chapelle and 
 tlie commencement of the Seven Years' War, Frederick led a 
 very retired life at Sans Souci, a country palace near Berlin. 
 Except the ministers and generals, all the society at his court was 
 French. An academy of sciences was instituted, consisting 
 almost entirely of Frenclmien, of which Maupertuis was the 
 president. His favourite Voltaire visited iiim in 1745 and 
 
 z o 
 
390 HISTORY OF GERMAXY. Chap. L^'I1. 
 
 again in 1750; but during the last visit the two philosophers 
 C[.uaiTelled, and Voltaire quitted Prussia in disgust, carrying with 
 him some valuable papers, which he was compelled to restore, 
 before the emissaries of Frederick, who overtook the fugitive at 
 Frankfort, would permit him to continue his journey. The 
 behaviour of this vain and arrogant foreigner seems to have been 
 so intolerably insolent during his residence at Sans Souci, that 
 even the placid Germans sometimes lost all patience, and chastised 
 him as he deserved. One day at dinner he so far forgot himself 
 as to call the page in m aiting a Pomeranian beast. Tiie youth, 
 ^^ho durst not retort in the royal presence, treasured up the 
 remembrance of this insult, and many months after, during a 
 jirogress through Pomerania, exliibited A'^oltaire to the country 
 people as the king's monkey ; a trick which Avas rendered easy 
 enough by tlie personal appearance of the little withered anatomy 
 nimseif, who sat in his carriage jabbering an unknown tongue 
 and grinning at the crowd ; whilst a few of the more officious 
 among the by-standers were trying, as they supposed, to prevent 
 his escape by mounting guard at each door. The habits of 
 Frederick II. were exceedingly active. In summer he rose at 
 three, and in winter at four o'clock. Whilst liis valet was dress- 
 ing his liair he generally employed himself in reading the state 
 papers which had been sent in the day before ; and afterwards 
 received the reports of the adjutant- general and officer of the 
 guard. Then he drank a glass of water and some coffee, and 
 occupied himself with reading letters and playing on the flute 
 until nine, when the cabinet ministers were introduced to receive 
 his commands for the day. Frederick, however, did every thing 
 himself. None of his ministers possessed his confidence, and all 
 they had to do was to execute his commands. The whole 
 burthen both of the king's public and private correspondence rested 
 upon two secretaries, who were scarcely allowed to quit their 
 rooms. The following extract of a letter from Sir C. Hanbury 
 Williams, the British ntinister at Berlin, to Mr. Fox, conveys a 
 lively idea of Frederick's li,i])its: "His Prussian Majesty's 
 ministers at Berlin, I mean those for foreign affairs, make the 
 oddest figure of any in Europe. They seldom or never see any 
 despatches that are sent to the Prussian ministers at foreign 
 courts, and all letters that come to the king from foreign courts 
 go directly to the king, so that M. Podewils and Count Finken- 
 stein know no more of what passes in Europe than wliat they are 
 
Sup. Chap. LYII, FIJEDERICK II. 391 
 
 informed of by the Gazettes. Wlien any of us go to them on 
 any business, the surprise tiiey are in easily betrays their ignorance, 
 and the only answer you ever get is, that tliey will lay what you 
 say before their master, and give you an answer as soon as he 
 shall have signified his pleasure to them. When you return to 
 their houses for this answer, they tell you the exact words which the 
 king has directed, and never one word more, nor are you permitted 
 to argue any point." * * * " If a courier is to be despatched 
 to Versailles, or a minister to Vienna, his Prussian Majesty 
 draws himself the instructions for the one, and writes the letters 
 for the other. This, you will say, is great ; but if a dancer at the 
 Opera has disputes Avith a singer, or if one of those performers 
 wants a new pair of stockings, a plume for his helmet, or a finer 
 petticoat, the same King of Prussia sits in judgment on the 
 cause, and with his own hand answers the dancer s or the singer's 
 letter. His JMajesty laid out 20,000/. to build a fine theatre, and 
 his music and singers cost him near the same sum every year ; 
 yet this same King, when an opera is to be performed, Mill not 
 allow 10/. a night to light up the theatre with wax candles ; and 
 the smoke that rises from the bad oil, and the horrid stink that 
 flows from the tallow, make many of the audience sick, and 
 actually spoil the whole entertainment. What I have thought 
 about this prince is very true ; and I believe after reading what I 
 say about him, you will think so too. He is great in great things, 
 and little in little ones !" The following extracts from Frederick's 
 marginal notes to some of the Eeports from his cabinet ministers 
 will serve to illustrate the statements of the preceding letter : — 
 
 Petition from Simon, merchant 40,000 dollars invested in com- 
 
 and commercial counsellor {Com- merce will bring in 8 per cent., in 
 merzicn Bath) at Stettin, to be al- landed proiJerty only 4 per cent, 
 lowed to purchase the estate of So this man does not undei-stand 
 Kraatzen for 40,000 dollars, liis own business. A cobbler should 
 
 continue a cobbler ; a merchant 
 should think of his trade, and not 
 of buying estates. 
 
 Petition from the town of Frank- "Why, it cannot be otherwise. 
 
 fort-on-Udej', against the quartering Do they think that I can put the 
 of troops upon them, regiment into my pocket ? But the 
 
 barracks shall be rebuilt. 
 
 Petition from Col, J — t, that he That is the very reason why he 
 
 may be stationefl in Silesia, as he must not be stationed in Silesia, 
 intends to purchase estates in that He would improve the estates and 
 province, neglect the service. 
 
 Petition from JCr'nimcrherr Baron What would he do there ? He 
 
 V. Miiller, for leave to visit tlie would gamVile away th- little money 
 baths at Aix-la-Chapelle. he has left, and C(.)me back like a 
 
 beggar. 
 
392 HISTORY OF GER:.IA>TY. Chap. LVII. 
 
 Renewed petition from Baron v. Let him go to the de%"il ! 
 MiAller for leave to visit the baths. 
 
 Petition from Furstineister von He will be better educated in a 
 
 Posen, that his son may not be regimenb than in a village, 
 forcibly carried off to the military 
 profession. 
 
 Petition from the merchant Hintze Give him a round refusal. 
 for leave to import 10,000 cwt, of 
 copper, duty free. 
 
 Petition from Capt. von E — t, The army is not a public-house, 
 
 who had left the army, praying that where people may run in and out 
 
 he may be reappointed to it, his as they please. Since this man has 
 
 marriage with a rich heiress, for the once left the service, he can have no 
 
 sake of which he retired, having ambition, and I hate such officers.* 
 
 failed. &c. &c. 
 
 After his ministers had retired Frederick wrote letters, gave 
 audiences to his subjects, and visited the parade, where he re- 
 mained until dinner, which was always served up precisely at 
 twelve o'clock. The dishes were highly seasoned and dressed 
 after the Italian or French fashion ; and the dessert always con- 
 sisted of ripe fruit, of which the king was so fond, that in winter 
 two dollars a-piece were sometimes paid for cherries. Covers were 
 generally laid for eight or ten persons, principally Frenchmen, 
 whose conversation delighted him so much that he frequently 
 remained at table until four o'clock. Then he played on the flute 
 for half an hour, signed papers, and either walked in his garden or 
 amused himself with French composition ; for in the midst of all 
 his employments Frederick found time in the course of a long life 
 to publish fifteen large volumes of prose and poetry. At six there 
 was a concert, and at seven the king and a few select guests sat 
 down to supper. In the months of May and June he regularly 
 made a progress through his dominions for the purpose of reviewing 
 the troops, and ascertaining ])y personal inspection the efficiency 
 of every department of the public service ; after which he enjoyed 
 a few weeks' relaxation at some watering-place. Under an ad- 
 ministration so vigorous and at the same time so just as that of 
 Frederick, Prussia rose with inconceivable rapidity to the rank 
 of a first-rate power. Within ten years from the time of his ac- 
 cession an extensive tract of swampy land in the neighbourhood 
 of Stettin, which had hitherto been uninhabitable, contained 280 
 villages swarming with industrious handicraftsmen and agricul- 
 turists ; the Oder was made navigable by means of canals ; large 
 warehouses erected on its banks ; and intelligent foreigners en- 
 couraged to embark their capital in mercantile and farming spe- 
 
 * Sfte Lord Mahon's History of Engl ami, vol. iv., App. p. vii. seq. 
 
Sup. CiiAP. LVir. FUEDEiMciv rr. 393 
 
 culatlons. Tlie culture of the potato was introduced with great 
 success ; and its general use as an article of food enforced by 
 such arguments as none but absolute sovereigns can employ. To 
 promote tiie intellectual improvement of liis people Frederick, as 
 we have seen, built a noble opera-liouse at Berlin, added many 
 thousand volumes to tlie public library, and expended enormous 
 sums in the purchase of pictures and statues. A Roman Catholic 
 churcii and Protestant cathedral were also built at Berlin. But 
 in all these exertions for the welfare of his subjects he seems to 
 nave been actuated by no higher motive than a desire to obtain 
 the approbation of men, and, as a necessary consequence, wlien 
 those whom he most favoured repaid his kindness with ingra- 
 titude, he became misanthropical, and towards the end of his life 
 lavished all his affection on dogs and horses. His favourite grey 
 charger Conde, which was so tame that it would follow him into 
 the dining-hall and eat out of his hand, died in the year 1804, at 
 the age of thirty-eight. One of his dogs, a favourite greyhound, 
 drove out every day in a coach and six, with outriders, running 
 footmen, and all the state of a royal personage. In speaking to 
 Jier Frederick always used the pronoun Sie, whilst his generals 
 and ministers were addressed by the familiar appellation of jEr.* 
 The graves of these four-footed favourites may still be seen in 
 the gardens at Sans Souci. As a political economist Frederick 
 seems to have been very little in advance of his age. For the 
 protection of native industry, prohibitory duties were imposed on 
 articles of foreign manufacture, which, as a matter of course, were 
 smuggled into the country by speculators, who, after obtaining a 
 reasonable profit for the risk incurred, could still afford to under- 
 sell the slow and clumsy workmen of Prussia. Salt, tobacco, and 
 coffee were government monopolies, and sold at prices sufficiently 
 liigh to encourage illicit manufacture. To prevent the consump- 
 tion of untaxed coffee, the roasting of that article, except at the 
 government establishments, was strictly prohibited, and officers 
 appointed (called by the people Coffee-smellers) who were re- 
 quired to seek out and report all cases of disobedience. The 
 king's attention was one day attracted by a crowd of citizens, 
 ^vho seemed to be amusing themselves with some object affixed to 
 a dead wall at the corner of one of the streets. On inquiring the 
 cause, he was told that some person had presumed to caricature 
 
 * An obsolete form of expression, holding a middle place between the 
 familiar "Du," and the respectful "Sie." 
 
394 HISTORY OP GERMANY. Chap. LVII. 
 
 his Majesty. "Oh, is that all?" said Frederick; "come, let us 
 see your caricature ;" and, riding into the midst of the crowd, he 
 saw at a considerable height above the people's heads an absurd 
 likeness of liimself seated on the ground, with a coffee-mill between 
 his legs and an inscription, " Old Fritz the grinder." Witli the 
 most perfect good-humour he ordered the picture to be removed 
 and pasted lower down on the wall, that all might see it; and 
 rode off amidst the cheers of his delighted subjects. All tlie 
 dealings of Frederick with his people were characterized by a 
 love of justice. On the very verge of his gromids at Sans Souci 
 stood a windmill, which he wished to purchase, that he might 
 pull it down and include the site in his own gardens. But the 
 miller was obstinate, and refused to part with his property on 
 any terms. The king then had recourse to threats, which were 
 equally unavailing, the miller coolly replying that if any violence 
 were oliered to his mill he should summon his majesty before the 
 royal court of Berlin ; a threat which, according to some autho- 
 rities, he actually carried into effect, and obtained a verdict 
 against his sovereign : at all events, it is certain that the king 
 showed his respect for the laws by permitting tlie mill to remain, 
 and even rebuilt it on a large scale. Some years ago the miller, 
 who was in embarrassed circumstances, offered to sell his property 
 to the late King of Prussia ; but, instead of purchasing, the king 
 settled an annuity on the proprietor, sufficient for his own sup- 
 port and for the maintenance of what had now become a national 
 monument. Although the favours of Frederick II. were distri- 
 buted for the most part among the Frenchmen who composed the 
 select society of his court, many learned men of other nations 
 were attracted to Berlin by the unbounded freedom of discussion 
 which he allowed to writers on every subject. " Let my people 
 write, and talk, and think, and speculate as much as they please," 
 he used to say, " provided they oheij.'" A literary man, who had 
 travelled over a great part of the world, but feared to encounter 
 the " sparrow's diet and ass's labour" of the Prussian court, was 
 at last induced to visit Berlin, and told Frederick that he had 
 seen seven kings, wild or tame, but never such a monarch as his 
 majesty. Nothing delighted Frederick more than a readiness at 
 repartee. A young officer, too poor to purchase a watch, had 
 attached a chain and seals to a musket bullet, which he wore in 
 his fob. The king, who had been ijiformed of this piece of 
 fo])pery, resolved to punish him, and the next day on parade 
 
Sup. CiiAi'. LVII. FliKDEIlICK 11. 395 
 
 asked liini -^\ hat o'clock it was. Blushing deeply, the young man 
 drew out his bullet and modestly replied, " Sire, my watch points 
 only to one hour — that in which I am reatly to die for your 
 majesty." The king was so pleased at this reply that he pulled 
 out his own watch and presented it to the officer. Frederick'fi 
 death took place on the 17tli of August, 1786. The last of his 
 companions in arms. General Ziethen, had died in the previous 
 January. For nearly half a century they had fought side by 
 side in the field, and often bivouacked at the same fire, where 
 Frederick Mould watch for hours o\'er the old man as he lay on 
 the ground exhausted by a long day's march. " Let poor old 
 Ziethen sleep now," he said to a soldier, who stumbled in laying 
 a faggot on the nre ; " he has often watched that we might sleep." 
 In one of their nightly rounds Frederick and his friend were 
 attracted by the savoury odour of some bacon which a soldier Mas 
 broiling at his fire. " That stuff smells well, comrade," said 
 Frederick. " May be," replied the man, gruflfly ; " but the smell 
 is all you are likely to get of it." " Hush, blockhead," whispered 
 one of his comrada^, who had recognised the king's voice, " it is 
 his majesty." " AYell," replied the first speaker, who treated the 
 Mdiole affair as a joke of his messmates, and did not even vouchsafe 
 to look up from his supper; '^ and suppose it were old Fritz — 
 what then ?" " Comrade," said the king, taking Ziethen by the 
 arm, " we may as well be gone, for I hardly think our friend will 
 invite us to take pot-luck with him to-niglit." Towards the end 
 of his last illness, a dropsy, wdiich continued w'ith short intervals 
 of comparative ease for nearly tM'o years, Frederick was carried 
 daily into the gardens of Sans Souci, where he used to sit for 
 hours together basking in the sun. " Je serai bientot plus pros 
 de lui," were almost his last M^ords. His death produced a sensa- 
 tion throughout the whole of Europe, for there was scarcely a 
 palace or a hovel in which his name M-as not known for good or 
 for evil. They buried him in the garrison church at Potsdam, 
 near the grave of his father, notMithstanding the desire M'hich he 
 had often expressed that his body should rest in the midst of his 
 dogs on the suimy terrace of Sans Souci. TJie uniform Mhich he 
 wore on the day of his death, with his crutch-handled Malking- 
 cane and flute, are still preserved in the museum at Berlin. 
 
396 
 
 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 
 
 Chap. LYUI. 
 
 CHAPTER LVIII. 
 
 JOSEPH 11. — LEOPOLD II. 
 
 From A.D. 17(J5 to 1792. 
 
 Cathedral of Cologne.- Completion of the original Design 
 
 Francis I. died in the year 1765, and was succeeded by his son 
 Joseph II., who exercised little authority until the death of Maria 
 Theresa in 1780. Among the most important events of his reign 
 may be reckoned the dismemberment of Poland and the war of 
 the Bavarian succession. The crown of Poland having become 
 vacant in 1765 by the death of Augustus III., a Eussian army 
 advanced upon Warsaw, and, being supported by a large Prussian 
 force on the frontier, compelled the Poles to elect Stanislaus 
 Poniatowski, a creature of the Empress Catherine II. Shortly 
 after this event a war broke out between Pussia and Turkey, in 
 which the former took possession of Wallachia and Moldavia. 
 Austria having vehemently protested against her retaining these 
 
A.T>. 1780. josErii ir. 397 
 
 conquests, it was proposed, as the best mode of restoring- the 
 balance of power, tliat tiie territory of Poland should be divided 
 between Russia, Prussia, and Austria ; a sugg-estion which was 
 fully carried into effect in the year 1773. Maria Theresa, now 
 almost incapacitated by age and infirmity from taking an active 
 [)art in })ublic aliairs, could not refrain from raising her voice 
 .against this deed of shame, whicli she was unable to prevent— and 
 wrote thus to her minister Kaunitz : — " AVlien all mine own do- 
 minions were assailed, and I knew not where to lay my head in 
 peace, I relied on my good cause and the help of Almighty God. 
 But in the present affair, wherein not only political right, but 
 lionesty and common sense are against us, I must needs confess 
 that never in the whole course of my life have I felt so grieved 
 and ashamed. I know that I stand alone, and am no longer 
 en vigueur ; I must therefore let things take their course — but it 
 is pain and grief to me. Placet — because so many great and 
 learned men will have it so ; but long after my deatli you will 
 regret this daring violation of all that has hitherto been held 
 sacred." Maximilian Joseph, Elector of Bavaria, having died 
 witliout issue in 1777, the succession to his electoral dignity was 
 claimed by the Emperor Joseph, who compelled the rightful heir 
 to cede two-thirds of Bavaria to the Austrians. Tliis act of gross 
 oppression roused Frederick the Great, who immediately crossed 
 the mountains into Bohemia, where Joseph awaitod him with a 
 considerable force ; but, after a few skirmishes between the light 
 troops on both sides, a treaty of peace was signed at Tetschen on 
 the 13th of May, 1779. By this treaty the whole of Bavaria, ^^ith 
 a trifling exception, was secured to the Duke of Zweibriicken. 
 Men called this war in derision the " Potato war," because the 
 soldiers had little else to do but roast and eat their potatoes. 
 After the death of Maria Theresa in 1780, Joseph II. connnenced 
 his reforms in church and state. A proclamation was issued 
 forbidding obedience to the Pope's bull unless confirmed by the 
 imperial " placet ;" all the mendicant orders were suppressed, 
 and six hundred and twenty-four monasteries deprived of their 
 revenues ; whilst at the same time full toleration was granted to 
 all sectaries except the Deists. The consternation excited at 
 Rome by the intelligence of tliese daring innovations was so 
 great, that Pope Pius VI. judged it necessary to cross the Alps 
 witliout delay, and confront tlie Emperor in liis capital. The 
 wliole of tliis journey was like a triuinplial ppjcession. tliousands 
 Gr. ' 2 A 
 
398 HISTORY OF Germany. Chap. LYIII. 
 
 falling down at his feet as he passed, and imploring his blessing. 
 Joseph alone and his minister Kaunitz received the head of their 
 church with coldness, and strove to convince him by a series of 
 petty annoyances that his arrival at Vienna was neither expected 
 nor welcome. A pontifical high mass was celebrated in the 
 cathedral of Vienna, but the Emperor and his suite were inten- 
 tionally absent. None were suffered to accost Pius without* 
 special permission ; and in order to prevent the infringement of 
 this inhospitable regulation, the doors of his lodging were walled 
 up, with the exception of one, which was closely watched night 
 and day by a piquet of the imperial guard. After four weeks 
 spent in ineffectual negotiations, the Pope quitted Vienna, and 
 was accompanied as far as the monastery of Marienbronn by 
 Joseph, who manifested his contempt for papal authority by sup- 
 pressing the monastery almost before Pius and his suite had 
 ceased to be visible from its towers. Meanwhile the people in 
 most of the distant provinces were restless and discontented ; for 
 their priests had persuaded them that the ecclesiastical reforms of 
 the Emperor were only the commencement of an attempt to 
 abolish the Christian religion. In several places the Protestants 
 were grossly insulted ; and at Villach on the Drave a ridiculous 
 figure," intended to represent Dr. Martin Luther, was drawn 
 through the town on a hurdle, and thrown into the river. Nor 
 were the endeavours of Joseph to improve the political condition 
 of the Empire received with much favour, either by the nobles 
 or tneir vassals ; the former protesting against any infringement 
 of their privileges, whilst the people, too ignorant to understand 
 the value of liberty, sided for the most part with those whom 
 they had been accustomed to obey. To add to his embarrass- 
 ments, a league was formed in 1785 between Prussia, Saxony, 
 Hanover, Brunswick, Mecklenburg, and several other powers, 
 for the expioss purpose of resisting his design of exchanging the 
 Austrian Nethei lands for Bavaria. The establishment of this 
 alliance was almost the last public act of Frederick II., who 
 died in the following year. In 1788 the Emperor Joseph engaged 
 jn a war with Turkey, which he was compelled to abandon after 
 losino- 33,000 of his men by sickness and desertion. About the 
 same time the people of the Netherlands, at the instigation of an 
 advocate named Van der Noot, declared themselves independent 
 of Austria, and established a republic under the name of " The 
 United Belgian Commonwealth." During tliese contentions 
 
Sup. Chap. LYUI. KAUNITZ. 399 
 
 Joseph died, on the 20th of February, 1790. Disappointment at 
 the lixilure of all his plans seems to have brought on the crisis of 
 a disease under which he had been labouring ever since the 
 Turkish campaign. " I am dying," lie said, after receiving in- 
 telligence that his favourite project of reform in Iluno-ary had 
 fliiled through the obstinacy of those for whose benefit it was 
 intended; " my heart must be of stone not to break." Joseph 
 ( ommitted a most impolitic act in demolishing the frontier for- 
 tresses of the Netherlands, and thus leaving that country exposed 
 to the first attack of France. lie was incited to it by the dis- 
 contents of tlie Flemings, and seems to have thought that the 
 marriage of his sister with Louis XVI. would secure him the 
 l-erpetual friendship of the French nation. 
 
 Joseph II. was succeeded in his hereditary estates by his brothex 
 Peter Leopold, Grand Duke of Tuscany, who was chosen Em- 
 peror of Germany on the 20th of September of the same year. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER LVIII. 
 
 Kaunitz. — The habits of this minister were ridiculously effemi- 
 nate. " Fresh air," writes his admirer Hormahr, " he never 
 enjoyed ; and, to own the truth, never could endure. In the 
 liottest days of summer, if only a breath of wind stirred as he sat 
 in the balcony, he used to hold a handkerchief before his moutJi. 
 In his apartment hung a thermometer and barometer. In the 
 written instructions which he gave to his private secretary, the 
 mention of two words Mas strictly prohibited, '"Death" and 
 '• small-pox." So great was his vanity, that wlien he wished to 
 bestow unqualified praise on any one, his expression always was, 
 '• I could not have done it better myself." Everything on him 
 and about liim was French. Linen, clothes, watches, and furni- 
 tm-e, were all brought from Paris, where perhaps they had been 
 manufactured by German workmen, or even sent thither from 
 Vienna. A beautiful watcli, which he had received from Paris 
 a few days before, having suddenly stopped, Kaunitz was com- 
 pelled, sorely against his uill, to intrust it to a Viennese artist 
 named Riedel, whose skill had often been extolled by nis at- 
 tendants. With ill-disguised contempt Kaunitz desired him to 
 examine the watch, and be careful not to injure its delicate French 
 
 2 A 2 
 
400 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. LYllI. 
 
 mechanism. The artist obeyed, and opening a secret spring, 
 showed the astonished minister the inscription " Made by Riedel 
 of Vienna." 
 
 Sale of Recruits to Foreign Powers.— The practice of selling 
 their subjects as soldiers to foreign governments, which had been 
 introduced by Saxony towards the end of the eighteenth century, 
 soon became common among the petty sovereigns of Northern 
 Germany. " A couple of thousand years ago," says an anony- 
 mous writer, " it was said of Tyre, that her merchants were princes. 
 In the present day we must reverse the proverb, and say our 
 princes are merchants; for they sell everj' thing— employments, 
 orders, titles, justice ; yea, even the bodies of their subjects." In 
 the year 1776 Frederick, Landgrave of Hesse Cassel, agreed to 
 furnish a body of 12,000 men to England for the service of her 
 colonies. "Among the rest," writes Huergelmer, "there is a 
 Hessian prince, who must needs distinguish himself. Now pa- 
 laces, and gardens, and pheasant preserves, and operas, and mis- 
 tresses cannot be kept up for nothing, especially when a man is 
 burdened with the debts of his forefathers of blessed memory. 
 Our prince therefore casts about how to procure funds. And 
 what does he do ? Why, he picks me up out of the streets certain 
 ragged knaves, expends some fifty dollars a-liead in clothing 
 them, and tlien sells them out at one hundred dollars per man." 
 '• All the women in Hesse," says another writer, " seem to me to 
 be in mourning, either for their husbands and sons, who have been 
 kidnapped and sent to America ; or it may be, because the colour 
 is becoming to their dark complexions and black hair !" 
 
 T/ie lUuminati of Germany. — In the year 1776 Professor 
 Weishaupt founded at Ingoldstadt a secret society, termed the 
 Order of the Illuminati, whose professed object was the extinc- 
 tion of all religious belief. Their constitution closely resembled 
 that of the Jesuits, each member swearing implicit obedience to 
 the commands of his superior. The mischievous proceedings of 
 this society seem to have been unknown to the Bavarian authori- 
 ties until the year 1785, when many of the initiated were banished 
 or imprisoned, and their founder, AYeishaupt, compelled to seek 
 refuge at the court of the Duke of Gotha, who favoured 
 their designs. Thence the poison spread to the Rlienish states, 
 and subsequently into France. At INEentz the views of tlie 
 Illuminati were adopted by Dalberg, coadjutor of tlie archiepis- 
 copal see, and by a literary man of ruined character, nanud 
 
Sup. Chap. J^VITT. II.LUMINATI OF GERMANY. 401 
 
 ]>uhrdt, who publislied a succession of popular tracts, written 
 .fith the avowed intention of persuading- the connnon people to 
 renounce Clu'istianity. The result of their exertions was tlie 
 establishment of a Jacobin club, among the members of which 
 were the celebrated circumnavigator Forster, and other learned 
 men, whom tlie patronage of the Elector Frederick Charles had 
 induced to reside at his court. At the conmiencement of the 
 revolutionary war INIentz was given up to the French general 
 Custine, through the treachery of Eckenmauer, whom the Elector 
 had appointed commandant of tlie city. A strange scene now 
 ensued. The Jacobins, intoxicated with the success of their plans, 
 opened a large book, in which they required all to inscribe their 
 names who voted for the establishment of a republic. At the 
 same time some Clubbists dashed to pieces a stone of which, ac- 
 cording to tradition, a former Elector had said that the people 
 should never have their privileges until it had crumbled away. 
 But neither threats nor cajolery could make the substantial 
 burghers understand the value of French freedom, although many 
 of their wives and daughters paraded the streets with girdles 
 round their waists, having the word " Liberty" in front and 
 " Equality" behind, or danced round the tree of liberty with 
 swords by their sides and pistols in their hands. At length the 
 Jacobins, protected by a formidable array of French bayonets, 
 themselves proclaimed a republic, deposed all the officers of the 
 ancient electorate, and elevated one Dorscli, a native of Stras- 
 burg, to the president's chair (1792). 
 
402 
 
 HISTORY OF GERMAIN Y. 
 
 CHAr. LIX. 
 
 CHAPTER LIX. 
 
 LEOPOLD IL — FRANCIS II. — FREDERICK WILLIAM II. 
 
 From A.D. 1790 to 1806. 
 
 IIoLt's House iii the Valley of Passeycr 
 
 The breaking out of the French Revolution in 1789, which 
 shook all Europe to its centre, w^as destined to produce the most 
 important changes in the Germanic empire. The decree of the 
 French Assembly abolishing- all distinction of ranks Mas followed 
 by the emigration of the greater part of the French nobility, 
 most of whom settled in Germany, and especially at Coblentz 
 and Worms. At their head were Monsieur and the Count 
 d'Artois, the brothers of the French King, who opened negotia- 
 tions with most of the European sovereigns, and conjured them to 
 defend the cause of legitimacy against the assaults to which it 
 was exposed. Louis XVI. himself was wavering between the 
 expediency of joining the emigration, or of throwing himself into 
 the arms of the National Assembly. 
 
 The German sovereigns were disposed to assist the French 
 King. The Austrian court was personally interested in the 
 question, through the unfortunate Marie Antoinette, the sister 
 of the emperor ; and likewise considered itself bound to protect 
 
A.D. 17i>2. WAR DECLARED AGAINST FRANCE. 403 
 
 tlic German princes and nobles on the Rliine, whose estates 
 and feudal rights on the French territory had been invaded 
 by the new French constitution. At the same time the dis- 
 tracted state of France seemed to offer an easy conquest of that 
 country. In August 1791, the Emperor Leopold, King Fred- 
 ciiek William II. of Prussia, and the Count d'Artois, concluded 
 ail alliance at Pillnitz, and published a manifesto declaring that 
 they considered the situation of Louis XVI. as a matter of com- 
 mon interest to all European sovereigns, and that they were 
 resolved to restore the French monarchy by force of arms. 
 
 This declaration, however, remained at first a mere threat. It 
 vras not followed up by any active steps, which seemed, indeed, 
 to be rendered unnecessary by the King of France's having- 
 accepted the constitution. In spite of the treaty, there was from 
 the beginning no cordial co-operation between Austria and 
 Prussia. The latter power was more occupied with her scJiemes 
 of aggrandisement in Poland, than Avith the cause of legitimacy 
 in France ; whilst tlie Austrian minister, Kaunitz, with tlie 
 indolence natural to his character, was inculcating indifference on 
 his master, and persuading him to leave the French to be s^^allowed 
 up in the volcano of their own revolution. But the treaty of 
 Pillnitz, and especially the arming of the French emigrants, had 
 produced a great sensation in France. The more violent orators 
 of the National Assembly were for taking the initiative in hostile 
 measures ; and in spite of the opposition of Robespierre, the King- 
 was forced, in April 1792, to declare war against Austria. 
 
 The Emperor had already begun to prepare for the approach- 
 ing struggle, by sending large forces into the Netherlands and 
 the Breisgau, and by concluding a treaty with Sweden on the 
 7th February. But this was the last act of both the contracting 
 monarchs. On the 1st of the following March, Leopold died, 
 and was succeeded in the empire by his son Francis II., then 
 hardly twenty-four years of age; and on the 16th of the same 
 month Gustavus fell at a masked ball by the hand of an assassin. 
 
 Against the large, but as yet ill-disciplined French armies posted 
 on the frontiers of France, Austria and Prussia alone took the 
 field. England was neutral, Russia intent on seizing Poland. 
 The summer of 1792 was far advanced before the allied German 
 army reached the Rhine. It was connnanded by Ferdinand, 
 Duke of Brunswick, the companion in arms of Frederick tlie 
 Great in the Seven Years' War, and at that time reputed tlie 
 
404 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. LIX. 
 
 ablest general in Europe. Ferdinand, however, was averse to 
 the war. An easily acquired military renown was at stake, and 
 even, perhaps, the sacrifice of brilliant hopes which he had con- 
 ceived from his secret negotiations with some of the leaders of the 
 French revolution.* At the same time Prussia was not hearty 
 in the cause. She merely wished to make a show of hostility on 
 the Rhine, for the purpose of propitiating Catherine of Russia. 
 
 On the 25th of July the King of Prussia joined the army at 
 Coblentz, and on the same day the celebrated and ill-omened 
 manifesto of the Duke of Brunswick was published, declaring the 
 intention of the allies to restore the power of the French monarch, 
 and threatening that if any violence were offered to him, his queen, 
 or any of the royal family, a signal vengeance would be taken, 
 and Paris delivered up to military execution and destruction. 
 The effect of this proclamation was precisely the reverse of that 
 intended. Instead of frightening the French people, it stung 
 them into fury, and was the immediate cause of the death of 
 Louis, and the establishment of the Republic. 
 
 So confident were the allies of success that tlie Duke of Bruns 
 wick said to his officers, '' Gentlemen, not too much baggage ; it 
 is nothing but a military promenade." But their first entrance 
 into Champagne served to dissipate these illusions. Instead of 
 being joined by the population, as the emigrants had led them to 
 expect, they found the people every where hostile. The whole 
 campaign was decided by two battles — those of Valmy and 
 Jemappes. The former was a mere distant cannonade, for the 
 Duke of Brunswick hesitated to attack the French. He was in 
 fact secretly negotiating with the French General Dumouriez, 
 and endeavouring to persuade him to join the invaders and 
 support the throne of France. Dumouriez at first pretended to 
 listen to these proposals ; but when he felt himself strong enough, 
 he threw oflp the mask. Tlie King of Prussia, however, was for 
 prosecuting the war with vigour, and orders were given to 
 advance. But this determination was altered by a decree of the 
 Committee of Public Safety, declaring that they would enter into 
 no negotiations so long as a Prussian force remained on the 
 French soil.f Shortly afterwards the abolition of the monarchy 
 and establishment of a republic in France were announced. On 
 
 * Alison's History of Europe, chap. x. 
 
 t The determination is also said to have been influenced by a bribe 
 administered to the Countess Lichtenau, the King of Prussia's mistress. 
 
A.d! 1704. SUCCESSES OF THE FRENCH. 405 
 
 tiie 2otli of October the Duke of Brunswick recrossed the Ivhiiic ; 
 Dumouriez left Kellermami to pursue him, and hastened to attack 
 the Austrians in Flanders. On the Gth of November a battle 
 ensued at Jemappes with the main body of the Austrians under 
 the Archduke Albert. The French lines were at first broken, 
 but were rallied by Dumouriez's valet, Baptiste, and by the 
 young- Duke de Chartres, afterwards Louis Philippe, King of tne 
 French. A complete victory was gained by the Frencii, which 
 led to the conquest of all Flanders. On tlie 14tli November 
 the French entered Brussels and proclaimed liberty and equality, 
 liaving first plundered all that they could lay hands on. For the 
 most part, the Flemings, who had been alienated from Austria 
 by tiie conduct of Joseph II., regarded this event with joy. 
 
 The French now gave full scope to the rage excited in them 
 bv the Duke of Brunswick's manifesto, and the invasion of their 
 territory. On the 21st January, 1793, Louis XVI. was brougnt 
 to the block ; and before the expiration of the year the same fate 
 overtook his unfortunate queen Marie Antoinette. In February 
 1793, France declared war against England, Spain, and Holland. 
 England now joined the first great coalition, and nearly the whole 
 of Europe seemed leagued against France. Dumouriez, after 
 being twice defeated by the allies, deserted to their ranks. 
 Nevertheless the war was carried on without vigour or success. 
 The English expedition into the Low Countries was ill conducted. 
 On the Rhine, the French republican armies under Pichegru and 
 Hoche made themselves masters of Alsace, and in the following 
 year reconquered all the places which had been taken from 
 them. France was converted into a vast camp. At the call of 
 Carnot more than a million of armed men seemed to start as it 
 were from the earth. Towards the end of 1794 the French 
 entered Holland, and took pos.session of Utrecht and Amsterdam. 
 Germanv had nothing to oppose to the enthusiasm of the armies 
 of France but a host selfish, indifferent, and without the 
 slightest feeling of patriotism. Nothing could show more strongly 
 than the events of this campaign, that the body called " tlie 
 German empire " was a mere visionary phantom without life or 
 soul. A contemporary writer describes the imperial forces as a 
 mob clothed in the most various uniforms, and more resembling 
 Jack Puddings than soldiers. Here a convent .sent two men ; 
 there a small court furnished forth an ensign ; there again a towi. 
 provided a captain. Of love of country there was not a single trace 
 
 2 A o 
 
406 HISTORY OF GERMANY, Chap. LIX. 
 
 For that, indeed, it was necessary to have a country ; but Germany 
 was for tlie most part a mere group of little despotisms characterized 
 by oppression, pride, slavery, and indescribable weakness. The 
 Abbe de Pradt compared its numerous states to a vast menagerie, 
 the inhabitants of which survey one another through the bars of 
 their cages. Hunting parties, balls, operas, mistresses, consumed 
 all the money which the princes wrung from their subjects, and 
 left nothing for the defence of the frontiers. Prussia, determined 
 by the conquest of Holland, at length openly deserted the cause 
 wliich she had all along so lukewarmly supported. On the 5th 
 of April, 1795, she concluded at Basle a separate peace with the 
 French republicans, conceding the left bank of the Rhine, for 
 which she was to receive an ulterior compensation. Her subse- 
 quent overthrow and humiliation was but a just retribution for 
 her selfish conduct on this occasion. 
 
 Austria, however, continued the w^ar. Kaunitz had retired from 
 the imperial council, and was succeeded by Thugut, the son of a 
 poor fisherman at Lintz, who had risen to that high post solely by 
 his abilities. But in the field the obsolete tactics of the Aus- 
 trians, and, with the exception of the emperor's brother, tiie 
 Archduke Charles, the want of any distinguished talent in their 
 generals, rendered them an unequal match for the great captain 
 who now appeared upon the theatre of war. This Avas Napoleon 
 Buonaparte, a young man of twenty-six years of age, the son of a 
 Corsican advocate, who had already distinguished himself as an 
 artillery officer at the siege of Toulon, and who was now in- 
 trusted with the connnand of the French army in Italy. Besides 
 this army, two otk^rs were destined for the invasion of Germany : 
 one under Jourdan on the Lower Rhine, and the other under 
 Moreau on the Upper Rhine. In the month of April, 1796, 
 Napoleon crossed the Alps, and having forced the Sardinians to 
 sign a treaty of peace with France, several times defeated the 
 Austrian general Beaulieu, and compelled him to retreat into 
 the Tyrol. In the beginning of the following year the Italian 
 general Alvinzi was defeated near Rivoli ; and Wurmser, \Aho 
 had thrown himself into Mantua with 21,000 men, surrendered 
 at discretion to Napoleon. Meanwhile the other French armies 
 liad penetrated into the heart of Germany ; but Jourdan having 
 been overthrown by the Archduke Charles, was compelled to fall 
 back on the Rhine, whilst JMoreau effected a masterly retreat 
 through Suabia and the Black Forest, and joined his colleague on 
 
A.D. 1707. Tlil^ATY OF CAMPO FOIIMIO. 407 
 
 the banks of tliat river. On the other side, liowever, Napoleon 
 penetrated in 1797 througli the Tyrol into Styria, and threatened 
 the Austrian capital itself. Under these eirciunstances negotia- 
 tions were opened for a peace. Notwithstandintr his brilliant 
 success, Napoleon was in a somewhat perilous situation ; the main 
 l)ody of his army, which seemed too small and too ill provided 
 with cavalry to push forwards into the heart of Austria, being 
 far advanced into the mountainn, and his wings menaced by a 
 rising of the people in Croatia and the Tyrol. The Austrians 
 purposely prolonged the negotiations, in the hope that a more 
 moderate government would be established in France. The 
 snows of October, which already began to cover the summits of the 
 Alps, indicated the necessity for a termination of the campaign. 
 Napoleon grew impatient, and declared that if a treaty were not 
 signed in 12 hours he would immediately recommence operations. 
 Nothing having been done at the expiration of tliat time, Napo- 
 leon proceeded to the Austrian ambassador's, and seizing a vase 
 which he highly valued, exclaimed : " The die is then cast, the 
 truce broken, and war declared ; but mark my words ! before the 
 end of autumn I will shatter your monarchy as I destroy this 
 porcelain :" and immediately dashed the vase on the floor. The 
 Austrian plenipotentiary was tlmnderstruck, and on tlie following 
 day, October 17th, 1797, the treaty of Campo Formio was 
 signed.* It was an arrangement designed entirely for the 
 aggrandisement of France and Austria, and in which the inte- 
 rests of Germany were left out of sight. Flanders and the 
 left bank of the Rhine were ceded to France, and the Cisalpine 
 liepublic established in Italy. Austria was to have Venice, for 
 which, however, she ceded Mentz to France. 
 
 But this peace was destined to be of short duration. By an 
 article of the treaty, a congress was appointed to meet at Rastadt, 
 near Baden, to settle the affairs of the empire. AYhen it assembled, 
 loud complaints against Austria were raised by those Gierman 
 princes whose interests had been sacrificed by the peace of Campo 
 Formio. M. Lehrbach, the Austrian minister, replied with some 
 justice, that his court had done all it could to uphold the integrity 
 of the empire, and that if it had been unsuccessful, it was owing 
 to tiie defection of those who had lent no assistance to the common 
 cause. In these conferences Germany seemed prostrate at the 
 foot of France. Talleyrand, then the French minister for foreign 
 * Alison's History of Europe, chap. liii. 
 
408 HISTORY OF GERIMANY. Chap. LIX. 
 
 affairs, was bribed with gold, and with the sacrifice of female 
 honour, to procure advantages for various German princes. The 
 French plenipotentiaries at Rastadt, Robertjot, Bonnier, and Jean de 
 Bry, conducted themselves with the greatest insolence, and treated 
 the representatives of the German nation en canaille. These insults 
 roused the anger of the Germans. On the 13th April, 1798, 
 the hotel of General Bernadotte, the French ambassador at the 
 court of Vienna, was attacked by the populace. Bernadotte had 
 given on that day 2ifete to his friends, during which lie caused an 
 immense tricolor flag, inscribed with the words '- Liberie, 
 Egalite,''' to be hoisted before his gate. The Viennese, con- 
 ceiving that this was intended as an insult to their sovereign, 
 surrounded his hotel in menacing crowds. One of the assailants 
 having been wounded by a pistol discliarged from a window, the 
 populace innnediately scaled the walls, destroyed the ambassador's 
 furniture and carriages, and would probably have taken his life, 
 liad not two regiments of cuirassiers arrived to the rescue. Berna- 
 dotte quitted Vienna the following day with a numerous escort of 
 cavalry, and in a high state of exasperation. Angry conferences 
 ensued at Seltz, which ended in a rupture between France and 
 Austria. The former power insisted on reparation for the 
 insult offered to her ambassador, whilst Austria demanded explana- 
 tions respecting the recent French invasion of Switzerland, and 
 occupation of Italy. The absence of Buonaparte in Egypt 
 seemed to the Austrians to present a favourable opportunity for 
 striking a blow, and they now entered into the second great coali- 
 tion with England and Russia. In Germany the war was at first 
 attended with some advantages on the side of the Austnans, and 
 the battle of Stockach, March 26, 1799, in wliich Jourdan was 
 defeated by the Arcliduke Cliarles, placed the town of Rastadt in 
 their power. The Congress was still sitting there ; for though at 
 Avar with Austria, France was still at peace with the German 
 empire. The desire of the Austrian cabiiiet to learn to what 
 extent the German princes liad made advances to the French 
 Directory led to a fatal catastrophe. The French plenipoten- 
 tiaries were directed to leave the town on the 19th of April, as it 
 was about to be occupied by the imperial troops ; but the escort 
 which they demanded was refused, it being the intention of the 
 Austrians to seize their papers. As they were leaving the town 
 in the evening, they were set upon in a small wood not far from 
 the gates by a party of Austrian hussars, and sabred. Jean de 
 
A.D. 1803. PEACE CONCLUDED AT LUXEVILLE. 4U9 
 
 IJry alone escaped with liis life, who, havincr been struck down 
 into a ditch, had the presence of mind to feign that he was dead. 
 This g-ross violation of international law excited universal indigna- 
 tion in Europe. The Austrian authorities did not probably 
 intend that the French ministers should be murdered ; but the 
 mere attack upon them deserves the severest reprobation, especially 
 as the Austrian government took no steps to discover the perpe- 
 trators. 
 
 This outrage inspired the French with fresh vigour. Tlie cam- 
 paign, which had previously languished, was now conducted with 
 the greatest ardour, but our limits will not permit us to enter 
 into details. A prominent feature of it was the great success of 
 the Russians under Suwaroff, who utterly routed Moreau's army 
 near Cassauo in Lombardy, subsequently penetrated into Switzer- 
 land, and, if he had been well supported by the Austrians, might 
 probably have marched to Paris. These advantages, however, 
 were neutralised by the want of cordial co-operation betv.een the 
 Austrians and Russians ; and the war was brought to a close by 
 the campaign of Napoleon, now First Consul, in Italy, and that 
 of Moreau in Germany. The former was decided by Napoleon's 
 victory over the Austrian general, Melas, at Marengo, June 14th, 
 1800, the latter by the still more important one gained by Mo- 
 reau over the Archduke John at Ilohenlinden on the 3rd of 
 December of the same year, by which the road to Vienna was 
 laid open to the French. Austria was now forced to conclude a 
 peace at Luneville, February 9th, 1801, the conditions of which 
 were not very different from those of Campo Formio. 
 
 Germany was indignant that Austria had signed this treaty in 
 the name of the empire. The question of indemnity for tJiose 
 Grerman princes who had suffered by the late events still remained, 
 and for the purpose of settling it a committee of the imperial 
 diet was appointed. It was perceived that more might be gained 
 by negotiation and diplomacy on this occasion than by the results 
 of the most successful campaign. The German states in alliance 
 Mith France, which country had now entered into a close compact 
 with Russia, obtained the lion's share of the spoil. The recess of the 
 diet of the 2oth February, 1803, was the most important arrange- 
 ment of tiie internal affairs of Germany that had occurred since the 
 peace of AYestphalia, and gave an entirely new face to the empire. 
 The principle on which it chieHy proceeded was the secularization 
 of the ecclesiastical sovereignties. As the three spiritual eke- 
 
410 HISTORY OF GERMAXY. Qhap. LIX. 
 
 torates of Treves, Cologne, and Mentz lay on the left bank of tho 
 Khine, they were abolished, though the last was transferred to 
 Ratisbon. By way of compensation, the electoral dignity was 
 conferred on the Landgrave of Hesse Cassel, the Duke of Wiir- 
 temberg, the Margrave of Baden, and the Grand Duke of Tus- 
 cinj, the Emperor's brother, to wliom Salzburg had been assigned 
 by way of compensation for what he had lost m Italy. All the 
 fi'ee imperial cities were done away with except six, viz., Liibeck, 
 Hamburg, Bremen, Frankfort, Augsburg, and Nuremberg, as 
 well as all the bishoprics and abbacies which had not been pre- 
 viously secularised, and a vast number of the smaller Germaji 
 principalities. The dominions of Bavaria, Baden, and Wfirtem- 
 berg were greatly augmented at the expense of their neighbours. 
 But Prussia above all now reaped the fruits of her adherence to 
 France, and of her desertion of the German cause. To her were 
 assigned the bishoprics of Ilildesheim and Paderborn, a great 
 part of Minister, together with many abbacies and free cities in 
 Westphalia ajid Thuriiigia, especially Erfurt ; making up alto- 
 gether about four times as much as she had lost on the left bank 
 of the Rhine. 
 
 The peace which had been concluded between England and 
 France at Amiens on the 27th March, 1802, lasted but little more 
 than a year ; and the recommencement of iiostilities between 
 those countries was signalised by a fresh insult to the German 
 empire on the part of France, in the seizure and occupation of 
 the electorate of Hanover. After that event some thousands of 
 Hanoverians passed over into England, where they were formed 
 into a brigade called " the King's German Legion," and served 
 with distinction in Spain, Portugal, France, and Italy. Another 
 subject of complaint was tlie violation of tlie German territory 
 by the seizure of the Duke d'Engliien at Ettenheim, and his sub- 
 sequent murder. But a still greater humiliation was reserved 
 for the house of Austria. In May, 1 804, Napoleon assumed the 
 empire, and in March of the following year converted the Ligu- 
 rian and Cisalpine republics into a kingdom of Italy, and appro- 
 priated the iron crown of Lombardy. In these proceedings 
 Napoleon purposely followed the prece(l(Mit of Charlemagne, and 
 virtually overthrew the pretensions of tlie German Emperor to 
 be regarded as the successor of the Caesars. The Austrian 
 cabinet, however, which was not prepared for war, dissembled its 
 indignation. It was with the greatest difficulty that it v.as at 
 
A.D. 1805. TIIEATY OF TRESBURG. 411 
 
 leng'th induced to join the tliird great coalition now forming 
 against France by England, Russia, and Sweden. TIjc grounds 
 of its reluctance were the ill state of its tinanceSj and the certainty 
 of exposing the Austrian territory to attack. The former difti- 
 culty was obviated by Great Britain undertaking to furnish sub- 
 sidies, and in August, 1805, Austria joined the coalition. Prussia 
 still stood aloof, expecting to be rewarded with Hanover. Aus- 
 tria connnitted a fatal mistake in withdrawing the command of 
 her armies from the Arcliduke Charles and entrusting it to the 
 incompetent Mack, whose name, said General Biilow, is, in the 
 prophetic books of the Old Testament, equivalent to defeat. On 
 the 17th October, 1805, Mack was totally defeated at Ulm by 
 Napoleon, who had crossed the Rhine with the army of England. 
 More than 60,000 men, tlie flower of the Austrian army, laiil 
 down their arms on that occasion. The garrison of Ulm, 30,000 
 strong, with 60 guns, defiled before Napoleon as he stood sur- 
 rounded by a brilliant staff before the fire of a bivouac on a rocky 
 eminence near the town. In November he was at Vienna: but 
 a large Russian army under Kutusofi^, accompanied by the Em- 
 peror Alexander in person, now appeared in Moravia, and was 
 joined by Francis II., with the remnant of the Austrian forces. 
 Besides this large army in front Napoleon was threatened in the 
 rear by the Archduke Charles and his veteran battalions, who 
 were rapidly approaching from Italy. The necessity for imme- 
 diately striking a decisive blow was apparent ; and on the 1st of 
 December, 1805, Napoleon gained at Austerlitz one of his most 
 splendid victories. Soon after this battle, which Napoleon called 
 '• the battle of the three emperors," a treaty of peace was signed 
 at Presburg, by which Austria was stripped of a large part of 
 lier dominions. The victories of Napoleon had placed him in 
 possession of an empire as large as that of Charlemagne, and he 
 now proceeded to reward his friends and adherents. Crowns were 
 bestowed ^^■ith a lavish liand ; new kingdoms started into being ; 
 and all Germany shortly assumed a diflTerent political aspect. 
 His German allies were the first to taste of his munificence. 
 Bavaria, with the additions of Anspach and Bayreuth taken from 
 Prussia, and of the Tyrol, Vorarlberg, the Margravate of Bur- 
 gau, the bishoprics of Passau, Trent, and Brixen, together with 
 other provinces torn from Austria, was erected into a kingdom 
 in favour of the Elector jNIaximilian Joseph. Frederick of Wiir- 
 tend^erg also received tlie kingly dignity, and the Austiian pos- 
 
412 HISTORY OF GEliMAXr. Chap. LIX. 
 
 sessions in Suabia were added to his dominions. Charles Frede- 
 rick of Baden was made a grand duke, and received the Breisgau 
 in addition to his hereditary states. Of all the Austrian spoils 
 Napoleon reserved only Venice for himself, which was added to 
 tlie kingdom of Italy. His brother Joseph was created King of 
 Naples, his brother Louis King of Holland, and his step-son Eu- 
 gene Beauharnais was named Viceroy of Italy. 
 
 'J'he following year (1806) produced still greater changes in 
 the political state of Germany. Napoleon had for some time 
 been endeavouring to bring about a league, under his protection, 
 of the German states on the right bank of the Rldne, which 
 might serve both as a bulwark to France and a means of assist- 
 ance in the w^ar, which now seemed to be approaching, with 
 Prussia and Russia. On the 12th of July the " Confederation of 
 the Rhine" was actually signed. By this act sixteen German 
 princes, the chief of whom were the kings of Bavaria and Wiir- 
 temberg, formed a confederacy among themselves and with the 
 French emperor, and were declared to be for ever severed from 
 the German empire. The cabinet of Vienna felt that under a 
 stroke like this, which deprived the imperial crown of the fairest 
 l)ortion of its territory and sixteen millions of subjects, the em- 
 l)ire could no longer exist ; and, on the 6th of August, Francis II., 
 formally resigning the crown which had been worn by his prede- 
 cessors since the days of Charlemagne, assumed the title of Em- 
 peror of Austria. The confederacy of the Rhine was subsequently 
 joined by several more German states, among which was Saxe 
 Weimar ; a circumstance of no great moment in itself, but whicli 
 seemed to place the representatives of German intellect there 
 assembled at the feet of the conqueror. Goethe was mean enough 
 to prostitute his muse by composing a poem in praise of Napoleon. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER LIX. 
 
 Second and third partitions of Poland. — The Polish diet 
 which opened in 1788, supported by Frederick William II. of 
 Prussia, proclaimed a new constitution of an entirely monarchical 
 form, in which the ancient veto was done away with, and the 
 throne declared hereditary in the house of Saxony. The Rus- 
 sians were driven out of Poland, and the new constitution re- 
 ceived the public sanction botii of Prussia and England. The 
 
Sup. CiiAP. LIX. rARTITIOX OF POLAND. 413 
 
 former power agreed to assist the Poles against all attacks with 
 30,000 men. and to uphold tlie Polish dependencies of Courland, 
 Dantsic, and Thorn. This new constitution also receivefl the 
 ai)pn)bation of the Emperor Leopold. The object of Frederick 
 William II. in thus restoring the independence of Poland seems 
 to have been to place a power between himself and the Russian 
 states, as he then wished to employ his whole force in the west of 
 Germany. No sooner were Austria and Prussia engaged in the 
 war with France, than Catherine of Russia declared the new 
 Polish constitution to be French and Jacobite, and in the ab • 
 sence of the Prussian army quickly overran the whole country. 
 Frederick AVilliam II. was afraid to leave the Rhine, lest Aus- 
 tria should gain ground there. So far from keeping his word to 
 assist tlie Poles, he agreed with Catherine in designating the very 
 constitution which he had liimself approved as Jacobite, and sent 
 a Prussian army into Poland to receive his share of the booty. 
 In this second partition Russia obtained Lithuania, Podolia, and 
 the Ukraine, whilst Prussia got Thorn, Dantsic, and South 
 Prussia (Posen and Kaliscli). Austria was wholly guiltless of 
 tiiis second partition, and received nothing. 
 
 The indignation of the Poles was naturally roused l)y this 
 nefarious transaction. Kosciusco, who in company with Lafayette 
 had fought under Washington, raised the people, armed them witli 
 scytiies, and proclaimed the restoration of Old Poland. It must 
 not, however, be concealed that a large party among the Poles 
 had imbibed the detestable principles of the French revolution, 
 and that scenes of great atrocity were enacted in AVarsaw and 
 other places. Frederick AVilliam II., with the help of the Poles, 
 might now have exterminated in Poland the influence of Russia, 
 whose colossal power seemed to threaten Europe : but instead of 
 tiiis he helped to aggrandise her, and discarded all the principles 
 of justice for the sake of a tract of country which cost more than 
 it brought him. He himself took the field at the head of his 
 army, and defeated the scytlie-men of Kosciusco near Szezekociny 
 in June, 1794, but was repulsed in an attempt upon AVarsaw. 
 The Russians, who had purposely awaited the withdrawal of the 
 Prussians, then invaded Poland with a large army under Suwaroff. 
 Kosciusco was defeated, wounded, and taken })risoner ; AVarsaw 
 stormed and captured, and 18,000 of the inhabitants, of every 
 age and sex, slaugiitered. Then followed, in 179-5, the tiiird par- 
 tition of Poland, or rather her complete anniiiilation. Russia 
 
414 HISTORY OF GKllMAXY. Chap. LIX. 
 
 now took Lithuania and Yolhynia to the Niemen and Bug ; Prus- 
 sia had all the country west of the Niemen, including Warsaw ; 
 Austria all that part south of the Bug. At the same time the 
 old Polish fief of Courland was incorporated with Russia. 
 
 Kosciusco spent two years of his life in the dungeons of St. 
 Petersburg, but on the death of Catherine was liberated by Paul 1. 
 He subsequently visited England, America, and Switzerland, and 
 ended his days in France. Buonaparte made an unauthorised and 
 most unjustifiable use of his name in an attempt to raise the Poles 
 in 1806'. 
 
 Excesses of the French republican soldiers in Germany. — 
 The French republican soldiery that invaded Germany did not 
 burn and murder to so great an extent as the armies which over- 
 ran the Palatinate a century previously, but they robbed and 
 plundered all the more. In Cologne they filled a whole church 
 with coffee and sugar. In Aix-la-Chapelle they carried off the 
 finest paintings of Rubens and Vandyck, the marble pillars from 
 the altar of the cathedral, and the marble slab which covered 
 the grave of Charlemagne. All these they sold to a Dutch Jew. 
 Their beastly outrages, and the sacrileges wdiich they committed 
 in the churches, surpass all belief. The altars were either de- 
 stroyed or defiled in the grossest manner ; the images of the saints 
 v/ere overthrown ; the consecrated wafers either trodden under 
 foot or flung to the dogs. In the country their excesses were 
 still greater than in the towns. Their demands were insatiable, 
 and they showed a peculiar dexterity in extorting the verv last 
 penny from their victims. 
 
A.n. 1806. FREDERICK WILLIAM III. 415 
 
 CHAPTER LX. 
 
 PRUSSIA DECLARES WAR AGAINST FRANCE. — PEACE OF TlLf-IT. 
 A.D. lSOG-7. 
 
 "We ^^ ill now turn for a moment to tJie affairs of Prussia, which 
 power was about to reap tiie well-merited reward of her desertion 
 of the German cause. In November, 1797, Frederick William II. 
 died. He had found at his accession a treasure of seventy-two 
 millions of dollars, accumulated by the care of Frederick " the 
 Only," but by his expensive habits and the rapaciousness of his 
 mistress, left at his death a debt of twenty-eight millions. lie 
 was succeeded by his son, Frederick William III., then tAventy- 
 .>>even years of age — a prince of a very different character from 
 Ids father, severe and regular in private life, and, amidst a disso- 
 lute court, the pattern of every domestic virtue. The young king, 
 however, was at first guided by his father's favourite minister 
 Ilaugwitz, the chief author of the temporizing policy of Prussia ; 
 i\nd it was some years before he adopted a bolder and more 
 patriotic line of conduct. But gradually, the more generous 
 and maidy policy of Baron Ilardenberg began to prevail ; in 
 ^^•hich the King of Prussia was confirmed by a visit of the Em- 
 peror Alexander of Russia to Berlin in the autumn of 1805, 
 shortly before the battle of Austerlitz. On this occasion the two 
 monarchs entered into a secret convention with the view of erect- 
 ing a barrier against the encroachments of France. But these 
 designs were for the moment frustrated, and the veteran diplo- 
 matist Ilaugwitz was still to stain the close of his career by an 
 act of the most signal perfidy. In pursuance of the convention 
 just mentioned, he had been despatched to Vienna to declare war 
 against France, and hostilities were to have commenced on the 
 15th of December. Meanwhile, however, the battle of Austerlitz 
 had been fought, and Austria detached from ihe coalition. In 
 these circumstances Ilaugwitz not only refrained from declaring 
 war against Napoleon, which was natural enough, but resolved to 
 secure a share of the spoils of the allies. A few days after the 
 battle of Austerlitz he waited on the French emperor, congratu- 
 lated him on liis success, and proposed a treaty by which Hanover 
 was to be annexed to tiie Prussian dominions in exchange for 
 some of her southern provinces which were to be ceded to Bavaria 
 
416 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. LX. 
 
 and PVance. A treaty to that effect was actually signed on the 
 1 5th of December, the very day fixed for the commencement of 
 hostilities. But from that moment Napoleon, who was aware of 
 the convention between Prussia and Russia, resolved on the 
 destruction of the former power, whose conduct had inspired him 
 with the greatest contempt, though for a time he dissembled hi--^ 
 resentment. England, naturally indignant at this treachery, seized 
 no fewer than 400 Prussian ships, either in her harbours or on 
 the seas. 
 
 Meanwhile, however, the Prussian people were smarting under 
 the painful consciousness of their degradation ; and this feeling 
 was continually embittered by the insolent contempt which Napo- 
 leon openly manifested for Prussia, and by his incessant encroach- 
 ments on her rights and territories. An irrepressible spirit of 
 patriotism was at length awakened ; on every side was heard the 
 call to arms. This martial spirit was further excited by Prince 
 Louis, and especially by Louisa, the beautiful Queen of Prussia, 
 who, in the uniform of her regiment of hussars, rode at their head 
 through the streets of Berlin. Prussia hastened to conciliate her 
 offended allies, and, having obtained the support of England and 
 Russia, declared war against Napoleon in the autumn of 1806. 
 But her plans were ill digested, and the officers to whom the 
 execution of them was intrusted were for the most part either 
 Worn-out veterans acquainted only with the imperfect system of 
 tactics practised in the days of Frederick the Great, or mere 
 martinets, who had seen little service beyond that of appearing- 
 daily on parade in buckskin breeches, with stiff leather stocks, 
 powdered heads, and enormous queues. The result of this ill- 
 advised attempt was what might have been anticipated. The 
 commander-in-chief Ferdinand Duke of Brunswick, a veteran of 
 seventy-two, was utterly routed at Auerstiidt by Marshal Davoust 
 on the 14th of October ; and on the same day another army under 
 the Prince of Ilohenlohe was attacked near Jena by Napoleon in 
 person, and compelled to fly in disorder, leaving beliind them all 
 their artillery, colours, and baggage. The Duke of Brunswick 
 himself, who had been severely wounded early in the day, was 
 carried in a litter to his palace, which he found deserted. *' God 
 help me," said the poor old man : " I leave all and all have left 
 me." He then addressed a touching letter to Napoleon, imploring 
 his protection ; but the stern conqueror replied that he knew no 
 reigning Duke of Brunswick : he was acquainted only with a cer- 
 
A.D. ISOG. ENTRY OF NArOLEON INTO BERLIN. 417 
 
 tiiiii General Brunswick, wiio had declared in tlic year 1792 tliat 
 lie would destroy Paris, and wiio richly deserved every misfortune 
 tiiat might befall him. The wounded prince, on receiving this 
 heartless answer, caused himself to be conveyed to Ottensen, in 
 the Danish territory, where death soon put an end to his suffer- 
 ings. Bliicher, wlio had commanded the Prussian cavalry in the 
 battle of Jena, fled towards Lilbeck, where he was again defeated 
 in a bloody engagement under the walls of the town, and 4000 
 of his men made prisoners. He then continued his flight to the 
 sea-coast, but, finding no means provided for the embarkation of 
 his remaining troops, the indignant veteran surrendered to the 
 French, and was soon afterwards exchanged for Marshal Victor. 
 Ten days after the battle of Jena Napoleon made his triumphal 
 entry into Berlin.* As no measures had been adopted for its 
 defence, the arsenal with 500 pieces of cannon and all the stores 
 of ammunition fell at once into his hands. The principal citizens 
 of Berlin seemed to glory in their shame. Wherever a crowd 
 was collected to witness the arrival of the French, well-dressed 
 persons were seen gliding from one group to another, and whis- 
 pering in the ears of the people, " Shout ' Vive I'Empereur ! ' or 
 we are all lost." And even w^hen the French Commandant Ilulin, 
 willing to spare their feelings, directed that the disarming should 
 take place with as little publicity as possible, the magistrates 
 caused it to be proclaimed by the voice of a common crier, that 
 each citizen, on pain of death, should bring his weapons openly 
 to the town-hall. The common people, on their part, exliibited 
 a heartless indifference to the fate of their coiuitry, which called 
 forth many expressions of disgust from the. high-minded and 
 patriotic French officers. One fellow, who had volimteered his 
 services as guide to the place where the public stores of wood 
 were deposited, was contemptuously told by the general that he 
 had better keep the wood to make a gallows for himself and the 
 other rascals who had betrayed their king. Even the conqueror, 
 greedy as he was of victory, was so astonished at this inglorious 
 Triumph, that he remarked to some of his officers, " I hardly 
 know whether I ought to rejoice or be ashamed of myself." At 
 
 * It was from this city that Xapoleon, on the 21st November, 1806, issued 
 his famous decree, by which En,<,'land was declared in a state of blockade, 
 and all British produce excluded from the continental states. A similar 
 decree was issued from Milan, on the 1 7th December, 1 807, and subsequently 
 large quantities of English goods were burnt at Hamburg, Amsterdam, and 
 otLier places. 
 
418 II [STORY OF GKRMA^^Y. Chaf. LX. 
 
 the head of his staff, bare-headed and in full uniform, Napoleoji 
 visited the apartment and grave of Frederick the Great, and 
 took possession of his sword, a treasure more valuable (as the 
 pompous bulletin of the following- day announced) than twenty 
 millions of dollars. But whilst he thus manifested his admiration 
 of the illustrious dead, the characters of the reigning monarch 
 and his queen were daily assailed in proclamations teeming witli 
 the most base and unmanly falsehoods. In the seventeenth of 
 these bulletins, which seems to have been one of the most rabid, 
 he ridiculed an engraving which represented the king and queen 
 standing with the Emperor Alexander at the grave of Frederick 
 the Great. " The shade of the great Frederick," it proceeded, 
 " must have revolted at this alliance with Russia. His spirit, his 
 genius, his wishes belonged to that nation (the French) which he 
 valued so highly, and of which he w^as wont to say that, were he 
 its king, not a cannon should be fired in Europe without his per- 
 mission." 
 
 After the capture of Berlin the Prussian fortresses fell one 
 after another into the hands of the French ; partly because they 
 had really not been put in a proper posture of defence, but, for 
 the most part, because they were conmianded by traitors and 
 cowards. Amidst this universal prostration, Ferdinand von Schill, 
 a Prussian lieutenant who had been wounded at Jena, distin- 
 guished himself by his patriotic spirit in organising a corps of 
 volunteers, who did the French much damage. A natural conse- 
 quence of the advance of the French was the loss of the Prussian 
 dominions in Poland. The Poles received the French with open 
 arms as their deliverers. After the defeat of Jena, the King- of 
 Prussia retired to Konigsberg, where he was joined by a Russian 
 army under General Benningsen, accompanied by the Emperor 
 Alexander in person. The allied army gained a victory over 
 Marshal Ney at Eylau ; but on the 14th of June, 1807, the 
 anniversary of Marengo, Napoleon completely defeated them at 
 Friedland. 
 
 Thus the French army had marched from the Rhine to the 
 Vistula with scarcely a single clieck. They captured 350 standards, 
 4000 guns, and 80,000 men; and overturned at one blow the 
 renowned monarchy of Frederick the Great. 
 
 On the 9th of July, 1807, the allied sovereigns concluded a 
 treaty of peace with Napoleon at Tilsit on the Niemen : Frederick 
 William consenting to cede the half of his dominions with 
 
!<UP. Cil-vr. LX. ALLIANCE OF RUSSLV AND PRUSSLA. 419 
 
 5,000,000 of inhabitants, reduce his military establisliment to 
 42,000 men, and pay an indemnification of 140,000,000 of francs 
 to the French. Hanover, Brunswick, Ilesse-Cassel, and the 
 Prussian dominions on the left bank of the Elbe were united into 
 a king'dom, called the kingdom of Westphalia, and given to 
 Napoleon's brother Jerome. The Elector of Saxony, ulio had 
 declared himself neutral three days after the battle of Jena, and 
 soon afterwards became an ally of France, was also raised to the 
 dig-nity of king, and rewarded with the grand duchy of Warsaw, 
 M Inch comprised the whole of Prussian Poland. Having made 
 these dispositions Napoleon returned in triumpli to Paris, bearing 
 with him the sword of Frederick the Great, and the car with its 
 bronze horses which had ornamented the Brandenburg gate of 
 Berlin.* 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER LX. 
 
 Scene at the tomb of Frederick the Great. — The convention 
 between the King of Prussia and the Emperor of Russia, men- 
 tioned in the preceding chapter, was followed by a scene as remark- 
 able as it was romantic, and which was ultimately attended by 
 consequences of the highest importance to the destinies of Europe. 
 When they signed it, both were fully aware of the perilous nature 
 of the enterprise on which they were adventuring, as the Archduke 
 Anthony had arrived two days before with detailed accounts of 
 the disastrous result of the combats around Ulm. Inspired witii 
 a full sense of the dangers of the war, the ardent and chivalrous 
 mind of the Queen of Prussia conceived the idea of uniting the 
 two sovereigns by a bond more likely to be durable than the 
 mere alliances of cabinets. This was to bring them together at 
 the tomb of the great Frederick, Avhere, it was hoped, the so- 
 lemnity and the recollections of the scene would powerfully con- 
 tribute to cement tlieir union. The emperor, who was desirous 
 of visiting the mausoleum of that illustrious hero, accordingly 
 repaired to the church of the garrison of Potsdam, where his re- 
 mains are deposited, and at midnight the two monarchs proceeded 
 together by torchlight to the hallowed grave. Uncovering wlien 
 lie approached the spot, the emperor kissed the pall, anrl taking 
 tlio hand of the King of Prussia as it lay on the tomb, they 
 
 * Two bridges were ei'ccted at Paris in commemoration of the victories 
 of Jena and Austerlitz. 
 
420 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. LX. 
 
 swore an eternal friendship to each other, and bound themselves 
 by the most solemn oaths to maintain their engagements inviolate 
 in the great contest for European independence in which they 
 were engaged. A few hours after Alexander departed for Gal- 
 licia, to assume in person the command of the army of reserve, 
 wJiich was advancing tlirough that province to the support of 
 Kutusoff. Such was the origin of that great alliance which^ 
 though often interrupted by misfortune, and deeply checkered 
 with disaster, was yet destined to be brought to so triumphant an 
 issue, and ultimately wrought such wonders for the deliverance of 
 Europe.* 
 
 Murder of Palm, the bookseller. — Just previously to the break- 
 ing out of the war between France and Prussia, Napoleon com- 
 mitted a most atrocious and tyrannical act by the seizure and 
 execution of Palm, a bookseller of Nuremberg. He had circu- 
 lated a celebrated patriotic pamphlet by Gentz and another by 
 Arndt, called ' The Spirit of the Age,' in wliich resistance to 
 French aggression was indeed strongly inculcated, but not by any 
 base or illegal means. Palm was dragged before a tribunal of 
 French military officers at Brannau ; and in consequence of his 
 magnanimous refusal to betray the authors of the offensive pub- 
 lications, was ordered to be shot. This inhuman sentence, whicli 
 was immediately carried into execution, awakened the profoimde&t 
 indignation throughout Germany. 
 
 « A lison's History of Europe, chap. y.l. 
 
A.P. 1809. 
 
 WAU WITH FRANCE. 
 
 421 
 
 CHAPTER LXI. 
 
 WAR WITH FRANCE. — PEACE OF VIENNA. 
 
 From A D. 1809 to 1812. 
 
 bUitue of Aiiilrcw TTofor. 
 
 The example of Si)aiii* had taught Francis how much might he 
 ( iit'CtC'<l by the swords of a united people ; and awakened a hope 
 tliat the nations of Germany, now thoroughly weary of the 
 l-'rench yoke (the Romanist portion of them being moreover 
 disgusted at the insults offered by Napoleon to tlie Holy Father 
 
 * In the spring of 1808 the Spanish people, irritated by the tyranny of the 
 French at Madrid, declared war against France, and implored the assistance 
 of England. In consequence of this request a force wtus sent out under the 
 command of Sir Arthur Wellesley. After a long and severe struggle, both 
 in Spain and Portugal, the French were driven out of the peninsula by tiio 
 Duke of Wellington, who entered France on the 13th of October, 1810. 
 Gy. 2 B 
 
422 HISTORY OF GERMAXY. Chap. LXI. 
 
 of their church),* would respond cordially to the summons of 
 Austria. Advantage was therefore taken of Napoleon's absence 
 in Spain to call out the whole force of the empire, amounting to 
 400,000 men. The Archduke Charles, although opposed to the 
 war, on the grounds that Prussia had not yet been gained over, 
 nor the other nations of Germany withdrawn from the French 
 alliance, was too good a patriot to refuse his services, and ac- 
 cepted the command of a force destined to act on the right bauh. 
 of the Rhine, whilst John marched into Italy and Ferdinand 
 into Poland. The advice of Charles (as soon as he became 
 aware that war was inevitable) had been to march an army 
 rapidly to the Main and Weser instead of lingering in Bavaria, 
 where their ancient jealousy of Austria would probably neutralize 
 the desire of the people to shake off a foreign yoke. But the 
 cabinet of Vienna thought otherwise, and addressed the following 
 proclamation to the Bavarians : — " You are beginning to discover 
 that we are Germans as well as yourselves, and tliat nothing but 
 united exertions can restore to Germany her former supremacy. 
 Be then again what you once were, honest Germans. What 
 have you gained, Bavarian yeomen and citizens, by your union 
 with France ? Your prince has indeed the title of king, and a 
 few square miles have been added to his territory ; but do you 
 pay fewer taxes, or enjoy greater security of person and pro- 
 perty?" The Archduke Charles also issued a manifesto, ad- 
 dressed to the whole German nation ; and anonymous publications, 
 breathing defiance to their foreign tyrants, were extensively cir- 
 culated among the people in each of the states. "Austria," 
 such was the spirited language of one of their publications, 
 " Austria saw (and every German heart bled at the sight), she 
 saw you sunk to such a depth of degradation, as to submit like 
 vassals to the laws of a foreign monarch, and behold your sons 
 dragged into the field to fight against their brethren. Germans ! 
 Austria calls on you to raise your degraded heads and (3urst 
 your chains. How long shall Herman mourn over his degenerate 
 descendants? Was it for this the Cherusci fought and conquered 
 in the Teutoburgian forest? Does the clank of your fetters 
 sound pleasantly in your ears? Awake, Germans ! Awake from 
 this death-slumber of infamy. Let not your name be the byword 
 of generations yet unborn." Unhappily the movements of Aus- 
 
 * Pius VII., after enduring a series of insults in Lis own capital, had 
 been carried off to Paris, where he was detained as a prisoner of state. 
 
A.D. 1809. ENTRY OF NAPOLEOIT INTO VIENNA. 423 
 
 tria were so slow as to allow Napoleon time to return from Spain 
 into Germany and i)lace himself at the head of the Rhenish con- 
 federacy. ''I come not," he said, "as Emperor of France — I 
 stand here as the protector of your land and of the German 
 league. Not a French soldier is among us. Alone you shall 
 beat the enemy." In the month of April, 1809, Napoleon five 
 limes defeated the Austrians, and advancing on Vienna, took 
 possession of the suburbs witliout opposition. A few shot fired 
 from the ramparts of the city were answered by a terrible dis- 
 charge of shells, some of which fell into the citadel, where the 
 Emperor's daughter, Maria Louisa, lay on a sick bed.* The 
 Austrian standard was immediately lowered, and Napoleon en- 
 tered Vienna in triumph. The Archduke Charles now returned 
 by forced marches from Bohemia, and drew up his army on the 
 other side of the Danube, which Napoleon crossed by a bridge of 
 boats: and on the 21st and 22nd May a terrible engagement was 
 fought on the plain between Aspern and Esslingen, close to the 
 spot where Ottocar of Bohemia was defeated by the Emperor 
 Rudolph. For the first time Napoleon was completely over- 
 thrown, and compelled to seek refuge on the island of Lobau, 
 wliich lies midv>'ay between the two banks. Here he found that 
 the swollen stream of the Danube, aided by some heavily-laden 
 boats which the Archduke had launched into the river, had broken 
 down the only bridge. Had the Archduke now followed up his 
 victory and attacked Napoleon on the island, the whole French 
 army would probably have been annihilated ; but with true Aus- 
 trian sluggishness Charles lingered to count the dead on the field 
 of battle ; and the French being suffered to construct a new 
 bridge without molestation, recrossed the river and returned to 
 Vienna. Napoleon, having obtained reinforcements from Wiir- 
 temberg, Bavaria, Saxony, and Italy, again crossed the Danube 
 and attacked the Archduke Charles near AYagram, within sight 
 of the towers of Vienna, which were crowded with anxious spec- 
 tators. The battle lasted throughout the whole of two days (July 
 oth and 6th), and ended in the defeat of the Austrians. On the 
 1 2th an armistice was concluded preparatory to a treaty of peace, 
 which was signed at Vienna on the 10th of the following October, 
 Austria ceding Salzburg to Bavaria, Dalmatia and her remaining 
 Italian possessions to Napoleon, and the greater part of her Polish 
 
 * Napoleon, however, when informed of this circumstance, ordered the 
 f^lirection of th*i pieces to be changed. 
 
 2 B 2 
 
424 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. LXI. 
 
 dominions to Eussia and the Grand Duke of Warsaw. Soon 
 after the conclusion of this peace an attempt was made to assas- 
 sinate Napoleon by a young man named Frederick Stabbs, who 
 was arrested before he could effect his purpose, and brought into 
 the imperial presence. So far from denying his guilt, he declared 
 that if he were set at liberty lie would make the attempt again. 
 (.)n hearing this bold avowal the Emperor immediately com- 
 manded him to be shot. On the 2nd April, 1810, Napoleon, 
 who had previously divorced the Empress Josephine, married ihe 
 Archduchess Maria Louisa of Austria. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER LXI. 
 
 Rising of ihe Tyrolese — Andreio Hofer. — The lofty moun- 
 tains of Tyrol had been for centuries the dwelling-place of 
 liberty. Subject in name to the house of Ilabsburg, their inlm- 
 bitants enjoyed nevertheless the full exercise of their republican 
 privileges, choosing their own magistrates, and contributing to 
 the imperial army a contingent of troops, commanded by officeis 
 of their own election, arid clothed and disciplined according to 
 the ancient fashion of their country. In return for these indul- 
 gences the sturdy mountaineers served their Emperor with the 
 most devoted fidelity ; and great was their dismay Mdien they 
 learnt, in the year 1805, that Francis had ceded their country to 
 the King of Bavaria. One of the first acts of their new sovereign 
 was to overthrow their constitution and suppress tlieir representa- 
 tive assembly. New and oppressive taxes were imposed and 
 levied with rigour ; the religious observances of the people were 
 interfered with, the convents and monasteries were confiscated, 
 and the plate of the churches melted down. If we add to these 
 causes of disaffection the disgust occasioned by an attempt on the 
 part of the King to change the name of their country to that of 
 " South Bavaria," and by the sale of the ancient castle of Tyrol 
 (the possessor of which, according to a time-honoured prophecy, 
 was alone entitled to the obedience of his countrymen), we shall 
 scarcely wonder that when Austria again raised lier standard she 
 relied with confidence on the co-operation of her ancient vassal. 
 The patriotic feelings of the German people had already been 
 fully roused, when, in the winter of 1808, there arrived at 
 Vienna a deputation headed by one Andrew Hofer, a wealthy 
 peasant and innkeeper of the Tyrol, v.ho had long enjoyed the 
 
ISur. Chap. LIX. ANDREW IIOFER. 425 
 
 confidence of liis countrymen. After a very short discussion (for 
 the delegates Jiad ample discretionary powers, and Austria "w as 
 as ready to receive as they to offer their services) a treaty was 
 signed, in wliich the Tyrolese pledged themselves to rise against 
 their Bavarian masters ; Austria on her part engaging to assist 
 tiiem witn a considerable force as soon as information of the in- 
 surrection should reach Vienna. Ilofer then returned to the 
 Tyrol and announced to his brethren in a few emphatic words 
 that tiiey miglit rely on tiie co-operation of the Austrians. It 
 was at the same time resolved that the insurrection should not 
 take place until the spring, when the melting of the snow would 
 render communication easier between the different districts. So 
 secret was this arrangement kept, that, although many thousand 
 Tyrolese were aware of the intended movement, no suspicion 
 seems to have entered the mind either of the Bavarian general 
 Kinkel or his French colleague Brisson. On the night of the 9th 
 of April, 1 809, a small red flag, the signal agreed on by the con- 
 federates, was seen floating dow^n the stream of the Inn, and, as it 
 passed, the tocsin rang out in the different villages, and salvos of 
 artiller)^ and signal-fires on the heights announced to the Tyrolese 
 that the hour of their deliverance was come. No alteration had 
 been made in the simple tactics of mountain warfare since the 
 memorable defeat of Nouvion and his Bavarians more than a 
 hundred years before. Huge stones, fragments of rocks, and 
 trunks of trees were collected together on the edges of defiles 
 through which the French and Bavarian armies were expected to 
 pass. As soon as the enemy was fairly entangled in the ravine, 
 one of the Tyrolese called out to his comrades to cut all loose in 
 the name of the Holy Trinity, and the whole mass came crashing 
 down into the valley below, whilst at the same moment marks- 
 men, stationed wherever they could find a shelter, poured in a 
 destructive fire from their unerring rifles ; until at last the 
 miserable remnant, bewildered and hopeless of rescue, surrendered 
 at discretion to Andrew Ilofer and his colleagues Spechbacher 
 and Kemnater. Of the allied Bavarian and French army, 8000 
 men, more than 100 oflScers, and all their artillery, baggage, and 
 ammunition, fell into the hands of the Tyrolese, who treated their 
 prisoners with humanity, except in one instance, where a tax- 
 gatherer, who had been heard to boast that lie would drain tlie 
 Tyrolese until they should be obliged to feed on hay, was punished 
 for his rapacity by being compelled to dine on a bundle of cliopped 
 
 2 B 3 
 
426 HISTORY OF CxERMAXY. Chap. LXl. 
 
 straw. Meanwhile Austria, dispirited by the defeat which she 
 had sustained at Wagram, and fearing for the safety of her 
 capital, had recalled General Ghastelar from the Tyrol ; and Le- 
 febvre, at the head of a formidable body of French troops, was 
 advancing on Innsbruck almost without interruption: for the 
 Tyrolese, abandoned by those who ought to have protected them, 
 and well nigh hopeless of relief, seemed inclined to render a sort 
 of sullen obedience to the commands of their former masters. But 
 at last, irritated beyond endurance by the cruelties of the French, 
 they sought out Andrew Hofer (who had retired in disgust to the 
 mountains), and again prepared for resistance, constructing can- 
 non of larch-wood bound with hoops of iron, and laying masses 
 of rock on the edge of precipices to be hurled down on theii 
 enemies. After sustaining several defeats Lefebvre evacuated 
 the Tyrol, and the reins of government were assumed by Hofer 
 at Innsbruck, whilst his colleague Spechbacher guarded the fron- 
 tier against any fresh invasion. But in the meantime peace hat. 
 been concluded l^etween France and Austria, and the Tyrolese, at 
 the earnest solicitation of the Archduke Jonn, consented to lay 
 down their arms. Shortly afterwards Hofer, deceived by false 
 intelligence, again raised his standard ; but the spirit of the 
 Tyrolese was broken, and, finding it impossible to rally them, he 
 abandoned the attempt in despair, and took refuge in a solitary 
 mountain hut amongst the snowj" fastnesses of the Alps. To this 
 place provisions were conveyed by his wife and a few of his most 
 trusted friends ; and so implicit was Hofer's confidence in the 
 honour of his countrymen that when he was repeatedly urged to 
 seek a more secure asylum, he only replied, " I cannot be in a 
 safer place, for I am sure no Tyrolese will betray me." Unfor- 
 tunately this confidence was abused by a wretch named Steffel ; 
 and before daybreak on the morning of the 30th of January, 
 1810, the clashing of French bayonets near the hut announced to 
 Hofer and his young son (who liad accompanied him in his flight) 
 that the place of their retreat was discovered. Hofer himself 
 opened the door, and being asked who he was, replied in a firm 
 tone, " I am Andrew Hofer ; my life is in your hands — spare my 
 wife and children." He was then conveyed in chains to Botzen, 
 and subsequently to Mantua, where the military commission as- 
 sembled to try him decided by a plurality of voices against inflict- 
 ing the punishment of death, two of the members voting for his 
 absolute acquittal. But scarcely had this \'erdict been declared 
 
Sar. Chap. LXI. ANDREW HOFER. 427 
 
 wlien a telegra])lue coniniuiiication was received from Milan com- 
 maiiding- that execution shoidd be done on tlie body of Andrew 
 Ilofer within twenty-four hours. Accordingly on the 20th of 
 February, at eleven o'clock in tiie morning-, the gmcrale was 
 beaten, and a party of grenadiers led out the Tyrolese patriot 
 from his prison to tlie rampart, where the sentence of deatii was 
 to be carried into execution. As the melan(;holy procession passal 
 througli the streets of JNIantua many Tyrolese fell down on their 
 knees before Hofer and implored his blessing, whilst from the 
 M indows of the prison, where others of his countrymen were con- 
 fined, were heard groans and exclamations of the deepest sorrow. 
 On reaching the place of execution twelve grenadiers were drawn 
 up in front of the prisoner, and a white handkerchief put into his 
 hands, with which he was required to give the signal, it being at 
 the same time intimated to him that it was necessary he should 
 place himself on his knees. But this the stout-hearted sufferer 
 peremptorily refused. " I stand," he said, " in the presence of 
 my Creator, and standing I will render back my spirit to God 
 who gave it. Fire!" The first six shots wounded him but 
 slightly. Dropping on his knees he received the remaining six, 
 and was still struggling convulsively when a corporal, discharging 
 a pistol close to his head, put an end to his sufferings. The body 
 then was placed on a bier covered with black, and conveyed with 
 every mark of respect to the church of St. IMichael, where a 
 guard of grenadiers watched it until it was laid in the grave. 
 
428 HisToni^ OF Germany. Chap. LXil. 
 
 CHAPTER LXII. 
 
 PRUSSIA FROM 180G TO 1812. REFORMS. REVIVAL OF THE PATRIOTIC 
 
 SPIRIT. 
 
 The deep, but not undeserved, humiliation of Prussia was destined 
 to regenerate her. Misfortune was to her a school of virtue. 
 Von Stein, a true patriot and an able statesman, was now in- 
 trusted with the administration, whilst the military affairs of the 
 kingdom were superintended by two distinguished generals, 
 Gneisenau and Scharnhorst. Great reforms were introduced in 
 the dress and discipline of the army. The ill conduct of the 
 Prussian nobility during the war induced the king to deprive 
 them of the exclusive right of holding military commands. This 
 step was accompanied by corresponding civil refomis. The privi- 
 leges of possessing landed property and of filling civil offices, 
 hitherto exclusively enjoyed by the nobles, were also extended to 
 the commonalty. Serfdom was abolished, and towns vvere en- 
 dowed with municipal rights. On the other hand, the nobility 
 were permitted to enter into trade. These reforms were the work 
 of Stein in the year 1808. 
 
 It was to the same minister that the secret society called the 
 '^ Tugendbund," or League of Virtue, owed its origin ; the object 
 of which was to rouse the Germans to a general resistance against 
 the Frencli. This came to the knowledge of Napoleon, wno 
 dictated the dismissal of Stein ; but his successor, Hardenberg, 
 pursued his anti-Gallican policy. The league was joined by 
 numerous statesmen, officers, and learned men. The whole nation 
 was secretly but efficiently preparing for a future struggle. 
 Scharnhorst was busy in raising soldiers, and, as the country was 
 not permitted to levy above a certain number of men, he kept 
 continually changing those who had been thoroughly drilled with 
 fresh recruits ; so that, in case of necessity, a large force could at 
 once be put on foot. The Austrian campaign of 1809 excited 
 fresh hopes in Prussia ; but she was not yet prepared for open 
 war. Ill the north, however, Schill, at the head of his volunteers, 
 was rapidly organising a patriot army, when the advance of the 
 united Danish and Dutch forces compelled him to take refuge in 
 the town of Stralsund. After a desperate struggle against over- 
 M' helming numbers, the little band of Datriots was cut to pieces, 
 
A.D. 1811. THE RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN. 429 
 
 and their loader's head severed from his body and sent to the 
 museum at Leyden, wliere it was exhil)ited for many years. 
 Another iiero, the Duke of Brunswiek, son of the unfortunate 
 Ferdinand, raised a cori)s of 2000 men, with wliich lie endeavoured 
 to reconquer his dominions ; but, failin*^ in the attempt, marcheci 
 lo the mouth of the AVeser, and embarked for Eni^land. In the 
 montli of August the Knglisli landed an army of 40,000 men, 
 under the conuiiand of Lord Chatham, on the island of Wal- 
 cheren, for the purpose of effecting a diversion in Holland ; but 
 sickness thinned the ranks so fearfully that tliey were soon com- 
 pelled to re-embark. 
 
 Napoleon now ruled for a short time as the sole despot of tlie 
 greater part of Europe. In 1810 he annexed Holland, which he 
 designated as a mere alluvium of French rivers, to France. He 
 also seized a considerable portion of the northern coast of Ger- 
 many, vmder the pretence that it violated tlie continental system 
 by encouraging smuggling. He caused all English goods, even 
 though actually paid for by tiieir foreign owners, to be seized and 
 burnt in the public squares of Amsterdam, Hambui-g, and other 
 towns. He endeavoured to convert the Germans and Dutch into 
 ^ei"rchmen. In Holland French was directed to be taught in all 
 the schools, and all pul^lic instruments to be in that language as 
 well as in Dutch. Napoleon's son. Napoleon Francis, born m 
 1811, was immediately named King of Rome, to indicate that he 
 M'ould inherit the Roman empire of the world. But symptoms 
 of his approaching fall were already beginning to appear. In 
 Spain his arms were unsuccessful. Sweden and Russia renounced 
 the continental system and allied themselves with England. 
 Intoxicated with his success and power, Napoleon now resolved 
 on that last stroke which proved his ruin. In the dreams of his 
 overweening and boundless ambition, the conquest of Russia 
 promised to open up the way to Asia, and prepare the subjugation 
 of another continent. He seized the occasion of her joining Eng- 
 land to declare war against that power. In the spring of 1812 
 he prepared to march against her with an army of half a million 
 men, to which the German states were compelled to contribute 
 large contingents. His stay at Dresden, on his march towards 
 the Russian frontiers, was the culminating point of his extra- 
 ordinary grandeur. He was accompanied here by his consort, the 
 Empress Maria Louisa, and met by the Emperor of Austria and 
 KiuLi- of PriL^sia. The theatres of Paris "were tran.<ferred to 
 
430 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. LXII. 
 
 Dresdeii, and the time was speut in a series of magnificent fetes 
 and pageants. Napoleon occupied the principal apartments in 
 the King of Saxony's palace ; kings waited in his ante-chamber, 
 queens attended on his empress; diamonds, snuff-boxes, orders 
 were distributed with eastern magnificence among the princes 
 and courtiers who crowded round his throne. But such was the 
 insolent pride of his behaviour that it stung to the quick even 
 those who were best inclined towards him. 
 
 It does not belong to our subject to narrate Napoleon's fatal 
 campaign in Russia. Suffice it to say that, owing to the late 
 season of the year in which it was commenced, to the stratagem 
 of the Russians in retreating, and thus drawing the French army 
 far into the interior of their inhospitable country, to the unex- 
 pected burning of Moscow, where Napoleon intended to establi>h 
 his head-quarters, and to his long and disastrous retreat during a 
 Russian winter of unparalleled severity, his magnificent army was 
 nearly annihilated. Of that almost countless host less than 20,000 
 are said to have regained the French territory. This disaster led 
 to the successful rising of the Germans, which will be related in 
 the next chapter. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER LXII. 
 
 The " Tugendhund^'' or League of Virtue. — Although the 
 Tugendbund numbered in its ranks such statesmen as Stein and 
 llardenberg, and soldiers like Gneisenau, Scharnhorst, Schiil, 
 and others, it was the literary men of Germany, and especially 
 the professors and students of the universities {Burschenschaft)^ 
 who chiefly contributed to propagate its principles. Professors 
 Jahn of Berlin, and Steffens of Halle and Breslau (])y birth a 
 Dane), particularly distinguished themselves in this way. The 
 former revived the use of gymnastics among his pupils, with the 
 view of improving both their bodily strength and moral courage, 
 and thus steeling them for the approaching contest. Among 
 other eccentric modes which he adopted to inspire them with a 
 feeling of hatred towards the French, and an ardent longing for 
 tlie emancipation of their fatherland, he used to ask the younger 
 students, as they rode with him out of the Brandenburg gate, 
 what they were thinking of at that moment. The boys, confused 
 by the abruptness of* the question, generally replied that they were 
 
Sup. Chap. LXII. THE " TUGENDBUND." 431 
 
 thinking of nothing. " Well then," said the professor, giving 
 each of them a box on tlie ear, " I will give you something to 
 think about. AMienever you pass tliis gate tiiink of tlie four fair 
 Jiorses which once stood there,* and devise how we may get them 
 back from tiiose rascally Frenchmen." Professor Steffens was 
 the fii-st to rouse the students of Breslau to arm, for which he 
 received a letter of thanks from the King of Prussia. He him- 
 self, throwing off tlie i)rofessor's gown, put on a uniform; and has 
 given us in his Memoirs an amusing account of liis proceedings 
 in the novel occupation of campaigning. f The popular songs of 
 Arndt, which were sung with enthusiasm wherever the German 
 ton2;-ue was spoken, powerfully contributed to revive that spirit 
 of brotherhood and patriotism which at last led tlie Germans to 
 make common cause in the defence of their country. The most 
 spirit-stirring of all was the well-known song, " Was ist des 
 Deutsche!! Yaterlaiid ?" Anotlier highly popular patriotic poet 
 of the day was the youthful Charles Theodore Korner, author of 
 the celebrated " Song of the Sword." It was at this time that, 
 chiefly through the exertions of William von Humboldt, the 
 brother of the celebrated philosopher and traveller, the uiiiversity 
 of Halle was transferred to Berlin, and that of Frankfort on the 
 Oder to Breslau, and formed fresh points of intellectual reanima- 
 tion for Prussia. Even in Austria it was sought to rouse tlie 
 spirit of the people by reviving the recollections of the middle 
 ages and of the former glories of the empire. Frederick Schlegel 
 and other literary men assisted in giving this direction to the 
 popular mind, and the Nibelimgeu, the lays of the Minnesanger, 
 and the ancient chronicles, were read with avidity. 
 
 * See alDOve, p. 419. 
 
 + See Murray's Hoine and Colonial Library, Xo. LIX. 
 
432 
 
 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 
 
 CriAP. LXIIT. 
 
 CHAPTER LXIIL 
 
 LIBERATION OF GERMAKY, 
 
 A.D. 1813. 
 
 mi:_£C 
 
 The Battle-Field of Culm, near Toplitz. — Austrian and Prussian Monuments. 
 
 On their retreat from Moscow, the French threw themselves into 
 Dantzic and other Prussian fortresses which they held under the 
 treaty of Tilsit. General von York, who commanded the Prussian 
 contingent of the French army of invasion, being surrounded by 
 the Russians under Diebitch, capitulated, or rather went over to 
 the Russians. This act at first occasioned the King of Prussia 
 great perplexity, who was deliberating between honour and the 
 ties of treaties on the one hand, and the calls of patriotism and 
 revenge on the other. York's capitulation was at first disowned, 
 and he himself deprived of his command ; but he subsequently 
 played an miportant part in the war of liberation. On the 
 advance of the Russians, Berlin and the whole right bank of tlie 
 Elbe were abandoned by the French, luider Eugene Beauharnais, 
 wlio threw themselves into Wittenberg, Magdeburg, and Ham- 
 
A.D. 1313. OPEXIXG OF THE CAMPAIGX. 433 
 
 bui'cr. Before the end of January, Frederick William II. aban- 
 doned his capital and proceeded to Breslau ; and on tlie 1st of 
 March concluded an otfensive and defensive alliance with the 
 Emperor of Russia at Kalisch. No sooner was this step taken 
 than England, even before the formal resumption of diplomatic 
 relations with Prussia, forwarded an immense supply of arms and 
 warlike stores to the Elbe, wlience they were distributed througli 
 the Prussian dominions ; and subsequently concluded a formal 
 alliance by which she agreed to furnish large subsidies to Russia, 
 Prussia, and Sweden, for the purpose of carrying on the war. 
 Meanwhile the attitude assumed by Austria was that of an armed 
 mediator, for which purpose she added 70,000 men to her troops 
 of the line. 
 
 Nothing could exceed the enthusiasm with which the Prussians 
 prepared for the impending contest. The effects of the Tugend- 
 bund were everywhere visible. In order to cherish this patriotic 
 feeling, Frederick William established a new order, that of the 
 " Iron Cross." At the same time families were invited to pour 
 their gold and silver plate and ornaments into the treasury, for 
 which they received copies wrought in iron with the inscription— 
 " I gave gold for iron, 1813." This was the origin of the Berlin 
 iron ornaments, now so well known throughout Europe. Volun- 
 teers enlisted on every side. In a short time 200,000 Prussians 
 were under arms. On the other hand. Napoleon pressed his pre- 
 parations with the greatest vigour. He obtained a vote for a 
 conscription of 350,000 men, and the Rhenish confederation was 
 forced to furnish contingents. But the new levies were for tlie 
 most part mere boys, totally raw and inexperienced. The bones 
 of Napoleon's best troops lay whitening on the plains of Russia 
 and Poland. 
 
 The campaign M-as opened by the Russians under Wittgenstein, 
 who with 17,000 men arrested at Mockern, near Magdeburg, 
 Eugene Beauharnais with 40,000 French, who M'as pressing on 
 towards Berlin. Wittgenstein then crossed the Elbe at Dessau, 
 in order to form a junction with the Russian and Prussian army 
 under Blucher, concentrated near Liitzen, to the west of Leipsic, 
 with the view of preventing Napoleon, now advancing from Erfurt, 
 from forming a junction with Eugene Beauharnais' corps. Here 
 a battle ensued on the 2nd of May, almost on the same spot where 
 Gustavus Adolphus had fallen about two centuries before. Tlie 
 French placed a guard round the tomb of that hero on the night 
 Gy. 2 c 
 
434 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. LXIII. 
 
 before the battle, iii order to preserve the trees which surround it 
 from destruction. The allies, who were in less force than the 
 French, but superior in cavalry and in the quality of their troops, 
 were after a desperate struggle compelled to retreat. They fell 
 back upon Dresden, but immediately evacuated that town, and 
 took post at Bautzen, about 30 or 40 English miles on its eastern 
 side, on the road to Silesia, where a strongly intrenched position 
 had been prepared. At Dresden Napoleon was joined by the 
 King of Saxony, who had hitherto been wavering, but noM' 
 threw his weight on the side of the French emperor. This was 
 of great assistance to the latter. It added at once 14,000 men to 
 his army, and secured to him Dresden and the neiglibouring 
 fortresses on the Elbe. On the 21st of May was fought the battle 
 of Bautzen, by which the allies, commanded by the Russian Em- 
 peror Alexander in person, were, after a fonnidable resistance, 
 again compelled to retreat, but slowly and in good order. They 
 retired to Liegnitz in Silesia, a position which would afford them 
 an opportunity of joining the Austrian forces in Bohemia, should 
 that power be induced to declare in favour of the allies. 
 
 Both sides, exhausted by the struggle, v/ere now anxiously 
 awaiting the decision of Austria ; and on the 4th of June an 
 armistice of six weeks was agreed on at Pleissnitz. This step 
 has been pronounced the greatest political fault ever committed 
 by Napoleon. By assenting to the armistice he openly recog- 
 nised the influence of Austria in settling the campaign The 
 turn of events had now placed that power in a most commanding 
 position. For whichever side she declared, her weight would turn 
 the scale. Her determination was long doubtful. Napoleon 
 seems in some degree to have reckoned on his family connexion 
 with the Austrian court ; and even the allies at first considered 
 that that circumstance would determine the question. The 
 struggle was now transferred from the field to the cabinet. The 
 Austrian counsels were then directed by Prince Metternich, one 
 of the ablest diplomatists that Europe has ever seen, who was 
 prepared to turn the crisis to the greatest advantage. Towards 
 tiie end of June an interview took place between him and Napo- 
 leon at Dresden, in which he plainly told the latter that the time 
 was come when A\istria could no longer remain neutral, but mu.st 
 declare either for or against him. The conditions attached to the 
 former alternative were, however, so extravagant that Napoleon 
 rejected them with the greatest marks of anger. T]ie final result 
 
A.D. 1813. NArOLEON AT DKErfDEX. 435 
 
 of the interview was that a congress should meet at Prag-ue for 
 the purpose of arranging the terms of a general pacification, and 
 that meanwhile Austria should procure a prolongation of the 
 armistice till the iOth of August. The congress of Prague was, 
 however, little more than a pretence for gaining time. Tiie news 
 of the decisive victory gained by Lord AVellington at Vittoria, 
 and consequent ruin of tiie French power in Spain, came very 
 opportunely to determine in favour of the allies the inclination 
 of the Austrian cabinet, which already verged that way. Napo- 
 leon speedily perceived that he could no longer reckon on peace, 
 and employed himself in preparing for the approaching struggle. 
 Dresden, which he intended to be the head-quarters of his opera- 
 tions on the Elbe, was strengthened, and five redoubts constructed 
 in front of the town. Hamburg was fortified, and immense con- 
 tributions levied on its inhabitants. Between that town and 
 Dresden the French held the whole line of the Elbe, by means 
 of the fortresses of Magdeburg, Wittenberg, Torgau, and Konig- 
 stein. Erfurt, which lay in their rear and secured their commu- 
 nication with Frf^nce, was likewise put in a strong posture of 
 defence. Napoleon himself took up his quarters at Dresden, 
 where he would be in the centre of the enemy, who on the east 
 stretched from Berlin to Prague in a vast semicircle around him. 
 All his forces had now been brought up, and consisted of 400,000 
 men with 1 250 pieces of artillery. But many of his oflflcers con- 
 sidered the line of the Elbe untenable, and were for falling back 
 on the Saale, or even on the Rhine. Meanwhile the allies, now 
 secretly joined by Austria, were concentrating a large force in 
 Bohemia. On the 7th of August Metternich transmitted to Na- 
 })oleon the ultimatum of the Austrian cabinet, which was — the 
 dissolution of the grand duchy of Warsaw, which was to be 
 divided between Austria, Russia, and Prussia ; the restoiation of 
 the independence of Hamburg and the Hanse Touns; the re- 
 instatement of Prussia in its ancient possessions, with a frontier 
 on the Elbe ; and the cession of all the Illyrian provinces, in- 
 cluding Trieste, to Austria.* Napoleon having rejected these 
 terms, and the amiistice having expired, Austria formally de- 
 clared war against Napoleon on the 12th of August. She had 
 already gained time to bring up all the forces of her extensive 
 empire ; and the manner in which Metternich had proceeded from 
 
 * Alison, chap, Ixxix. 
 
 2 c 2 
 
436 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. LXIII. 
 
 alliance with France to neutrality, thence to armed mediation, 
 and lastly to an offensive alliance against her, was an acknow- 
 ledged masterpiece of diplomacy. 
 
 Meanwhile Bernadotte, a French general of high reputation, 
 whom the Swedes had lately elected to be their Crown Prince, 
 landed in North Germany with an army of 24,000 men, which 
 was soon augmented to 150,000 by the crowds of Russians and 
 Prussians who were placed under his command. General Bliicher 
 commanded the army of Silesia, composed of 90,000 Russians 
 and Prussians. The grand army of the allies w^as stationed in 
 Bohemia under ^he Prince of Schwartzenberg. Napoleon, ^vith 
 his accustomed promptitude, resolved to surprise and cut off these 
 armies one by one, and with that view marched in person into 
 Silesia, well knowing that it was not Blucher*s habit to reckon 
 the number of his enemies, when battle was offered. But the 
 crafty veteran, fully aware of his intention, for the first time in 
 his life avoided an engagement. Meanwhile Marshal Oudinot 
 had been ordered to march witli 80,000 men on Berlin, which 
 was now in the hands of the Crown Prince of Sweden : and so 
 confident was Napoleon of success, that he issued bulletins, 
 announcing that Oudinot would enter the city on the 23rd of 
 August. On the 22nd the army halted at the village of Gross- 
 Beeren, about two German miles from Berlin, and the FrencJi 
 soldiers were looking forward with exultation to the triumph of 
 the morrow ; when in the middle of the night, which happened to 
 be unusually wet and stormy, their bivouac was attacked by a 
 considerable force under the Prussian General Biilow. Panic- 
 struck by the suddenness of this attack, and the fury of the Prus- 
 sian soldiers (for when their powder was so wetted by the rain 
 that they could no longer fire, they dashed out the brains of tlie 
 French with the butt-ends of their muskets), the enemy com- 
 menced a disorderly retreat towards the Elbe, leaving twenty-six 
 pieces of carmon and several thousand prisoners in the hands of 
 Biilow. Having received intelligence that the grand army of the 
 allies was advancing on Dresden, Napoleon quitted Silesia, leav- 
 ing behind him an army of 80,000 men under Marshal Macdonald, 
 who found himself in presence of Bliicher on the 26tli of August. 
 A small stream called the Katzbach [^cat's brook'], now consider- 
 ably swollen by the heavy rains, separated the two armies. 
 Bliicher allowed the first division of the French to cross the brook 
 without interruption ; and then shouting out to his men, " There 
 
AD. 1813. DEATH OF MOREAU. 437 
 
 are enough of tnem now, my lads, — Forwards !"* attacked the 
 enemy witli such fury, that in a very short time they were utterly 
 routed, with the loss of 18,000 prisoners, forty pieces of cannon, 
 and two eagles. On the evening of the same day Napoleon re- 
 |)ulsed an attack of the army of Bohemia on Dresden, and on the 
 27th, strengthened by the addition of his guards, who had arrived 
 l)y forced marclies from Silesia, and crossed the bridge of Dresden 
 during the night, he determined to attack the allies on the plain 
 which lies to the S.E. of that city. Murat, King of Naples, 
 under cover of a deluge of rain, charged the left wing of the 
 Austrians, in which were several newly-raised regiments, so 
 fiercely, that the raw recruits threw down their arms, and the 
 whole wing in consequence fell into such confusion, that 12,000 
 men and the general himself were made prisoners. The whole 
 army of the allies then retreated in tolerable order towards the 
 mountains of Bohemia. Moreau, the victor of Hohenlinden, who 
 had been allowed to go into exile in America, in consequence of 
 his opposition to Napoleon's assumption of the imperial crown, 
 but who had now returned and accepted a command in the army 
 of the allies, had his thigh shattered by a cannon-ball, as he stood 
 by the side of the Emperor Alexander, on an eminence which 
 overlooked the field, and died a few days afterwards. But the 
 joy of Napoleon for his victory was damped by the arrival of 
 JNIacdonald with the news that his army of Silesia was annihi- 
 lated. The grand army of the allies had, as we have seen, re- 
 treated towards Bohemia ; but there were difficulties yet to be 
 overcome before they could place the mountains of that rugged 
 country between themselves and the enemy. In the pass of Culm, 
 near Toplitz, they found the French General Vandamme ready 
 to dispute their progress ; and for many hours the fortune of the 
 day was doubtful, until the Prussian division of General Kleist, 
 taking the enemy in flank, and supported in front by the Aus- 
 trians and Russians, attacked them with such violence, that they 
 fled in all directions, leaving behind them 10,000 prisoners, 
 among whom were the Generals Vandamme and Haxo. Napo- 
 leon now commanded the ablest of his marshals— Ney — to ad- 
 vance on Berlin at the head of 80,000 men, with strict orders to 
 make himself master of the capital, cost what it might. But this 
 attempt, like that of Oudinot, was foiled by the vigilance of 
 
 * The word "Forwards" became from that time the battle-cry of the 
 Prussians, who gave their old leader the title of "Marshal Forwards." 
 
438 HISTORY OF GERMANY. CiiAP. LXIIJ. 
 
 General Biilow, wno met the invading- army at Dennewitz, and 
 kept them at bay until the Crown Prince of Sweden came up ; 
 when the French, giving way before overwhelming numbers, re- 
 treated in good order, and, although pursued by 150,000 men, 
 reached Saxony without having sustained any very considerable 
 loss. These disastrous defeats of his generals threw them on 
 l^apoleon's centre at Dresden, which the allies were again pre- 
 paring to surround. Napoleon continued to manoeuvre till the 
 beginning of October ; but the allies were always on their guard. 
 The country round Dresden was now completely exhausted of 
 provisions. The French army endured the greatest privations, 
 and it was plain that retreat was no longer avoidable. This step 
 was also hastened by the news of the defection of Bavaria. On 
 the 7th of October Napoleon evacuated Dresden, and commenced 
 his retreat towards the Rhine, closely followed by the allies, who 
 appeared on the 16th before the walls of Leipzic, where the Em- 
 peror had already taken up his position, resolved to stand the 
 hazard of a general engagement. The city being in the occu- 
 pation of the French, who were drawn up in a circle around it, 
 the allied army was immediately formed into a crescent, having 
 a single opening towards the south-west, which they intended to 
 fill up on the arrival of the Swedish army under Bernadotte, and 
 the Russian and Austrian divisions of Bennigsen and Colloredo. 
 The allied force amounted to 300,000 men, the French scarcely 
 to two-thirds of that number. The battle began the same day 
 and so great was the vibration caused by the discharges of artil- 
 lery (of which, at least 1200 pieces were brought into the field), 
 that windows were shivered to atoms in the houses of Leipzic, 
 and the ground shook and reeled as with an earthquake. About 
 mid-day some important advantages had been gained by the 
 French : and Napoleon had already commanded the bells of 
 Leipzic to be rung, dispatched a messenger to Paris with the 
 news of his victory, and sent the Austrian General Meerveldt, 
 who had been taken prisoner early in the day, with proposals of 
 peace to the Emperor of Austria. But the success of Bliicher 
 over Marshal Ney on the right wing near the village of Mockern 
 changed the aspect of affairs; and on the 17th Napoleon an- 
 nounced his intention of evacuating Germany, and sued for peace 
 — but no answer was returned to his overtures. On the 18th, at 
 eight o'clock in tlie morning, the allies, reinforced by the Swedish 
 army, renewed the engagement. Napoleon nobly sustained his 
 
A.D. 1813. P.ATTLE OF LEIPZIG. 439 
 
 ancient reputation, and for a long" time the issue was doubtful ; 
 but when in tlie very heat of the action he found himself aban- 
 doned by tlie troops of Saxony and Wiirtemberg, and saw the 
 remnant of his army crushed by the superior weight of the 
 enemy's columns, he deemed it necessary to fall back upon Leij)- 
 zic, and made preparations for continuing his retreat towards the 
 South. To cover the escape of his imperial guard, and the 
 flower of the French army, a division under Poniatowski was 
 commanded to defend the city, which the Emperor himself did 
 not quit until ten o'clock on the morning of the 19th. Unfor- 
 tunately the bridge, by which the first division of his army had 
 crossed the Elster, was blown up soon after Napoleon joined 
 them, and 25,000 men were in consequence cut to pieces, taken 
 prisoners by the allies, or drowned in the river. Poniatowski 
 himself, after fighting bravely until the streets of Leipzic were 
 strewed with the bodies of his soldiers, retreated towards the 
 Elster ; and finding the bridge destroyed, attempted to swim his 
 horse across the stream ; but the bank being steep on the other 
 side, the horse in attempting to clear it fell back on his rider, 
 and both were drowned. Soon after mid-day the two Emperors 
 and the King of Prussia entered Leipzic, amidst the acclamations 
 of the grateful citizens. Amongst the numerous prisoners taken 
 was the King of Saxony. The allies lost nearly 47,000 men in 
 this ten-ible battle ; the loss of the French was upwards of 60,000 
 in killed and prisoners. Napoleon fled precipitately with the 
 remnant of his army. The Prussians came up with him at Frei- 
 berg on the Unstrutt, where a scene ensued somewhat similar to 
 the passage of the Beresina, on the retreat from Moscow. The 
 Prussian artillery played with terrible effect on the masses who 
 pressed towards the river. Napoleon himself was obliged to 
 alight and pass on foot through the throng. At Hanau Napo- 
 leon's path was obstructed by General Wrede at the head of the 
 Bavarians. Here the last great battle in Germany was fought 
 (20th October). Napoleon succeeded in forcing his way through 
 the Bavarian army, but with a loss of 7000 men : the Bavarians 
 lost 10,000. On the 1st November Napoleon arrived at Mentz, 
 and began to cross the Rhine. His army then numbered about 
 70,000 men. In the course of November Germany was com- 
 pletely evacuated by the French, except the garrisons in Dresden 
 and the northern fortresses, in which 100,000 men were shut up, 
 and now completely cut off from their country. One by one these 
 
440 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. LXIII. 
 
 fortresses were taken or capitulated : several, however, held out 
 till the beginning of the following year ; and Magdeburg and 
 Hamburg did not surrender till the war was brought to a close. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER LXIII. 
 
 Prince Metternich. — This distinguished statesman and diplo- 
 matist was born in the year 1773, at Johannisberg, on the banks 
 of the Rhine, the hereditary seat of his family, which was of 
 ancient and noble descent. He was brought up at Strasburg, and 
 completed his education by travelling in Germany, Holland, and 
 England. He made his first entrance into public life at the con- 
 gress of Rastadt in 1799. His great abilities, which were accom- 
 panied with the most elegant and polished manners, soon attracted 
 the attention of the Austrian court. In the years 1804 and 1805 
 he was employed in diplomatic missions of importance at the 
 courts of St. Petersburg and Berlin ; and after the peace of 
 Presburg, in the latter year, was appointed ambassador at Paris 
 from the court of Austria. He was then only thirty-three years 
 of age, and Napoleon remarked to him, " You are very young 
 to represent so powerful a monarchy." " Your Majesty," re- 
 plied Metternich, " was not older at Austerlitz." Indeed his 
 conduct at Paris, through all the difficulties of those stormy times, 
 showed him fully equal to the important trust he held, and espe- 
 cially before the breaking out of the war between France and 
 Austria in 1809, when the violent outbursts of Napoleon could 
 not once disturb his cool self-possession, or lead him to betray by 
 the slightest word or gesture the hidden policy which it was then 
 necessary for his court to observe. On liis return to Vienna he 
 was appointed to succeed Count Stadion as chancellor of state, 
 and continued for more than thirty years to direct, almost without 
 control, the affairs of Austria. His interview with Napoleon at 
 Dresden during the armistice of Pleissnitz in 1813, alluded to in 
 the preceding chapter, led to a singular scene. His demands ou 
 the part of Austria appeared so extravagant to Napoleon that the 
 latter lost all control over his temper. He broke out into a long, 
 loud, and bitter invective against Austria, which he wound up by 
 abruptly turning to the ambassador, and exclaiming as he dashed 
 his hat on the floor, "Ah! Metternich, how much has England 
 given you to play this part against me?" Metternich received 
 
^up. Chap. LXIII. KoRNER. 441 
 
 this gross and undeserved insult in dignified silence. Napoleon 
 expected that the ambassador would pick up his hat ; but, in 
 spite of his inbred politeness, Metternich never once offered to 
 stoop ; and the Emperor, who still continued to pace the room, at 
 length kicked the hat on one side himself. This apparently unim- 
 l^ortant incident at once betokened the great change that was 
 approaciiing in the relations between France and Austria. 
 
 Komer. — Charles Theodore Korner was born at Dresden on 
 the 23rd of September, 1791. His father was the intimate asso- 
 ciate of Schiller, who composed his tragedy of ' Don Carlos ' at a 
 country house belonging to his friend in the pleasant village of 
 Loschwitz, near Dresden. At Vienna Korner obtained a consi- 
 derable reputation as a writer of dramatic pieces, and had just 
 received the appointment of " imperial theatrical poet," when the 
 Prussian invitation to arm in defence of their Fatherland re- 
 sounded through the length and breadth of Germany, and found 
 an echo in every heart. He left Vienna on the 13th March, 
 1813, with letters of recommendation to some of the principal 
 officers in the Prussian army. At Breslau he learnt that Major 
 von Liitzow had just announced his intention of raising the cele- 
 brated corps which, under the name of Liitzow's Black Volun- 
 teers, afterwards played so prominent a part in the war of 
 liberation. Such a band, the nucleus of which already numbered 
 several officers of distinction, statesmen, artists, and professional 
 men, presented to Theodore's excited fancy the very beau ideal 
 of a patriot army ; and without hesitation he joined their ranks. 
 A few days afterwards he was present at the solemn dedication 
 of the corps in a village church near Zobten. " Our choral song- 
 being ended," he writes to his father, " the pastor of the village, 
 Peters, delivered a touching discourse which drew tears from 
 every eye. Then he administered to each of us a solemn oath, 
 that in the cause of our Fatherland and of religion we would 
 spare neither blood nor gear, but march cheerfully to victory or 
 to death. The good pastor then fell on his knees and invoked 
 che blessing of God on those who were about to fight in His 
 cause. The oath thus proposed, and sworn on the swords of our 
 officers, was followed by the singing of ' A steadfast fortress is 
 our God,' and so ended our solemnity." Korner had at first en- 
 rolled himself in the tirailleurs ; but the state of inactivity to 
 which that company, in common with other infantry corps, was 
 reduced by the armistice of Pleissnitz, was so insupportable that 
 
 2 c 3 
 
442 HISTORY OF GEEMAXY. Chap. LXIII. 
 
 he exchanged into the cavalry, where he acted as Major Liitzow's 
 adjutant. Whilst engaged in this new service, the life of Theodore 
 had well nigh been sacrificed to French treachery. Napoleon, 
 indignant at the annoyance occasioned by these Prussian volun- 
 teers, in intercepting his dispatches and cutting off the supplies of 
 his army, had issued orders that no quarter should be given to a 
 single individual of the corps. In consequence of these orders 
 Liitzow, \vho, relying on the armistice, had chosen the shortest 
 road to join his infantry, was surrounded near the village of 
 Kitzen by a formidable body of French cavalry. Theodore 
 Korner was immediately sent forward to demand the cause of 
 this movement ; but the French, instead of returning any answer, 
 charged three squadrons of Liitzow's cavalry with such impe- 
 tuosity, that many of them were cut down before they had time 
 to draw their swords. Of the survivors, some were taken, and 
 others saved themselves by disj)ersing among the neighbouring 
 villages ; whilst Liitzow himself, at the head of a considerable 
 number of his men, cut his way through the enemy's ranks and 
 reached the right bank of the Elbe in safety. Korner, who, in 
 obedience to the orders of his commander, had advanced to meet 
 the French without drawing his sword, received a severe sabre 
 ground, which made him reel in the saddle ; but rallying a little 
 he recovered his seat, and setting spurs to his liorse took shelter 
 in a neighbouring wood. Here he was engaged, with the assist- 
 ance of some of his comrades, in staunching the blood, which 
 flowed profusely from the wound, when a division of the enemy 
 was seen advancing rapidly towards his place of concealment. 
 Yet even in this moment of terrible suspense Korner was not 
 wanting to himself. Turning his eyes towards the quarter oppo- 
 site to that from which the French were approaching, he shouted 
 out, " Fourth squadron, charge !" and the French, anticipating 
 the appearance of a large body of cavalry, wheeled round and in 
 a few moments were out of sight. It was now dark ; and Korner, 
 crawling farther into the forest, and crouching down among the 
 thick underwood, anxiously awaited the return of his comrades. 
 Bur hour after hour of that long night wore away, and no sounds 
 were heard but the footsteps of the French soldiei-s sent in search 
 of him, and the shouts which they uttered from time to time to 
 warn one another of their position. Despairing at last of relief, 
 sick at heart, and exhausted by the loss of blood, Theodore 
 thought tliat his last hour was come ; and stretching his stiffening 
 
Sup. CuAF. LXIll. KORNEH. 443 
 
 limbs oil the turi', sank into a lieavy slumber, from whicli lie 
 would probably never have awaked had he not been discovered 
 about daybreak by two peasants, whom his comrades had dis- 
 patched in search of him. With some difficulty Korner was 
 roused from his lethargic sleep and conveyed to tlie village of 
 Zscliocher, where a skilful surgeon bound up his wounds, and the 
 kind villagers tended him with the most alfectionate care. But 
 his perils were scarcely yet ended ; for the French, furious at his 
 escape, and anxious to possess the military chest belonging to 
 Liltzow's corps, which was known to be in his custody, issued 
 jiroclamation after proclamation, forbidding the country people to 
 liarbour Theodore Korner, and offering a considerable reward to 
 any one who would deliver him into their hands. Meanwhile his 
 friends at Leipzic had been informed of his perilous situation, 
 and, although the town and surrounding country swarmed with 
 French troops, they succeeded in conveying him through a garden 
 gate, which communicated by means of a canal and an unfre- 
 quented footpath with the village of Zscliocher. After remaining 
 live days concealed in the house of one of his friends, Korner 
 quitted Leipzic, and joined his corps a few days before the ex- 
 piration of the armistice. 
 
 On the morning of the 25th of August Liitzow, who had formed 
 an ambuscade in a wood near Rosenberg, was informed by some 
 Cossacks, posted on a neighbouring height to watch the enemy's 
 movements, that a number of ammunition waggons were in sight, 
 escorted by a considerable body of cavalry and tirailleurs. On 
 receiving this intelligence, Liitzow ordered the Cossacks to charge 
 the enemy in front, whilst his own cavalry attacked their flank. 
 Korner, as adjutant, rode by the side of his commander. During 
 their halt in the wood he had written his celebrated ' Song of the 
 Sword,' and was reciting the last stanza* to his comrades when 
 the signal f)r attack was given. The enemy, although more 
 
 * Nun laszt das Liebclien siugeii, 
 Dasz lielle Funken springeu, 
 Der Hochzeit-morgen graut. 
 Hurrah ! du Eisenbraut ! 
 
 Hurrah I 
 
 Then welcome, lov'd one, singing. 
 While sparks in show'rs are springing. 
 Thy bridal morning-tide. 
 Hurrah ! mv iron bride ! 
 
 Hurrah I 
 
444 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. LXIII. 
 
 numerous than Liitzow had anticipated, gave way before the 
 cliarge of the Cossacks, and retreated in considerable disorder 
 along the road leading from Gadebusch to Schwerin, closely pur- 
 sued by Liitzow's cavalry. The French tirailleurs had in the 
 mean time concealed themselves in a thick coppice of underwood, 
 from which they kept up a quick but random fire on the Prus- 
 sians. Korner, who was among the foremost of the pursuers, 
 happening to come within the range of their rifles, received a ball 
 which, passing through his body, wounded the spine, and at once 
 deprived him of speech and consciousness. His comrades raised 
 him from the ground and bore him to the neighbouring wood, 
 where a surgeon, having examined the wound, pronounced it 
 fatal ; and in a few moments Theodore Korner died without a 
 struggle. He was buried under an oak near the village of 
 Wobbelin, where the mortal remains of his sister now repose by 
 his side. 
 
 J7ie Battle of Leipzic, October 16-18, 1813.— The events of 
 these dreadful days are graphically described by an eye-witness, 
 " One of the most respectable families of our city was sitting 
 together yesterday during the fearful cannonade, when a shell 
 dropped through the roof, and shattered the arm of a little 
 maiden, who was lying on iier mother's knees. The mother 
 uttered a cry of agony : but the little one entreated her not to 
 weep, for she knew that God would give her another arm. Did 
 ever poet utter words which touched so powerfully the chords of 
 the human heart ? Meanwhile the cannonade and discharge of 
 musketry were sustained most fiercely in the neighbourhood of 
 the outer gates, which were strongly barricaded and protected 
 by palisades: the garden walls were also pierced with holes, 
 through which an uninterrupted fire was kept up on the advanced 
 guard of the allies. Many shots entered the city and did con- 
 siderable mischief; yet so little in comparison of the number 
 discharged, as to excite the astonishment of those who had never 
 been accustomed to consider the difference between aiming and 
 hitting. Once or twice I quitted the suftbcating cellar in which 
 my family were packed, and went up stairs into my own bed- 
 room, but two or three bullets whistling close to my nose soon 
 sent me back again. It was now mid-day, \\\\en suddenly a cry 
 arose, so wild and fearful as to fill us with indescribable dismay : 
 then another, but of a different character, and then the clatter- 
 ing of horses' hoofs, and the clash of sabres ; and at last a loud, 
 
Sup. CHAr. J.XViT. BATTLE OF LEIPZIG. 445 
 
 long shout of triumph. The last division of tlie French anny 
 had been driven from the city, and a victorious band of Prussians 
 and Cossacks had forced their way into it, and were now wel- 
 coming a body of their allies, who had entered at the opposite 
 gate. Again I hurried up stairs, in time to see another gate 
 burst open, and thousands of our friends rushing and crowding 
 over meadows and gardens into the heart of the city. The French 
 were still in possession of two batteries near the gate of Rand- 
 stadt : and a strong party of the conquerors, breaking from the 
 main body, waded through the marshy ground for the purpose of 
 dislodging them. Nothing could withstand the fury of this 
 attack : the unhappy defenders were either hurled headlong into 
 the Pleiss or the town ditches — or huddled together in groups 
 were screaming for quarter, in a tone which I still hear in my 
 dreams — when suddenly, from the opposite side, there rang out 
 a bugle strain so clear and powerful, as well nigh to drown their 
 cries of agony. Well did I know that point of war, for it was 
 the bugle-charge of the Prussian volunteers, many of whom were 
 my own dearest friends. I burst into tears, and in an agony of 
 excitement threw open my window, and regardless of the bullets, 
 which still whistled round me, waved my handkerchief to the 
 troops as they defiled past the house ; and then ran doM^n stairs 
 to tell all who would listen to me, of what I had seen and heard. 
 The allies had now possession of almost every street, and dense 
 columns might be seen in all directions marching rapidly for- 
 wards, whilst from time to time, wherever the increased breadth 
 of the street afforded room, a party of impatient youths would 
 disengage themselves from the main body, and rush forwards at 
 the top of their speed with loud shouts and screams of eagerness. 
 Two tall Prussian chasseurs had just succeeded in effecting this 
 manoeuvre, when a shot from one of the Frenchmen who lay in 
 ambush in the gardens near our house, struck the foremost of 
 them on the breast. For a few moments his comrade tried to 
 support him ; but the wound was evidently mortal, and the poor 
 fellow was fain to lay his dying friend gently on the ground 
 under a linden tree, and try to staunch the blood wiiicli gushed 
 from his side. What strangely-constituted creatures we are ! I 
 iiad already witnessed the butchery of hundreds, almost with in- 
 difference ; but this solitary picture of death so completely un- 
 manned me, that I threw myself on my sofa, and for some 
 moments sat lost in gloomy meditation on tiie loi of mortals— joy 
 
446 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. LXIII. 
 
 succeeded by sorrow, and life purchased by death. The thirst 
 for revenge and contempt of death displayed by the French were 
 heroic, but terrible to behold. In the garden underneath my 
 windows a party of them lurked behind the trees, and fired from 
 time to time on the conquerors, although they knew that it was 
 useless, and would only hasten their own destruction. Four had 
 taken refuge in a little summer-house, and when we called to them 
 to surrender, they presented their pieces, and swore that if we came 
 a step nearer, they would fire. In the town-ditches stood several 
 of them, holding their arms and ammunition clear of the water, 
 and loading and firing with wonderful rapidity ; and whenever 
 one of the allies was hit, and sank beneath the surface, they sent 
 forth a shout like that of the hunter who has brought down his 
 game. Every gate had now been forced, and Prussians, Swedes, 
 Russians, and Austrians Avere streaming into the city : yet the 
 few French who remained contested every inch of ground ; and 
 gardens, summer-houses, and even drawing-rooms were strewed 
 v.'ith their dead bodies. Our Saxon troops had piled arms in the 
 Grimmer Street, and those of Baden in the market-place : but at 
 the cry of ' Brethren, with us !' they resumed them and rushed 
 to embrace their comrades. But the most touching sight of all 
 was the meeting of the monarchs in the market-place, where they 
 embraced each other amidst loud shouts, and heartfelt thanks- 
 givings to the Almighty. Not to have been present at such a 
 scene would have been a subject of regret to me as long as I 
 live. The naive honesty of the Cossacks, which has its origin 
 perchance in certain stringent regulations of their commanders, 
 combined as it is with their natural desire to possess almost every- 
 thing that belongs to other people, gives rise to many comic 
 adventures. In the suburbs especially, they force their way into 
 every house, and in the most friendly tone assure the inhabitants 
 that ' Cossack good man ! Cossack no take !' whilst their eyes 
 are wandering about in search of some object on which they can 
 lay their hands : and almost before they have uttered the petitio:i 
 in their broken German, ' Brother, give Cossack this — give Co - 
 sack that ' — the article is in their pockets. Not that they care 
 much for valuable property ; but are rather attracted, like 
 children, by those objects which they think likely to amuse them. 
 
 At S 's a party of tliem droi)ped in whilst the family were at 
 
 dinner ; and amidst the warmest embraces, and assurances that 
 they v/anted nothing, swept all his napkins oflf the table. At 
 
Sup. Chap. LXIII. BATTLE OK LEIPZIG. 447 
 
 D 's, seeing the balls on his billiard table, they begged that lie 
 
 uould make them a present of those little bullets, ' tiiey rolled so 
 nicely.' In the streets they are still more moderate, and will 
 even listen to remonstrance. I was crossing the market-place, 
 when sometliing struck me smartly on the shoulder. I turned 
 quickly round, and there stood three Russians. ' Hack /' said 
 one of them, ' Coat, brother, coat,' making at the same time a 
 very intelligible gesture. ' But I want it myself, brother,' said 
 J, 'and besides, it is too small for you.' ^ Hechl good, good," 
 quoth my friend, and off he walked as much delighted as if 1 
 liad given him my coat. I cannot sufficiently praise the con- 
 tentedness and moderation of the principal officers in the allied 
 army. One instance I will relate, which occurred in my own 
 immediate neighbourhood. A Russian officer of high rank (I 
 wish I could remember his name) came to the house of an elderly 
 iady, and asked for quarters. ' I have already received all my 
 billets,' replied the old lady, ' and provided for them out of the 
 liouse. I am here with only a single servant, and all the pro- 
 vision I have in the world is a small sack of potatoes.' ' All 
 that may be true enough,' said the officer, 'but I have not 
 slept in a bed for four nights. If you will take me in, I will 
 be content with whatever you choose to give me ; and the day 
 after to-morrow at daybreak I will shift my quarters. — How 
 say you,— will you refuse me this ?' ' God forbid,' said the 
 lady of the house, ' but I have only one room and one bed to 
 give you.' The officer takes possession of his quarters, gives the 
 good woman as little trouble as possible— his servant sleeps out- 
 side his door on the floor, and both regale themselves at dinner 
 and supper on potatoes, and at the appointed time march out 
 with many expressions of gratitude. The meanes'. horse-boy in 
 the French army would have exacted ten times as much attentioTi. 
 In the court-yard of our house are bivouacked forty-two Swedes 
 with their horses. It does one's heart good to look at these fine 
 felloM^s, and observe their quiet, modest demeanour. Such were 
 the soldiers who served under Gustavus Adolphus. They are in 
 want of almost everything; but you he^r no complaints, no 
 grumbling, not an unfriendly word. Whatever is given to them, 
 be it much or little, good or bad, they receive with thankfulness 
 and share equally. Not one of them thinks of providing for 
 himself, until his horse is served : and if any of the party bring 
 in a little bundle of forage, it is divided into equal portions, and 
 
448 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. LJ.IY. 
 
 given to their beasts — each striving- by caresses and kind words 
 to make amends for the scantiness of the provender. At sunrise 
 they may be seen sitting on the steps, or on the ground, each 
 with his little psalm-book in his hand. Of their fallen comrades 
 they speak with regret, but without any unmanly lamentation. 
 Even when I questioned tliem about their wounded, I could get 
 little from them beyond ' God will provide.' Of their Crown 
 Prince they speak in the highest terms. ' He has led us nobly,' 
 they say, ' and our people love him.' And these are the men 
 whom travellers represent as cold, rugged, and savage, like the 
 glaciers, rocks, and bears of their native deserts." 
 
 CHAPTER LXIY. 
 
 INVASION OF FRANCE BY THE ALLIES. — ABDICATION OF NAPOLEON. 
 
 BATTLE OF WATERLOO. SECOND PEACE OF PARTS. 
 
 A.D. 1814-15. 
 
 Scarcely had Napoleon re-crossed the Rhine when the whole 
 of the Rhenish confederacy abandoned him : an example which 
 was soon followed by Holland, Switzerland, and Italy. The 
 allies, now on the eve of entering France, issued a manifesto, 
 in which they solemnly declared that they made war, not on the 
 French nation, but on Napoleon alone. The people, nevertheless, 
 remained unshaken in their attachment, and flocked in crowds to 
 his standard. In the beginning of the year 1814 four armies 
 invaded France from different quarters : Biilow, from Holland ; 
 Ijlucher, from Coblenz ; the grand army under Schwartzenberg, 
 from Switzerland ; and the united forces of the English and 
 Spaniards from the Pyrenees. On the 29th of January Bliicher 
 was attacked by the Emperor near the town of Brieune,* lo 
 suddenly, that he narrowly escaped being taken prisoner. But 
 a few days later (February I) his division, supported by the 
 M'liole army of the allies (who had now concentrated an over- 
 whelming force of more than 100,000 men, under the command 
 of the Emperor Alexander and the King of Prussia), obtained 
 
 * Napoleon was educated at the military school of this place. 
 
A.D. 1814. INVASION OF FRANCE. 449 
 
 a decisive victory over tlie Frencli near La Hotliiere. On the 3rd, 
 Napoleon fell back on Troyes, the capital of Champagne ; where 
 ]\Iortier was already occupied in erecting barricades and making- 
 /)ther preparations for a vigorous defence. A congress was held 
 at Chatillon early in February, and peace offered to Napoleon, 
 on condition of his ceding all those provinces which had not formed 
 part of the French dominions before the revolution ; but this 
 proposal he rejected with indignation, declaring that he would 
 either retain or lose all. 1'he allies, thinking a combined plan of 
 operations no longer necessary, now committed the error, whicli 
 had well-nigh proved ruinous to their cause, of separating the 
 army of Silesia from the grand army under Schwartzenberg, the 
 former following the course of the Marne to Paris, the latter 
 marching on the capital by Troyes and Montereau through the 
 valley of the Seine. The difficulty of finding provision and 
 forage for such a multitude was the reason assigned for this 
 imprudent manoeuvre, which placed the two armies at a con- 
 siderable distance from each other ; whilst Napoleon, still at 
 the head of 70,000 men, occupied a central position between 
 tiiem. The consequences of tlieir separation were soon apparent. 
 Napoleon, disregarding the Austrians, wliose movements, always 
 slow and methodical, were now embarrassed by the unwillingness 
 of Francis to precipitate the ruin of his son-in-law, resolved on 
 intercepting Bliicher at all hazards ; and having on the lOtli 
 defeated the Russian divisions at Champaubert, and the corps 
 of General Sacken on the following day at Montmirail, he ap- 
 peared unexpectedly before the village of Vauchamps, which 
 had just been evacuated, after a gallant defence, by the corps of 
 Marshal Marmont. At sight of the imperial standard the 
 retreating army instantly halted, and facing round, forced back 
 the Prussian advanced guard upon the main body, which had 
 barely time to form itself into squares, when it was attacked on 
 two sides by the French cavalry under General Grouchy ; whil>t 
 at the same time the artillery of Marmont's division, which had 
 been for some time silent, re-opened a heavy fire in front. It was 
 now Bliicher's turn to commence a retreat, which he effected in 
 good order, until, on ascending an eminence, he found himself con- 
 fronted by Groucliy, who had been sent forward with three 
 thousand cuirassiers to intercept the allied army before they 
 reached the forest of Etoges, where the horse would be no longer 
 available. Already hard pressed by a superior force, and almost 
 
450 HISTORY OF GERr^IANY. Chap. LXIY. 
 
 without cavalry, Bliicher seems for a time to have lost his presence 
 of mind. " In the fiend's name," said he to an officer, who tried 
 to raise the spirits of his commander, by turning- the whole affair 
 into a jest ; "in the fiend's name hold thy peace, man — my head 
 is confused enough ab-eady." Meanwhile two Prussian battalions 
 had been cut to pieces by the French cuirassiers, and the destruc- 
 tion of the whole army seemed inevitable ; when Bliicher, 
 starting from his melancholy reverie at the voice of his aide-de- 
 camp, Nostitz, commanded tlie bugles to sound a charge, and 
 rushing forwards at the head of his artillery and infantry, suc- 
 ceeded in clearing a passage through the enemy and reaching 
 Etoges. Scarcely, however, had the wearied soldiers commenced 
 their bivouac when an alarm was given that General Udom's 
 brigade was attacked by Marmont, whose troops were compara- 
 tively fresh. On receiving this intelligence Bliicher at once 
 abandoned the town, and after a fierce conflict arrived about 
 midnight at Bergeres. During the confusion of this night- 
 march Bliicher was accosted by an officer, who anxiously enquired 
 what had become of the field-marshal. " I am he," said Bliicher, 
 in a melancholy tone ; " and I should have been better pleased if 
 one of their bullets had laid me as low as those poor fellows." 
 After a few hours' rest the army continued its march to Chalons, 
 which it reached on the evening of the loth. Out of a force which 
 scarcely exceeded twenty thousand men, the allies lost in this 
 disastrous retreat seven thousand killed, wounded, and prisoners, 
 fifteen guns, and eight stands of colours. Had the heavy artillery 
 of Grouchy's corps come up in time to co-operate with his 
 cuirassiers, scarcely a man would have escaped to carry the in- 
 telligence of Bliicher's defeat to Schwartzenberg ; but happily 
 their progress through the heavy ploughed ground was so slow, that 
 the retreating army had time to cut their way through the enemy, 
 and obtain shelter in the forest of Etoges, before a single gun 
 could be brought to bear on their front or flank. The divisions of 
 the Silesian army now re-united, and shortly afterwards marched 
 towards the Aube in order to form a junction with the grand army. 
 Meanwhile the advanced guard of Schwartzenberg had halted 
 within ten leagues of the capital ; and Napoleon, abandoning all 
 further pursuit of Bliicher, proceeded to Montereau, where he 
 attacked the division of the Prince Royal of Wiirtemberg 
 on the 18th of February; and after an obstinate engagement, 
 which lasted the whole day, compelled them to give way and 
 
A.V. 1814. ABDICATION OF XArOLKOX. 451 
 
 re-cross the river. This was the last of Napoleon's victories. 
 The allies, now fully aware of the fatal error which they had 
 committed, resolved on concentrating their forces in front of 
 Troves and offering battle to the enemy ; but scarcely had 
 Bliicher's division, wliicli lie had raised by extraordinary exer- 
 tions to the number of 50,000, effected a junction with the 
 grand army, when it was resolved in a council of war to evacuate 
 Troyes, and falling back on the Rhine, await there the result of 
 fresh negotiations with Napoleon. Against this resolution 
 Bliicher and the Emperor Alexander vehemently protested; and, 
 after a long and stormy discussion, it was at length decided, on 
 the motion of the English plenipotentiary. Viscount Castlereagh, 
 that the grand army alone should retreat to Langres, whilst 
 Bh'icher, marching to the Marne, should be joined by the corps of 
 Winzingerode, Biilow, and Woronzow, and advance at once on 
 Paris. On the 20th of JMarch, Napoleon, after taking the town 
 of Rheiras, engaged the grand army, witliout any decisive result, 
 at Arcis-sur-Aube ; and on the following day, instead of renew 
 ing the engagement, commenced a retreat towards the Rhine, with 
 the intention of obtaining reinforcements from his frontier 
 garrisons, and assisting the peasants of Lorraine and Alsace, who 
 4mly waited his approach to commence a fierce attack on the 
 flanks and rear of Schwartzenberg*s army. A letter addressed by 
 Napoleon to the Empress, in which the whole of this plan was 
 detailed, having fallen into the hands of the allies, it was resolved 
 in a council of war held at Vitry on the 24th, that General 
 AVinzingerode should remain behind ^vith 10,000 cavalry and 
 artillery' to meet Napoleon, whilst the united armies of Schwartz- 
 enberg and Bliicher advanced without further delay to the capital. 
 On the 30th of March, after some skirmishing on the heights of 
 Belleville and Montmartre, a capitulation was signed by Marshals 
 Mortier and Marmont, who engaged to withdraw the remnant of 
 their troops and surrender Paris to the allies on the following 
 morning. Meanwhile Napoleon, kept in play by the divisions of 
 AVinzingerode and Tettenborn, only became aware of the departure 
 of the main body of the allies when it was too late to overtake them. 
 Hurrying back to Fontainebleau, he had there the misfortune to 
 learn that many of his marshals had abandoned him ; and, finding 
 further resistance hopeless, he abdicated the imperial crown on the 
 10th of April, and retired to the island of Elba, which was assigned 
 to him as his property and future place of residence. On the Itii 
 
452 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. LXIY. 
 
 of May Louis XYIII. re-entered the capital of his ancestral king- 
 dom ; and on the 30th of the same month a general peace was con- 
 cluded on terms so unreasonably favourable to France, as it appeared 
 to Blucher, that the veteran protested vehemently, but ineffectually, 
 against an arrangement which permitted the French to retain the 
 German provinces of Lorraine and Alsace. " It was a stretch of 
 magnanimity," he said, " which tlie French had no right to ex- 
 pect, and of which no good would come." The wranglings of the 
 Congress, assembled at Vienna in September, were regularly 
 reported to Napoleon, and revived hopes which had been well- 
 nigh extinguished by his recent calamities. Not only was time 
 wasted in unprofitable discussion by the representatives of the 
 allied powers, but even the stability of peace endangered by the 
 claims of Alexander, who required that Prussian Poland should 
 be annexed to his dominions, Prussia receiving as an indemnity 
 the whole of Saxony, which the allies resolved to treat as a con- 
 quered country. Against an arrangement so obviously unjust all 
 the nations of Germany raised their voices. " If an indemnifica- 
 tion," tliey said, " be required for Prussia, let France be com- 
 pelled to disgorge the provinces of which she has robbed Germany; 
 but let not the Saxon people be mulcted because their King has 
 committed a political error." After long and stormy discussions 
 it was at lensrth decided, on the motion of the Austrian plenipo- 
 tentiary. Prince Metiernich, that Russia should receive the whole 
 of Poland, except the grand duchy of Posen, which, with half of 
 Saxony, should be ceded to Prussia. Frederick Augustus of 
 Saxony, who protested against this act of tyrannical injustice, 
 was contemptuously told that until he acceded to the terms 
 offered by the Congress, the whole of his kingdom would be 
 treated as a Prussian province. Meanwhile a dark thunder- 
 cloud was gathering in the South. 
 
 Napoleon, as we have mentioned, had retired after his abdica- 
 tion to the island of Elba. On the 25th February, 1815, during 
 a feast given by the banished Emperor to his little court, orders 
 were suddenly issued for the troops to embark on board seven 
 small vessels which were lying in the roadstead. After a calm 
 of some duration a stiff breeze springing up from the south carried 
 the Corsican squadron rapidly towards the coast of France. So 
 little suspicion however was caused by their appearance, that a 
 French cruiser actually hailed one of them, and inquired after 
 the ex-Eraperor's health. The answer was given by Napoleon 
 
A.D. 1S15. REITURN OF NAPOLEON. 453 
 
 liimself, who, seizing a speaking--triimpt't, shouted out, " II se 
 porte a merveille." On the 1st of March lie landed with about 
 eleven hundred men at Cannes, on the southern coast of France. 
 No sooner was his arrival known than a small body of troops 
 marched to the coast to oppose his progress. Napoleon subdued 
 them by one of those coups de theatre which seldom fail to touch 
 the heart of a Frenchman. Advancing in front of his little army 
 he fixed his eyes with a melancholy expression on the French 
 troops, and called on those who would slay their Emperor to 
 r-tand forth. Not a man quitted the ranks. For a few moments 
 there was a pause — then the whole corps, as if animated by one 
 spirit, tore the white cockade from their caps, and raised a uni- 
 versal shout of " Vive I'Empereur !" " Oui," growled some of 
 the veterans, who had grown grey under his eye, " Viv^e notre 
 l)etit caporal ! nous ne I'abandonnerons jamais." Another regi- 
 ment having joined him under the walls of Grenoble, that fortress, 
 as well as Lyons, capitulated. Marshal Ney, who had been de- 
 spatched from Paris with a considerable force, no sooner found 
 himself in presence of his former master than he forgot his oath 
 of allegiance to Louis XVIII., and a second time changed sides. 
 Encouraged by this propitious commencement of his enterprise. 
 Napoleon now issued a proclamation denouncing death against 
 any Bourbon who should remain in France. On the night of the 
 19th March Louis XVIII. quitted the Tuileries, and on the fol- 
 lowing day the usurper entered Paris in triumph. As soon as 
 the news of Napoleon's escape reached Vienna, where the Con- 
 gress was still sitting, a manifesto was published by the allied 
 monarchs, declaring him an outlawed traitor, and calling on all 
 the other sovereigns of Europe to aid them in replacing the King 
 of France on the throne, from which he had been driven by a 
 desperate faction. At the same time the three allied sovereigns 
 and the Prince Regent of England pledged themselves each to 
 equip with all speed an army of 180,000 men. The English 
 ambassador at Berlin was still sleeping, when a rough voice 
 shouted in his ear, " Have the English a fleet in the Mediter- 
 ranean ?" Starting up in astonishment, he saw Bliicher at iiis 
 bed-side, and learned from him the disastrous intelligence which 
 had just reached the Prussian capital. After a very short visit 
 the veteran took his leave with these ominous words — " "We 
 nnist begin it all over again — thanks to the carelessness of your 
 countrymen," and hastened to his own house, whence he was 
 
454 HISTORY OF GERMANY, Chap. LXIY. 
 
 soon afterwards seen to issue in the full-dress uniform of a field- 
 marshal. About the middle of April Bliicher marched into the 
 Netherlands and established his head-quarters at Liege, and on 
 the 2nd of June found himself, through the strenuous exertions of 
 the war-minister, Bogen, at the head of an army of 117,000 men, 
 with which he occupied the country between the Sambre and the 
 Meuse, while the Duke of Wellington with 100,000 occupied the 
 \Ahole of Flanders from Brussels to the sea. Napoleon with 
 130,000 men and 350 pieces of cannon took up his position be- 
 tween Valenciennes and Lisle. His plan was first to attack 
 Bliicher and then advance to meet the English. The English 
 commander-in-chief heard of the advance of the French on the 
 afternoon of the ISth; but with characteristic coolness attended, 
 with his staff officers, a ball given at Brussels that evening by 
 the Duchess of Richmond. On the following day he had an in- 
 terview with Bliicher, and promised to send 20,000 men to his 
 assistance before four o'clock on the 16th ; but the occupation of 
 Wavre by Ney's division rendered this impossible without pre- 
 maturely risking an engagement. In the afternoon of the 16th, 
 Napoleon with 75,000 men advanced to attack Blucher's position 
 at Ligny. Just before the battle began General Bourmont went 
 over °o the Prussians. " It signifies little," said Bliicher con- 
 temptuously, pointing to the Avhite cockade which Bourmont had 
 placed in his hat, " it signifies little what colours a man wears— 
 a scoundrel will still be a scoundrel."* The Prussians fought 
 with their accustomed bravery, and for five hours made their 
 position good against the enemy; but at length, about seven 
 o'clock in the evening, a terrible charge, led by Napoleon in 
 person, threw their infantry into irretrievable confusion. Bliicher, 
 at the head of a few thousand light cavalry, now attacked the 
 heavy French dragoons; but as he galloped forward, cheering 
 his men on to the charge, a cannon-ball struck his horse, which 
 fell to the ground mortally wounded, crushing the rider beneath 
 its body. After lying in great agony, and being several times 
 ridden over, he was at last discovered by some of his soldiers and 
 conveyed to a place of safety, where he was attended by a sur- 
 geon, who proceeded to chafe his bruised limbs with some liquid. 
 Bliicher inquired what it was ; " Spirits," replied the surgeon. 
 " It is of no use applying it outwardly,'' roared the intractable 
 patient ; and, seizing \he fia.^k, he swallowed its contents, and 
 * Hiindsff)tt bleibt Hunflsfott. 
 
A.D. 1815. r.ATTLE OF WATERLOO. 455 
 
 tlien dismissed the surgeon from liis presence. Tlie remnant of 
 liis army retreated in tolerable order, leaving the French in pos- 
 session of the field. AVliilst Napoleon was thus engaged with the 
 Prussians at Ligny, Marshal Ney disi)uted the position of Quatre- 
 Bras with a division of the British and Belgian forces, commanded 
 by the Prince of Orange. In this engagement the Duke of 
 Brunswick was slain : and Ney, after sustaining a heavy loss, fell 
 back on his former position. On the 17th the Prussian army, 
 now augmented by the arrival of Biilow's division, marched 
 northwards in order to support the Duke of Wellington, who had 
 retreated slowly from Quatre-Bras and drawn up his force, con- 
 sisting of 72,000 men, on the heights of Mont St. Jean, with his 
 head-quarters at the village of Waterloo, and the forest of Soignies 
 in his rear. Napoleon, with 80,000, occupied the heigjjts of 
 Planchenois, with his head-quarters at a farm-house called Caillou. 
 He had previously despatched General Grouchy with 32,000 men 
 to keep the Prussians in check. The battle began on the 1 8th 
 at mid-day, with a fierce attack of the French on the British left 
 wing, commanded by Sir Thomas Picton. Then followed an 
 attempt on the part of Napoleon to break their centre : but Wel- 
 lington, forming his men into squares, stood firm, awaiting the 
 coming up of Bliicher, who, according to the Prussian accounts, 
 had pledged his word that he would appear on the 18th with his 
 whole force. But hour after hour passed in anxious suspense ; 
 and it was not until half-past four in the afternoon that the sound 
 of a distant cannonade announced the ad\ance of the Prussians. 
 The road from Wavre to Waterloo had been rendered almost 
 impracticable by the heavy rains ; and many of the Prussian sol- 
 diers, worn out by their violent exertions in the battle of the 16th, 
 scantily fed, and drenched to the skin, had several times sunk to 
 the ground from sheer exhaustion. Once, when the cannon stuck 
 fas" in a deep part of the road, they seemed inclined to abandon 
 the attempt in despair, and sullenly muttered, " It won't do, 
 lather Blucher." But the cheerful voice of their old commander 
 was heard above all, reminding them of their duty, and encou- 
 raging them to greater exertions. " Children," he shouted, '' we 
 must forwards. 'Tis all very well to say it won't do, but it must 
 flo. I have promised it to my brother Wellington — you would 
 not have me break my word." At first Napoleon supposed, or 
 at least pretended to believe, that Grouchy 's division was ad- 
 vancing ; but, becoming speedily aware of his mistake, lie deter- 
 
456 HISTORY OF GERMAXY. Chap. LXI7. 
 
 mined to charge the English centre with his reserve, which con- 
 sisted of four regiments of the old guard. But Wellington had 
 provided for such a contingency, and opened a heavy fire from 
 several batteries which had been hitherto masked ; whilst, at the 
 same time, the English army charged the enemy in front, and 
 Bliicher, Billow, and Ziethen attacked the flank and rear. Thus 
 surrounded, the French gave way and fled in confusion, with the 
 exception of Napoleon's guard, which continued to resist the at- 
 tacks of Billow's cavalry until they were mostly cut to pieces."^ 
 The Prussians, forgetting their weariness, pursued the flying 
 French so closely that Napoleon himself was obliged to abandon 
 his carriage at Gemappe, leaving behind him his hat and sword, 
 Avhich Bliicher forwarded to the King of Prussia, retaining the 
 carriage, cloak, and telescope for his own share of the booty, and 
 dividing all the Emperor's valuables among his soldiers. On the 
 7th July Bliicher and Wellington entered Paris for the second 
 time. So vehement was the Prussian General's indignation 
 against the French, that he actually proposed the dismemberment 
 of their country ; and was on the eve of blowing up the bridge 
 of Jena, but was saved by Wellington from the disgrace of com- 
 mitting an act of such wanton barbarism. Talleyrand had pre- 
 viously employed a friend to intercede with him ; but Bliicher 
 refused to listen to his remonstrances. " I shall blow up the 
 bridge," he said, " and it would give me great pleasure if Prince 
 Talleyrand were seated upon it." 
 
 On the 20th of November a second peace was concluded at 
 Paris, on conditions more favourable to the French than perhaps 
 they deserved, although sufficiently humiliating to a brave and 
 high-spirited people. Eighteen frontier fortresses were to be 
 garrisoned by the allies, and a foreign army of 150,000 men to 
 be maintained at the cost of the French nation, until the Bourbon 
 dynasty was firmly established on the throne. The French were 
 also required to deliver up all the works of art which they had 
 stolen, and to pay an indemnity to the allies of seven hundred 
 millions of francs. So faithfully were these conditions executed, 
 that in a congress held at Aix-la-Chapelle in the autumn of 1818, 
 it was resolved by the allied monarchs to withdraw their army, as 
 no longer necessary for the maintenance of order in France. 
 
 * " La garde meurt, mais lie se rend pas/' was the reply of their coin- 
 mander, General Cambr-onne, when summoned by Biilow to sxirrender. 
 
Sup. Chap. LXIY. BLUCHER. 457 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER LXIV. 
 
 Blacker. — Born 1742, died 1819. — Gebhard Leberecht von 
 Bliicher was born at Rostock in Mecklenburg in the year 1742 ; 
 and at the breaking out of the Seven Years' War, being then in 
 the fourteentli year of his age, was sent with his elder brother to 
 the house of their brother-in-kiw, on the island of Riigen. The 
 education of the young men, which had been neglected at home, 
 does not seem to have been carried on much more efficiently in 
 their new residence, where most of their time was employed ni 
 the chase, or in navigating a little leaky boat on the waters of 
 the Baltic. Nor was the object for which they were sent thither 
 fully attained ; for in a short tune some detachments of Swedish 
 soldiers landed on the island ; and young Bliicher, delighted at 
 this spectacle, the first that he had ever witnessed of military 
 splendour, at once announced his intention of entering the army. 
 The brother-in-law now interposed his authority, such as it was, 
 to prevent his taking a step which, as the well-meaning man 
 represented, would break the hearts of Bliicher's parents : but 
 the boys had already formed their plans, and finding their relative 
 inexorable, Gebhard and his brother eloped at midnight from 
 their sister's house, and found their way to the Swedish camp, 
 where the commanding officer received them with kindness, but 
 refused to enlist them without the sanction of their guardian. 
 A letter was accordhigly despatched to the brother-in-law, m ho 
 gave a reluctant consent, and Gebliard commenced his military 
 career as a hussar in the Swedish service. Here he soon distin- 
 guished himself by his bravery ; and would often, when engaged 
 in skirmishing parties, amuse his commanders by the boldness 
 and activity with which he hovered about the enemy, taunting 
 them with their want of manhood, and exciting the wrath, and 
 sometimes the laughter of the German troopers, by his sallies of 
 camp-wit. At length an old grim hussar, an Austrian by birth, 
 whom he had goaded almost into madness, suddenly wheeled his 
 horse round, and shouting in his provincial jargon, " Wait a bit, 
 lad, I '11 tackle thee," * gave chase to the unfortunate volunteer, 
 whom he followed over hedge and ditch, until, Bliicher's horse 
 being blown, he was compelled to yield himself a prisoner, ami 
 
 * Wart nur, Biibel, werd di j^chon schlachte. 
 Gy. 2 D 
 
458 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. LXIV. 
 
 was conducted into the presence of the Prussian Colonel von 
 Belling. Here it was proposed to him to enter the Prussian 
 army ; but this the young soldier flatly refused, unless permission 
 could be obtained from the Swedish government ; and remained 
 a prisoner in the Prussian camp, until an accident afforded him 
 the opportunity of again engaging in active service, without pre- 
 judice to his honour. The Prussians had taken a Swedish officer, 
 who in former days had served in their army, but deserted, and 
 gone over to the enemy. By the laws of war this man had in- 
 curred the penalty of death : but Belling, anxious to secure the 
 services of his young prisoner, obtained permission from the Kmg 
 to set the Swedish officer at liberty, on condition of Bliicher's 
 being allowed to enter the Prussian army. No objection being 
 made to this proposal, Bliicher renounced his allegiance to the 
 Swede, and at the age of seventeen entered the service of which 
 he was afterwards the most distinguished ornament. But his 
 wild, careless disposition and irregular habits were perpetually 
 involving him in discreditable adventures, which were generally 
 reported, not without exaggeration, to his commanding officer, 
 and at length reached the ears of the King, who, justly indignant 
 at his irregularities, commanded that his name should be passed 
 over in the next promotion. Accordingly we find in the year 
 1771 Bliicher, still a captain, angrily requesting permission to 
 retire from the Prussian service. For many months the King 
 refused to accede to his request, but finding Bliicher obstinate, 
 he too lost patience, and penned a discharge in these words : — 
 '' Captain Bliicher is discharged, and may take service with the 
 
 if he likes." The effects of this imprudent step v/ere likely 
 
 to be severely felt at this time by Bliicher, who was on the eve 
 of contracting marriage with the daughter of a Saxon colonel, 
 the possessor of considerable property in Poland. But neither 
 Bliicher nor his intended bride was to be deterred by unpropitious 
 circumstances from carrying into effect any plan on which they 
 had set their hearts ; and the marriage took place at the time 
 originally appointed, although no better provision offered itself 
 than the management of a small farm, which Bliicher rented from 
 his father-in-law. Here by the most rigid economy they con- 
 trived to accumulate a sum of money sufficient for the purchase 
 of a little estate ; where they continued to reside until the death 
 of Frederick IL, when Bliicher, after fifteen years of retirement, 
 again entered the Prussian army with the rank of Major. In the 
 
Sup. Chap. LXIV. CLUCIIER. 459 
 
 year 1792 war witli France was proclaimed, and in the canii)aiL(n.s 
 of the two lblh)winir years Bliicher's regiment distin<^uished itself 
 by the capture of four thousand prisoners, fourteen hundred 
 liorses, and nine pieces of cannon, witiiout having- a sin"-le man 
 killed, and losing only six prisoners. At the peace of liusle in 
 1795 Bliiclier retired to his estate, wliere he spent the next ele\en 
 years of his life, like most of his old comrades, in the smokin-r- 
 room and at tlie gaming-table. The year 1806 called him again 
 into the field ; but wdth the exception of a few months' active 
 service, he continued in retirement until the beginning of 1813, 
 when the King of Prussia, encouraged by the destruction of the 
 French grand army in the Russian campaign of the previous year, 
 ventured again to declare war against Napoleon. From this time 
 until the peace of 1815, Bliicher was constantly engaged in active 
 service. In the month of July, 1814, soon after the first abdica- 
 tion of Napoleon, the allied monarchs visited England, where 
 they were received with great cordiality — Bliicher especially, the 
 brave veteran who had so stedfastly resisted the common enemy 
 of European freedom, when others quailed before him, was so 
 warmly greeted by the populace on his landing at Dover, that 
 his coat was torn into shreds, and himself nearly suffocated by 
 the vehemence of their welcome. At Oxford tiie honorary de- 
 gree of Doctor of Laws was conferred in full convocation on the 
 distinguished visitor. " They are going to make me a Doctor, I 
 hear," said Bliicher : " they should make Gneisenau an apothecary 
 then ; for if I wrote the prescription, he made the pills." In 
 London ladies of tlie highest rank contended for the honour of a 
 kiss from the smoky mouth of the old General ; w^ho would sit 
 for hours together at his window, tranquilly enjoying his pipe, 
 and nodding kindly to the crowds who besieged his lodgings 
 throughout the day. On the 18th of the following June Napo- 
 leon was defeated at Waterloo, and having surrendered himself 
 to Captain Maitland of the Bellerophon, was conveyed a prisoner 
 to the island of St. Helena, where he died on the 5th of May, 
 1821. His ancient enemy had closed his long and chequered life 
 two years before. The words which Bliicher once addressed to a 
 flatterer whose immoderate praise deeply oflfended him, may serve 
 to display his character better than any lengthened panegyric. 
 " For what do you commend me? — It was my recklessness, Gnei- 
 isenau's cautiousness, and the great God's loving kindness." 
 
 2 D 2 
 
460 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. LXY. 
 
 CHAPTER LXY. 
 
 GERMANY FROM THE PEACE TO THE YEAR 1850. 
 
 The settlement of Europe after the peace of 1815 produced great 
 changes in the political state of Germany. Austria, abandoning 
 her obsolete claims to Alsace, Lorraine, the Netherlands and 
 Switzerland, received, in addition to her hereditary states, Venice 
 and the Milanese under the title of the Lombardo-Venetian 
 kingdom, as well as Illyria, Venetian Dalmatia, the Tyrol, 
 Vorarlberg, Salzburg, and a few other provinces. Thus with- 
 drawing more and more from Germany, she extended her empire 
 southwards and eastwards over nations not belonging to the 
 Teutonic stock. Prussia obtained the Polish Grand Dukedom of 
 Posen, Swedish Pomerania, half Saxony, a large part of West- 
 phalia, and the Lower Rhine from Mentz to Aix-la-Chapelle. 
 Bavaria, in compensation for the provinces ceded to Austria, 
 received Wurtzburg, Aschaffenburg, and the Upper Palatinate, 
 under the name of Rhenish Bavaria. The rest of the German 
 states remained much as they were before ; but the Landgrave of 
 Hesse retained the title of Elector, which had been bestowed 
 upon him by Napoleon, though as the empire was not revived it 
 had no longer any meaning. All Germany entered into an 
 alliance, called "the German Confederation," consisting, with the 
 four free towns of Liibeck, Hamburg, Bremen, and Frankfort-on- 
 the-Main, of thirty-nine states. Deputies from these states formed 
 a diet, which was to sit constantly at Frankfort, and of which 
 Austria was to be perpetual president. Only the eleven principal 
 states were, however, endowed each with a ivhole vote ; the remain- 
 ing votes being so divided, by classing the smaller states together, 
 as to constitute seventeen in all. The new settlement of Europe 
 was guaranteed by a league concluded between Austria, Prussia, 
 and Russia, and called " the Holy Alliance." 
 
 The recent history of Germany presents little more than 
 a series of civil commotions. Her various states have been 
 agitated by the question of national unity, and the settlement of 
 their internal government. By the Act of Confederation, the 
 German princes promised to grant their subjects constitutions, 
 which, among several of the smaller, and especially the southern 
 
A.D. ISIS. MODERN GERMAN LIBERALISM. 461 
 
 States, were at once put upon the anvil. Tliey came in tlie shape 
 of a boon from tlie prince. In Wilrtemberg the people rejected 
 the proffered constitution, on tiie ground that they had not i^een 
 consulted.* 
 
 From the agitation of these questions sprang modern German 
 liberalism, which first appeared in the universities, especially in 
 tliat of Jena. Soon after the peace we find the German students 
 adopting what is called " the German dress," viz., a short black 
 coat, a black cap, linen trowsers, and open shirt collars. Their 
 motto was "God, Freedom, Honour, Fatherland!" In 1817 
 the celebration of the third century of the Reformation inspired 
 the students with the idea of assembling on the Wartburg on the 
 18th of October, the anniversary of the battle of Leipsic. On 
 the day appointed numbers assembled from the universities of 
 Jena, Gottingen, Kiel, Giessen, Berlin, Heidelberg, Marburg, 
 Leipsic, Rostock, Tubingen, &c. Here the black, red, and gold 
 colours, tlie ancient symbols of the empire, were first revived and 
 planted. The greater part of these young men contented them- 
 selves with the speeches, songs, and prayers with which the 
 meeting was celebrated, and with an evening procession by torch- 
 light to the neighbouring Wartenberg. Some, however, remained 
 behind to celebrate a sort of after festival, in which Massmann, a 
 etudent of Jena, pLiy«!d the Luther of the 19th century. A fire was 
 kindled, and amidst shouts of exultation Massmann consigned a 
 belt like those worn by the Prussian oflftcers of the guard, a 
 llc'sian pig-tail, an Austrian corporal's baton, and some un- 
 popular books, such as Kotzebue's ''History of the German 
 p:mpire," Haller's " Restoration of Political Science," with several 
 others, to the flames. 
 
 At the Congress of allied sovereigns at Aix-la-Cliapelle in 
 1818, the Russian minister, Stourdza, handed in a paper de- 
 nouncing the movements in the Germain universities as revolu- 
 tionary. This directed the hatred of the liberals against Russia, 
 and especially against Augustus von Kotzebue, the dramatist, 
 \\ ho had started a weekly paper for the purpose of ridiculing the 
 ])roceedings of the university students and professors, and who 
 was suspected of being in the pay of Russia, and of transmitting 
 to St. Petersburg denunciations of tlie German patriots. A 
 student of Jena, named Sand, not distinguished for ability, but 
 
 * The last remains of serfdom in Germany were abolished by tlie Duke 
 of Mecklenburg in lalO. 
 
462 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. LXY. 
 
 of what are called exalted notions, fired by the universal execra- 
 tions which he heard uttered against Kotzebue, went to Mann- 
 heim in March 1819, and stabbed him to the heart. Sand 
 afterwards attempted suicide, but only wounded himself, and was 
 executed the following year, His act led to the suspicion of a 
 general conspiracy. A central commission of inquiry was 
 established at Mentz, which sat for ten years, and filled the 
 prisons with youths, but without arriving at any results. Many 
 professors were either deprived of their chairs or banished. 
 
 Nothing further occurred to disturb the tranquillity of Germany 
 till the outbreak of the French revolution in 1830. Austria, 
 under the guidance of Prince Metternich, and supported by 
 Russia, was steadily proceeding in the consolidation of her abso- 
 lute empire. German patriotism, which seemed extinct, un- 
 expectedly revived in the person of the King of Bavaria. Louis,* 
 who in 1825 succeeded Maximilian in that kingdom, had made 
 himself known as a patriot, a poet, and a connoisseur and protec- 
 tor of the fine arts. Immediately after his accession he reduced 
 the expenses of the court and army, transferred the university of 
 Landshut to Munich, adorned that capital with new buildings, and 
 by forming collections of pictures and statues, rendered it the 
 centre of art in Germany. At Ratisbon he founded the building 
 called the Valhalla, destined to receive the busts of German 
 worthies. He was the first to give an example of commercial 
 union to Germany by forming one with the King of Wiirtem- 
 berg. This example was imitated by Prussia, Hanover, Saxony, 
 and other states ; but it was not till some years later that the 
 commercial union of northern and southern Germany was destined 
 to be eflPected. The idea of it was first started by Baron von 
 Cotta, at a meeting of German naturalists in Berlin, in the 
 year 1828. 
 
 The expulsion of Charles X. from France in 1830 -was the 
 signal for revolution in many of the German states. In Bruns- 
 wick, Hanover, Saxony, and Hesse, the disturbances assumed a 
 serious character. Charles, Duke of Brunswick, who was in 
 Paris at the time of the revolution, immediately returned home ; 
 but instead of taking a lesson from the scene which he had witnessed, 
 refused to listen to the just complaints of his subjects, openly 
 boasted that he should know how to defend his throne better than 
 the French monarch, and threatened to fire on the people with 
 * In 1 832, Otho, second son of this monarch, was elected king of Greece. 
 
A.D. 1836. REVOLUTIONARY COMMOTIONS. 46S 
 
 artillery. On tlie 7th of September the Brunswickers rose, and 
 jstormed and burned his palace. Duke Charles escaped throu<*-h 
 the garden. His brother William succeeded to the throne, and 
 g-ave his subjects a new constitution. He was supported by 
 Prussia and Hanover, and recognised by the German Diet. 
 Duke Charles made an unsuccessful attempt from the Hartz 
 moimtains to regain ids crown by proclaiming democratical 
 principles. 
 
 The disturbances in Saxony and the Electorate of Hesse were 
 followed by somewhat similar results. In the former country, 
 King Anthony was obliged to associate with him on the throne 
 liis popular nephew Frederick, and to grant a constitution. In 
 Ilcsse, the elector abdicated in favour of his son William, who, 
 however, did not prove more popular than his father. In 1831 
 tlie Hanoverians rose and obtained a more liberal constitution ; 
 but it was abolished a few years afterwards, by Ernest Augustus. 
 Similar tumults on a smaller scale occurred in Hesse Darmstadt 
 and other places. 
 
 Meanwhile Prussia, under the rule of Frederick William III., 
 had escaped the commotions which shook the greater part of 
 Germany. That monarch refused to call any general assembly 
 of the nation, but by a law of the oth June, 1823, he granted 
 provincial States ; whose constitution however placed them very 
 much under the control of the crown. Prussia, therefore, still 
 remained a despotism ; but the enlightened spirit of her govern- 
 n.ent, by meeting the wants of the age, succeeded in satisfying the 
 ])eople, and formed a very favourable contrast to the absolutism 
 of Austria. More was done in Prussia for the universities, and 
 for the general education of the people, than in any other country 
 of Europe ; whilst the interests of religion were forwarded by the 
 union of the Peformed and Lutheran churches. With regard to 
 the general affairs of Germany, Frederick William III. wisely 
 kept in tlie back ground any pretensions which he was not fully 
 prepared to assert, and therefore permitted Austria to take the 
 lead. In 1836 Prussia formed a commercial league (Zollverein) 
 with most of the principal German states, with the view of 
 facilitating trade by reducing the duties levied in them to one 
 uniform rate. The duties are received by Prussia in the first 
 instance, and distributed by her among the states of the league in 
 proportion to their population. Another object of the league was 
 the establishment of a uniform currency. About the same lime the 
 
4tJ4 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. LXV. 
 
 introduction of railroads contributed to the commercial union of 
 the German states. That between Nuremburg and Furth, 
 opened in December 1835, was the first in Germany. In 
 Austria and Prussia the construction of railroads was under- 
 taken by the government ; in the other states private companies 
 were fonned for that purpose. 
 
 After the impulse communicated to Germany by the French 
 revolution of 1830 had subsided, the natural phlegm of the 
 German people, who, even in the prosecution of their most vital 
 interests, seem ever to require some pressure from without, 
 caused them again to sink into apathy and tranquillity. From 
 this state, however, they were aroused by the still more demo- 
 cratic revolution which established the French republic in Feb- 
 ruary 1848. The deeper colour of that revolution was faithfully 
 mirrored in its German reflection. By the former one, only the 
 smaller states of Germany had been disturbed ; but now its two 
 leading powers were also shaken to their centre. 
 
 Another sovereign now occupied the Prussian throne. Tjj 
 June 1840, Frederick William Til. was gathered to his fathers. 
 His son, Frederick William IV., succeeded; a man of cultivated 
 tastes, and of more ambitious views than his predecessor, but want- 
 ing in the firmness and consistency necessary to carry them out. 
 By a patent of the 3rd February, 1847, Frederick William IV. 
 made a certain approach towards representative government, by 
 converting the provincial States into a united Diet, to meet in 
 Berlin so often as the exigencies of the kingdom might require it. 
 The right of voting taxes was granted to this diet, but with some 
 restrictions. Tlie qualification for an elector excluded the far 
 greater part of the jwpulation from the franchise ; and indeed tlie 
 king declared in his speech at the opening of the diet, 7th April, 
 1847, that Prussia was not in a condition to receive a constitution. 
 The events of 1848 produced a wonderful change in these views. 
 On the 14th of March in that year the king's confidence in tlie 
 loyalty of his subjects was disagreeably shaken by the outbreak 
 of riots in Berlin. They lasted four days, during which many 
 conflicts took place between the military and the people. Ad- 
 dresses to the King poured in on all sides. Those from tjje 
 Rhenish provinces on the 1 8th were particularly threatening, and 
 intimated that the adherence of those states to Prussia de- 
 pended on the nature of the Idng's answer. The king promised a 
 reply in three hours ; at the expiration of wliich time there appeared 
 
A.D. 1848. 
 
 RIOTS IN BERLIN. 465 
 
 a provisory law respecting the press, and a patent for the speedy- 
 assembly of the States. In the latter instrument the kin^ 
 expressed his desire that Germany, instead of a confederation, 
 should become a sinjjle federate state, with a general military 
 system, and a general administration of justice; tiiat liberty of 
 the press should prevail throughout Germany, together with the 
 right of freely travelling or settling in any part of it, and that 
 a o-eneral commercial union should be established. Those con- 
 cessions to public opinion were placarded in the streets. The 
 people immediately pressed into the Schloss-platz, or square 
 before the palace, and loudly cheered tiie king when he appeared 
 on the balcony and repeated his assurances. Unfortunately, 
 however, the sight of the troops posted under the entrance to the 
 palace revived tiie recollections of the previous days of conflict. 
 A cry arose for tlie military to leave the city, and some of the 
 mob are said to have used threatening gestures. Two or three 
 shots were fired, when the word was given to the cavalry to 
 charge. The people fled in all directions, but only to erect 
 barricades. A terrible conflict ensued, which was maintained 
 during the night. At daybreak on the 19th of March the 
 troops were in possession of the handsomest quarter of the town, 
 namely, from the Linden to the Leipsiger Strasse, but the people 
 still held the rest. 
 
 The king had passed the night in consultation with his minis- 
 ters and generals. Tn the morning a proclamation was issued, 
 stating that if the people would abandon the barricades, the 
 troops sliould leave the city. A deputation waited on the King 
 to say that the people would be satisfied with this arrangement, 
 provided it were coupled with the liberation of all who had been 
 made prisoners. The King yielded to this condition ; stafl;-- 
 officers and citizens, bearing white flags, hastened to the barri- 
 cades, and peace was again restored. As soon as the troops had 
 evacuated Berlin, the citizens, as if by concert, collected together 
 the bodies of the slain, crowned them with myrtle, and leaving 
 their gaping and still bleeding wounds exposed, carried them in 
 procession to tlie palace. Here with loud and repeated cries tliey 
 summoned the king, who appeared at the window witli the queen 
 leaning on his arm, and shrinking back with natural horror at the 
 spectacle which met her view. The king now reiterated his 
 former assurances; and shortly afterwards it was made known 
 that his ministers had been dismissed, and their places filled by 
 
466 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. LXY. 
 
 others of more liberal opinions. In the night, JiOAvever, in con- 
 sequence of a false alarm that the Prince of Prussia was return- 
 ing with the troops, the barricades were again erected. In order 
 to restore confidence, the King appeared on horseback on the 
 morning of the 21st, with the German colours round his arm. 
 A procession was formed, and proceeded through the city. In 
 front rode two general officers, wearing the black, red, and 
 gold stripes, followed by the ministers, the burgher-guards, and 
 students ; the latter bore the German colours before the King, 
 who was surrounded by the princes of the royal family. The 
 King frequently stopped to address the people, and to excuse an 
 act which seemed to place him at the head of the revolution. 
 He observed that this demonstration was no usurpation ; that he 
 had no wish to interfere with the rights of any other prince ; that 
 liis only object was to restore the unity of Germany. There were 
 some exclamations of " Long live the Emperor of Germany !" a title 
 which the King refused by words and gestures. A proclamation 
 was subsequently published in favour of those who had not heard 
 the royal speeches. It concluded with the remarkable words : — 
 " From this day forwards Prussia becomes merged in Germany," 
 
 At the same time revolutionary movements took place in most 
 of the German states; in Silesia, the Rhenish provinces, Saxony, 
 Westphalia, &c. : in the last named country the peasants rose and 
 attacked the castles and residences of the nobility. In Bavaria, 
 King Louis abdicated in favour of his son Maximilian II. In 
 Prussian Poland the disturbances were not put down without much 
 bloodshed, which caused Frederick William lY. to be regarded 
 with suspicion, and as playing into the hands of Russia. 
 
 At the first news of the disturbances in France, the German 
 Diet published an address to the nation recommending unity and 
 concord, but asserting that Germany must be elevated to the 
 rank to which she was entitled, though by peaceful methods. 
 On the 5th of March^ fifty-one patriots, most of them members of 
 States, met at Heidelberg, and expressed their conviction of the 
 necessity for a national Parliament, or constituent assembly. In 
 order to carry out this object, they caused a provisional Parlia- 
 ment (Yorparlament), consisting of members of diets and legisla- 
 tive chambers throughout Germany, to be summoned to meet at 
 Frankfort on the 30th of March. These men assembled to the 
 number of 500 on the appointed day ; and though endowed 
 with no constitutional powers, their autliority was recognized by 
 
A.D. 1848. THE HUXGAKIAX REVOLT — KOSSUTH. 467 
 
 the diet, and their decrees obeyed by all the states of the con- 
 federacy. Their business was properly confined to taking- the 
 necessary steps for assembling- a German Parliament; but there 
 was among- them an ultra party, composed for the most part (^f 
 Baden radicals, who asserted the j^ower of the provisional Parlia- 
 ment to determine the future constitution of Germany, and who 
 declared themselves for a rejjublic. The majority, however, were 
 for a monarchical form ; and named a committee of fifty, to labour 
 in conjunction with the German Diet in the formation of a new 
 federal constitution. "With this view it was resolved that a 
 constituent assembly should be summoned to meet at Frankfort 
 in the following IMay. Meanwhile the republican party, exas- 
 perated by their defeat, openly raised the standard of rebellion 
 under the leadership of Hecker and Struve, and proclaimed a 
 republic in Constance. They attempted to support this ridicu- 
 lous project with 1200 men and two pieces of cannon. General 
 von Gagern, at the head of some troops of the German Confedera- 
 tion, fell in with them on the 12th of April, and endeavoured to 
 persuade them to lay down their arms ; but as he retired from the 
 conference the whole line of the insurgents fired upon and killed 
 him. His troops were struck with a momentary panic ; but 
 rallying immediately, charged and routed the insurgents, who 
 v/ere at length completely dispersed. On the 18th of May 
 the constituent assembly met in the Paulskirche at Frankfort, 
 when Baron von Gagern was elected president. The result of its 
 deliberation was that a provisional central government should be 
 established, and with that view it elected the Archduke John of 
 Austria, the emperor's brother, to be Vicar of the Empire. A 
 deputation of the assembly proceeded to Vienna, to offer that 
 dignity to the Archduke, by whom it was accepted on the oth 
 July. On the 12th the German Diet declared its abdication of 
 its functions, which were now vested in the Vicar ; but the con- 
 stituent assembly continued to sit. 
 
 AVhilst these things were going on, the revolutionary move- 
 ment had spread not only into the kingdoms under the Austrian 
 sway, but even to Vienna itself. The news of the French revolu- 
 tion excited a rebellion in Lcmbardy, and soon afterwards in 
 Hungary. In spite of the absolute policy of Prince jMetternich, 
 Hungary still enjoyed a constitutional government. On the 3rd 
 of March, 1848, Kossuth pronounced a violent Philippic against 
 the Austrian government, in the Hungarian diet. His speech 
 
468 HISTORY OF GERMAXY. Chap. LXV. 
 
 produced a great sensation at Vienna. The people rose on the 
 13th, and demanded the dismissal of Prince Metternich. who 
 was compelled to resign. The emperor Ferdinand I., who had 
 succeeded to the imperial crown of Austria in 1835, made other 
 concessions, and promised a constitution. When the latter ap- 
 peared, however, it was rejected by the people, chiefly on the gromid 
 that they had not been consulted in the formation of it. It was 
 accordingly withdrawn, and constituent chambers promised ; but 
 the populace of Vienna, led on by the aula, or universUy, had 
 now assumed so threatening a posture, that the emperor consulted 
 his own safety, and that of his family, by flying to Innsbruck on 
 the 18th of May. But no disturbances of any moment followed. 
 Loyal addresses poured in from the provinces ; and even Hun- 
 garian envoys came to submit the decision of their quarrels to the 
 fugitive monarch. The Bohemians alone displayed a wish to be 
 separated from the common state ; and under the pretext that the 
 loyal provinces must be separated from the rebellious ones, 
 established a provisional government at Prague. On the 31st of 
 May a great Sclavonian congress met in that city. It was 
 followed by riots, in which the wife of Prince Windisch Griitz 
 was shot whilst looking out at the window of her hotel. At the 
 end of a few days the disturbances were quelled. 
 
 The promised Austrian constituent diet assembled on the 22nd 
 July. It formed a complete Babel, in which were heard the 
 dialects of Germany, Italy, Poland, Bohemia, Illyria, and other 
 provinces. The diet sent a deputation to Innsbruck to request 
 the emperor to return, who arrived at Vienna on the 12th of 
 August. Meanwhile the discontents of Hungary had gone on 
 increasing. Ferdinand had granted the Hungarians a separate 
 ministry, a union with Transylvania, and the reforms demanded 
 by the diet. But the Hungarians refused all liability to the 
 national debt of the empire and to the king's privy purse — points 
 which Austria was not inclined to abandon. On the 11th July 
 Kossuth obtained a vote of the diet for raising 100,000 men and 
 forty-two millions of florins. The Austrian ministry refused to 
 ratify this vote on the ground that it was contrary to the rights of 
 the general monarchy. Hereupon the Hungarians, passing by 
 the emperor, appealed to the diet then sitting at Vienna ; but 
 their deputation was refused access. Ferdinand now resolved to 
 appeal to arms. On the 4th October the Ban Jellachich, the 
 leader of the Croats, who were averse to the incorpoiation of 
 
A.D. 1848. RIOTS IN VIENNA — MURDER OF LATOUK. 46ij 
 
 Croatia and Tiausylvaiiia witli Hungary, was ap})ointed to com- 
 mand tlie army against that country. Symptoms of unwilling- 
 ness to march against the Hungarians were, however, observed in 
 .':ome of the German and Italian regiments. Popular orators ad- 
 dressed the people, and told them that if they did not rise at 
 once they would lose their nationality together with their free- 
 dom, since the government was in the hands of a camarilla, and 
 the diet sold and devoted to Sclavonianism. One of the most 
 \\idely-circulatcd newspapers hinted at a conspiracy, and told the 
 l)e{)})le that they would find the proofs of it in the cabijiet of 
 Count Latour, the minister at war. On the following day it was 
 resolved in a meeting of students and mechanics not to permit 
 any troops to leave Vienna. On the 6th of October a German 
 battalion, accompanied by cuirassiers, which had proceeded to the 
 railroad station en route for Hungary, found the place filled with 
 students and burgher guards. With these the soldiers fraternised, 
 and the cuirassiers were obliged to retreat. A Polish regiment 
 that followed was unexpectedly attacked, and, after losing its 
 commander and four guns, obliged to retreat. A fearful struggle 
 took place on the Stephans-platz, which had been seized by some 
 of the burgher guard in order to prevent the alarm-bell from 
 being rung. These men were driven back into the church, in the 
 nave, galleries, and even before the high altar of which a bloody 
 battle ensued, which lasted till the greater part of the guard were 
 either killed or made prisoners. The rioters now proceeded to- 
 wards the war-oflfice, which was entered, Latour, the old minister 
 at war, killed, his body stripped, and suspended to one of the 
 lamp-posts in the square : all the other ministers but two fled. 
 On all sides were to be seen the members of the diet and the 
 richer citizens hurrying from Vienna. On the next morning 
 the emperor himself followed their example and quitted Schon- 
 iH-unn, after addressing, in a hand scarcely legible, a note of re- 
 monstrance to the diet. Escorted by a battalion of Hess infantry 
 he proceeded to Olmutz, and was everywhere well received by 
 the peasantry. Shortly afterwards an imperial proclamation ap- 
 peared for the reduction of Vienna by force of arms, and the 
 punishment of the murderers of Count Latour. Prince Windisch- 
 Griltz was entrusted with discretionary powers to carry out these 
 objects. 
 
 On the 22nd the prince, who had taken up a position at Stam- 
 mersdorf with his troops, sent in his conditions. They were, tluit 
 Gy. 2 E 
 
470 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. LXY. 
 
 all arms should be delivered up, that all clubs and journals should 
 be suppressed, that hostages should be delivered, and that certain 
 individuals to be named hereafter should be given up. Those 
 who hesitated to receive these conditions were to be subject to 
 martial law. The Viennese at once rejected the summons and 
 prepared for a desperate resistance. . The walls, where low, were 
 raised with sacks of earth, whilst the gates of the town and the 
 entrances of the streets were defended with barricades, of which 
 there are said to have been some thousands. The number of 
 fighting men within the town was estimated at 25,000, under the 
 command of Messenhausen, a 9i-devant lieutenant in an Austrian 
 regiment ; a force which, besides being ill provided with ammu- 
 nition, was much too small to defend Vienna against the large 
 armies which surrounded it. On the south side of the town was 
 encamped Jellachich with 35,000 men, and Auersperg with 
 15,000, and a large park of artillery; whilst on the Marschfeld 
 was Prince Windisch-Gratz with 30,000 men and 70 guns. It 
 was, however, known that the Hungarians were on the march 
 with a large army. The siege had lasted five days, when on the 
 28th October the storming columns, after being thrice repulsed, 
 succeeded in forcing their way into the outskirts of the town. On 
 the morning of the 29th it was found that the troops were in posses- 
 sion of so much of the suburbs that the city was no longer tenable. 
 An unconditional surrender was now made, and in the evening the 
 people began to deliver up their arms at the places appointed. 
 But whilst this was going on, the watchmen at the top of St. 
 Stephen's were apprised by a cannon-shot in the distance that the 
 Hungarians were approaching. At this news Poles with white 
 and red colours rode through the streets exhorting the people to 
 resistance. They were joined by the students and mechanics ; 
 the arms which had been surrendered were again seized and the 
 cannon replanted on the walls. 
 
 The Hungarian army was 45,000 strong, with 54 guns and two 
 hussar regiments, but two-thirds of the infantry were militia. 
 Kossuth and General Moga were at the head of the army. Jella- 
 chich marched against them with a force one-third larger and 
 140 guns. The Hungarians were defeated ; but their left wdng, 
 which had not been broken, covered their retreat. During the 
 engagement the Viennese made two sallies, but were driven back. 
 This breach of capitulation produced a fearful bombardment of 
 the towui, which injured several important buildings. On the 
 
A.D. 1848. SCIILESWIC-HOLSTEIN. 471 
 
 31st Octobier the troops forced their way into the town, and pro- 
 ceeded to the Stephans Platz, where they destroyed the lamp-post 
 on which Count Latour's body had been hanged. Now began 
 military rule. Every house was searched, and 1500 prisoners 
 were made, all of whom were liable to be shot. This sentence, 
 however, was executed only on a few, among whom was Robert 
 Blum, a member of the extreme left of the Frankfort assembly, 
 who had been sent on a deputation to the Viennese, and who had 
 taken up arms during the struggle. But hundreds were sent to 
 the Austrian dungeons, and thousands to serve in the army. 
 Tliis last fate was particularly reserved for the students, who were 
 thus exposed to the insults of the rude soldiery, and to the bullets 
 of their former confederates, the Hungarians. Thus ended the 
 rebellion at Vienna. 
 
 On the 16th of September a serious riot broke out at Frank- 
 fort in consequence of a vote of the national assembly with regard 
 to Schleswic-Holstein. The affairs of tliose duchies had for 
 some time attracted the attention of Germany, and indeed of Eu- 
 rope. They were independent states, the ducal crown hereditary 
 in the male branch of the Danish royal family ; but this last law 
 had been abrogated by the King of Denmark, in order that the 
 sovereignty might not depart from his own line, which was repre- 
 sented by females. This proceeding was condemned by the Ger- 
 man diet, of which Denmark was a member by virtue of the duchy 
 of Holstein ; but Austria and one or two other states had pre- 
 vented its decree from taking effect. Soon afler the accession of 
 Frederick VII. to the throne of Denmark the Danish government 
 decreed, in 1847, that Schleswic-Holstein no longer existed; that 
 Holstein still belonged to the German Confederation, but that 
 Schleswic was inseparably united with Denmark, and was to par- 
 ticipate in its constitution and laws. The citizens of Kiel now rose 
 in arms, and were supported by Prussia and several of the northern 
 states of Germany. A Prussian army defeated the Danes at Dan- 
 newerk : but Prussia, with the vacillating policy whicli has of late 
 constantly characterised her, did not follow up the blow Avith 
 vigour. She did enough to awaken alarm and jealousy in Europe, 
 but not sufficient to carry out her plans or to satisfy the German 
 patriots. On the 26th of August, 1848, she concluded a truce 
 with Denmark, which was approved of by the German parlia- 
 ment at Frankfort. Hereupon the Frankfurters rose and endea- 
 voured to penetrate into the Pauls-kirche, where the assembly 
 
 2 E 2 
 
472 HISTORY OF GERMANY. ChaP. LXV. 
 
 held its sittings, but were prevented by the Prussian troops. The 
 only distinguishing' feature of this riot was the cowardly and 
 brutal murder of two members of the parliament, Prince Felix 
 Lichnowsky and General von Auerswald, when returning from a 
 ride. Struve came from Switzerland witli a band of SavIss and 
 German radicals, and proclaimed martial law. He directed his 
 men on Carlsruhe, and had one or two affairs with the imperial 
 troops, in which he was far from distinguishing himself by his per- 
 sonal courage. He was captured at Wehr and thrown into prison. 
 Meanwhile the Prussian revolution, like that of A-ustria, was 
 drawing to a close. A national assembly, which had been sum- 
 moned to determine the Prussian constitution, met in the Avhite 
 hall of the royal palace at Berlin on the 22nd of May, 1848. It 
 was a body of 400 heterogeneous members, from the nobles and 
 clergy down to clerks and day-labourers. Its stormy debates 
 were worked up to a revolutionary point by the motion of Stein, 
 carried by a majority of 67, that the minister at war should be 
 instructed to arrest reactionary tendencies among the officers of 
 the army. As the ministers refused to carry out this resolution, 
 disturbances again broke out at Berlin, and on the 14th of June 
 the mob got possession of the arsenal. The popular fury was 
 disarmed by the appointment of a new ministry. The assembly 
 continued its sittings, and on the 30th of October passed a vote to 
 abolish the nobility. The news of the rebellion at Vienna gave 
 an impulse to the democratic party, and Waldeck, one of its 
 leaders in the assembly, proposed that the king should be re- 
 quested to send an army to the relief of the besieged Viennese. 
 On the 2nd November the ministers resigned, and Count Bran- 
 denburg, a natural son of Frederick William II., was entrusted 
 with the formation of a cabinet. The effects of this change were 
 soon apparent. The assembly was ordered to transfer its sittings 
 from Berlin to Brandenburg, and meanwhile it was adjourned till 
 the 27th November. The members, however, of the left, or 
 liberal party, denied the right of the crown to adjourn a consti- 
 tuent assembly ; and as they persisted in continuing their sittings, 
 the troops, 15,000 strong, were marched back to Berlin, and on 
 the 12th of November the tlieatre, where the assembly met, was 
 shut up, and the capital declared in a state of siege. The liberal 
 section continued to meet in various localities, among others the 
 rooms of the well-known restaurant Mielentz, in the Linden. 
 Among other resolutions they passed one to prohibit the collection 
 
A.D. 1848. THE IIUXGARTAX CAMrAIGX. 473 
 
 of the taxes, which, however, the Frankfort diet aiiiiiilled by a 
 hirge majority. On the 5th of December appeared a royal decree 
 dissolving the constituent assembly, but accompanied by another 
 firrantin"' a constitution. The latter was conceived in an unex- 
 pectedly liberal spirit. Its provisions were founded partly on the 
 resolutions of the constituent assembly, partly on those of the 
 Frankfort diet. The distinction of ranks and the privileges of 
 tlie nobility were abolished : the members of the lower chamber 
 were to be elected by universal suffrage, but a certain property 
 qualification was required in the electors of the higher chamber. 
 
 It was the fall of Vienna that put an end to the Prussian revo- 
 lution ; for though Hungary was still in a state of rebellion, it 
 was not believed that she could hold out. Prince Schwartzenberg, 
 wlio had now acceded to office, infused new vigour into the Aus- 
 trian counsels. He declared his intention of effecting the union 
 of all the different nationalities under the central power of Austria. 
 As a preliminary step the abdication of the Emperor Ferdinand 
 and of his brother and next successor, the Archduke Francis, was 
 announced on the 2nd December, 1848: the crown devolved on 
 Francis Joseph, son of the Archduke. In the manifesto which 
 notified his abdication Ferdinand declared that he did not feel 
 liimself equal to the times ; but the real cause of his abdication 
 was his concessions to the Hungarians. It could not well be tliat 
 the same sovereign wlio had recognised the right of that nation 
 to an independent government should set an army in motion to 
 overthrow it. 
 
 On the loth December the Austrian forces, under Prince 
 Windisch Griitz, marched for Hungary. The refugee Hungarian 
 nobility at Vienna had represented to him the reduction of that 
 country as an easy undertaking ; for though the Hungarians iiad 
 upwards of 100,000 men under arms, with a numerous and well- 
 served artillery, and some of the best cavalry in the world, yet 
 the far greater part of their infantry consisted of Honveds, or 
 militia. Among their irregular cavalry Avas a peculiar and 
 formidable force, 9000 strong, called Esikoses, armed with a whip 
 ten feet long, having a bullet at the end, with which they eitlier 
 killed their opponents, or by twisting the whips round tiieir necks 
 dragged them from their horses. It does not belong to our de- 
 sign to enter into the details of the Hungarian campaign. Suffice 
 it to say that at the end of four months the Austrians were pretty 
 nearly driven out of Hungary, chiefly through the extraordinary 
 
474 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. LXV. 
 
 ability and activity displayed by General Bern, a Pole, and the 
 incapacity of Windisch Griitz. Austria's only ciiance of saving 
 Hungary seemed now to be to call in the assistance of Russia. 
 On the 1st May, 1849, the intervention of that country was 
 officially announced in the Vienna Gazette, and in the following 
 month operations were begun by a Russian army of 140,000 men. 
 Prussia, in spite of the democratic principles she had just pub- 
 lished, allowed them a passage by the railway of Upper Silesia. 
 On the 13th August General Gorgey, who had displayed great 
 ability in commanding a division of the Hungarian army, surren- 
 dered with his whole force to the Russian general, Riidiger. The 
 war miglTt now be considered at an end. Kossuth, Bem, and 
 several other Hungarian leaders, managed to reach the Turkish 
 borders. Komorn, which was the last place that held out, sur- 
 rendered on the 29th September to the Austricins, under General 
 Haynau, who had been recalled from Italy to command the Aus- 
 trian troops. Haynau followed up his victory with great cruelty 
 The whole Hungarian nation were held amenable for the murder 
 of Count Latour ; and on the 6th of October, the anniversary of 
 it, many of the Hungarian nobility were condemned to be hanged 
 or shot ; among them Count Louis Batthyani. 
 
 Meanwhile on the 7th March, 1849, the archiepiscopal palace 
 at Kremsier, where the Austrian diet had been assembled for the 
 purpose of preparing a constitution, was surrounded before day- 
 break with a battalion of infantry, the hall and tribunes shut up, 
 and sentinels posted at all the gates. At the same time the em- 
 peror published a constitution. Slates were granted for the sepa- 
 rate kingdoms, and a diet for the collective empire. A remark- 
 able feature in this constitution was the forming the nobility of 
 tlie Austrian hereditary dominions, of Illyria, Hungary, Galicia, 
 Lombardy, and Venice, into a political body, whose existence 
 would depend on that of the collective empire. 
 
 The more Austria puslied her scheme for forming her various 
 states into a central monarchy, the more she seemed to alienate 
 herself from the German Confederation. Many debates arose in 
 the Frankfort diet respecting her position in the Confederation, 
 which ended by a majority naming the King of Prussia as here- 
 ditary Emperor of Germany. TJiis vote was passed on the 28th 
 of March, 1849, and a deputation of 24 members of the diet 
 was despatched to Berlin with tlie offer of the imperial cro^^'n. 
 But since the refusal of the chambers to vote the supplies, the 
 
A.D. 1849. END OF THE EUROPEAN REVOLTTTIOX. 475 
 
 King of Prussia looked on democracy witli disgust ; and it was 
 thought that to accept the imperial crown "for tlie sovereign 
 people" would be to abandon Germany as a prey to the demo- 
 cratic principle. Frederick William IV. refused tiie empire, un- 
 less his acceptance of it should be agreed to by tlie rest of tlie 
 German sovereigns ; and Austria and Bavaria repudiated this act 
 of tlie Frankfort diet. 
 
 The discussion of the German constitution and the vote of the 
 Frankfort diet were followed by riots in Saxony, the Palatinate, 
 and Baden. At Dresden, though Prussian troops had been called 
 in to the assistance of the garrison, the fight betwc<ni the soldiers 
 and the people lasted from the 6th to the 91 h of May, during 
 which much injury was done to the houses and public liuildings. 
 In Baden and the Palatinate the insurrection was for the first 
 time characterised by the desertion of the military. At Landau 
 the officers were obliged to mount guard themselves ; -vvhilst the 
 garrison at Rastadt placed that fortress at the disposition of the 
 people. The insurgents took the field witii a consideralile force, 
 but were put down by the Prussians after tAvo obstinate ana 
 bloody engagements. Eastadt held out till the 29th July, long 
 after the insurgent army had been dispersed. 
 
 The fall of Hungary, already related, may be considered as the 
 end of the European revolution. The Austrian arms, under 
 Marshal Radetzky, had previously been victorious over the insur- 
 gents of Lombardy. Charles Albert, King of Sardinia, who had 
 come to their assistance, having been entirely defeated, abdicated 
 in favour of his son, Victor Emanuel. Venice, which was the 
 last town in Italy that held out, surrendered on the 23rd of Au- 
 gust, 1849 ; but its capture cost the Austrians 20,000 men. 
 
 The question of the German constitution still remained to sow 
 dissension in Germany. Prussia, unwilling to acknowledge the 
 authority of the Frankfort diet as constituted in 1815, endeavoured 
 to form a union Mith some of the German states, and under her 
 auspices a parliament was sunnnoned to meet at Erfurt in INIarch, 
 1850. But before it assembled Saxony and Hanover retired fron? 
 the union, and the Erfurt parliament led to no result. At the 
 same time Austria was taking active measures to uphold the au- 
 thority of the Frankfort diet, and summoned an extraordinary 
 meeting of the confederation, in order to devise means for re- 
 placing the provisional government which, by the consent of Au'- 
 tria and Prussia, had been erected ad intcr'nn. 
 
476 HISTORY OF GERMANY. CilAP. LXY. 
 
 These differences l^etween the Austrian and Prussian govern- 
 ments were brought to a point by some occurrences which took 
 place in the electorate of Hesse. The Elector had appointed as 
 his chief minister Hassenpflug, a man convicted of forgery, against 
 whom the chambers passed a vote of want of confidence. They 
 subsequently refused to sanction a credit of 760,000 dollars which 
 the minister demanded, but without condescending to give any in- 
 formation respecting the purposes to which it was to be applied. 
 ' The Hessian government dissolved the chambers, declared a state 
 of siege, and proceeded to collect the taxes without the sanction 
 of the legislature. Hassenpflug was very much disappointed to 
 find that these arbitrary and unconstitutional measures were met 
 by the people only with a passive resistance which deprived him 
 of all pretext for making use of military force. The Elector and 
 his ministers left Cassel on the night of the 12th of September, 
 although the population was perfectly quiet. It had been repre- 
 sented to him that his life was in danger, ^vith the view of creating 
 an uproar, and thus finding a pretence for the use of force. From 
 Wilhelmsbad, whither the court had retired, a decree was issued 
 for erecting a military dictatorship. But this plan unexpectedly 
 broke down by the resignation of 241 officers of the army, among 
 Avhxom were 4 generals, 7 colonels, 20 lieutenant-colonels, 12 
 majors, and 59 captains. Hassenpflug's last resource was to re- 
 quest the assistance of the Frankfort diet. Austria eagerly seized 
 the opportunity to bring the question between her and Prussia to 
 an issue. On the 1st November Bavarian and Austrian troops 
 crossed the southern frontier of the electorate, whilst about the 
 same time Prussian troops entered it on the north. The whole 
 Prussian force had been called out. vShe had on foot an army of 
 between 500,000 and 600,000 men, and the Austrian forces were 
 of equal amount. But the whole result of these vast preparations 
 was an affair of outposts in the neighbourliood of Fukla, in which 
 the Austrians lost four or five men. The matter \\ as referred to 
 Ivussian arbitration. Conferences were opened at Olmiitz in 
 which Prussia laid aside the threatening attitude she had assumed 
 and abandoned the electorate to the Austrian troops. Shortly 
 afterwards the Austrians marched into Sclileswic Holstein, to 
 compel the insurgents to disarm. England, France, and Russia 
 iiPid declared in a protocol signed in London on the 2nd June, 
 1850, that it was essential to the balance of power in Europe that 
 Denmark should retain all lier possessions 
 
Sup. CiTAr. LXV. GERMAN LITERATURE. 477 
 
 Thus were terminated, but not adjusted, tlie differences between 
 Austria and Prussia on tlie German question. Tiie causes ol" dis- 
 sension still remain. Tlie growing- power and influence of Prussia 
 as a German state ; the aim of Austria to consolidate a foreign 
 empire, yet, though thus alienating her interests from those of 
 Germany in general, to assert her ancient lead in the counsels of 
 that nation ; the want, so keenly felt by a large and enlightened 
 portion of the German public, of some national constitution wiiicii 
 might ensure for their country that position to which her Avealtii 
 and population justly entitle her; — all these causes of action, 
 tiiough they may be suspended for a time, are very far from being 
 remoNcd, and must in all probability lead at no very distant date 
 to a reopening of the whole question. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER LXV. 
 
 German Literature. — A century ago Germany can hardly be 
 said to have possessed a national literature. Previously to that 
 period we hear, indeed, of two Silesian schools of poetry ; but 
 they are now little more than matters of historical remembrance, 
 Martin Opitz von Boberfeld (1597-1639) was the founder of 
 tiie first of these schools; a writer whose poetry is now obsolete, 
 but who exercised a beneficial influence on the German lansruaofe. 
 The poets of his school were for the most part imitators of the 
 French, and none of them was distinguished for original genius. 
 The second Silesian school, founded by Hoffmann von Iloff- 
 mannswaldau towards the end of the 17th century, Mas still 
 worse than the fii"st. The productions of tiiis school were mere 
 caricatures of those of their predecessors, and distinguished by 
 nothing but affectation, inunorality, and bad taste. 
 
 The German mind, though not devoid of original genius, is 
 still more remarkaljle for its susceptibility of external impressions. 
 Tlie first literary attempts after the epochs just mentioned were 
 not ebullitions of the national mind, but imitations of foreign 
 nuKlels. They were also divided into " schools," of wdiich we 
 find three, the French, the English, and the Greek schools. The 
 first of these, modelled on the literature of the age of Louis XIV., 
 and ■sui)ported by the influence and example of Frederick the 
 Great, long promised to be the only one. Its chief su})porter and 
 law-giver was Gottsched, a Leipsic critic, who ruled desjK)tically 
 
 2 E 3 
 
478 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. LXV. 
 
 in the literary German world, and prescribed the stiffest rules of 
 French art. Nothing-, however, can be more dissimilar than the 
 French and Teutonic mind ; and the Germans ultimately became 
 converts to the doctrines of Bodmer of Zurich, the champion 
 of the English school. Another class of writers proposed the 
 Greek poets as their models. 
 
 The most celebrated poets of this period were Gellert (1715- 
 1769), who wrote some excellent fables and liymns; Hagedorn 
 (1708-1754), wlio composed small poems with liveliness and 
 grace ; Klopstock (1724-1803), the imitator of Milton., and author 
 of the Messias. More direct imitations were those of Kleist, 
 who copied Thomson's "Spring" in his "Friihling;" and of 
 Zachariii, who imitated Pope's lighter poems. In like manner, 
 Voss copied Homer, Gleim Anacreon, and Gessner Theocritus. 
 The greatest poet of the period was Wieland (1733-1813), who, 
 though an imitator, was no servile one, and excelled all his con- 
 temporaries in wit, grace, and nature. His master-piece is the 
 romantic poem of " Oberon ;" but he was a very voluminous 
 writer, both of prose and poetry. 
 
 At this time also flourished Lessing (1729-1781), one of the 
 best writers and most sterling critics of Germany. Lessing 
 helped to give the death blow to the Gallomania. In his 
 " Dramaturgic " are developed the soundest principles of dramatic 
 art. He was, however, not merely a critic, but an excellent 
 dramatic poet. His plays of Minna von Barnhelm, Emilia 
 Galotti, and Nathan der Weise, still hold possession of the stage. 
 Herder (1744-1803), a man of great piety, simplicity, and learn- 
 ing, was a sort of reflection of Lessing. 
 
 We pass over many names in order to hasten to a new and 
 more independent era of German literature. One of the earliest 
 authors of this epoch — which, from the excitement imparted to its 
 character by tlie new French philosophy and by the American 
 revolution, has been called by the Germans the Sturm und 
 Drang Periode (storm and press period) — was Schubart (1739- 
 1791); but its two most distinguished authors are Goethe and 
 Schiller. 
 
 Goethe was the son of a gentleman of fortune, and was born at 
 Frankfort on the Main in 1749. He was destined for the law, 
 and educated at Jena and Strasburg ; but the early bent of liis 
 mind towards poetry rendered that study altogether insupportable 
 to him. One of his earlier productions was the drama of " Gotz 
 
Sup. Chap. LXV. GERMAN LITERATURE. 479 
 
 von Berlichingen," published in 1773; wliich was soon followed 
 by the tragedy of '' Clavigo," and tlie sentimental novel of tlie 
 "' Sorrows of AVerther." Goethe's fame was now established, 
 and he was invited to the court of Saxe Weimar, which, under 
 the Duchess Amelia and her son Charles Augustus, liad become 
 as it were the literary metropolis of Germany. Wieland and 
 Herder had been already domesticated there, and Schiller was 
 soon to follow. During his residence here, which was diversified 
 by t\\o journeys into Italy, Goethe produced some of his best 
 tragedies, as the " Iphigenia," " Torquato Tasso," '• Egmont," 
 &c. It was after his return from his second journey into Italy, 
 in 1799, that he produced his masterpiece, the dramatic poem of 
 " Faust." The second part, however, was not finished till some 
 time afterwards, and was one of his latest productions. Other 
 late poems were " Reineke Fuchs," and the domestic poem of 
 " Hermann und Dorothea." Goethe also wrote a great many 
 odes and mmor pieces. His prose style is reckoned very pure and 
 elegant by his countrymen, and his novels of " Wilhelm Meister '* 
 and the " Wahlverwandschaften " have attained great popularity. 
 The memoirs of his own life, under the title of '' Dichtung und 
 Wahrheit," are also much admired by the Germans; but to many 
 English readers they will appear an elaborate display of vain 
 and often childish egotism. There is considerable truth in the 
 following character of Goethe, drawn by one of his countrymen.* 
 " Goethe possessed all the delicacy of Lessing, with a still richer 
 fixncy, but without his manliness, and all the softness, excitability, 
 and yielding temper of Herder, without his faith. With regard 
 to the elegant treatment of any given subject, ;he was quite our 
 greatest poet ; but his enthusiasm was completely egotistical, and 
 he never handled a subject but for the sake of portraying and 
 flattering himself. Just as he contrived in his chamber at 
 Weimar, by a skilful management of the light, to present himself 
 to the strangers who visited him in the most picturesque and 
 favourable point of view, so all his works were so many artistic 
 means of setting himself off." 
 
 Goethe's younger contemporary, Schiller, was of a more maidy 
 and simple character. He was born at Marbach on the lOtli of 
 January, 1759, where his father followed the profession of a 
 surgeon. He was educated at Stuttgardt, and studied successively 
 divinity, law, and physic, but without finally adoptinp^ any of 
 * Wolfgang Mentzel, Gesch. der DcuUchcn, cap. 018. 
 
480 HISTORY OF GERMANY. CilAP. LXV. 
 
 those professions. Indeed his progress in learning is said not to 
 liave been very striking ; but he early discovered a taste for poetry, 
 especially the drama. In his nineteenth year, whilst smarting 
 under the harsh discipline of the military academy at Stuttgardt, 
 Jie wrote his play of the " Raiiber," a piece which discovers 
 great force and originality of genius, but, as might be expected, 
 little acquaintance with the world, or with the requirements of the 
 stage. Its publication caused a great sensation in Germany, and 
 it was soon translated into most of the European languages. 
 Schiller having absented himself from the academy without leave, 
 in order to be present at the representation of his piece on the 
 Mannheim stage, on the 10th January, 1782, was placed under 
 arrest for four and twenty hours. The authorities thought they 
 perceived a dangerous boldness in the language of the " Robbers,'* 
 and the Duke of Wiirtemberg forbad Schiller to write anything 
 but his medical exercises. Indignant at this fresh piece of 
 tyranny, Schiller fled from Stuttgardt, though without any visible 
 means of support. In the following year he produced his " Ver- 
 schworung des Fiesco," which was, however, unsuccessful, and 
 he was for some time reduced to the greatest pecuniary distress. 
 In 1784 the " Kabale und Liebe " was represented at Mann- 
 heim. Though of the same school as the " Robbers," " Cabal and 
 Love " shows a great advance in dramatic art. In spite of some 
 improbabilities, the bold hand with which the different characters are 
 sketched, the wonderful power of the language, and the deep and 
 wracking pathos of the situations, render it one of the most 
 touching and effective tragedies on the stage. After this play 
 Schiller abandoned his earlier and more original style, and pro- 
 duced in 1784 the versified tragedy of " Don Karlos." The com- 
 position of this piece directed his attention towards history, and 
 in 1788 appeared the " Geschichte des Abfalls der vereinigten 
 Niederlande," a work which procured him the professorship of 
 History in the University of Jena. Here he became acquainted 
 Math Goethe, AVieland, Herder, and others, and in 1790 married 
 tlie Friiulein von Lengefeld. The duties of his professorship 
 diverted his attention from poetry ; and indeed his literary 
 labours were altogether suspended for some time by his bad 
 state of health. After his partial recovery he published his 
 second historical work, the " Geschichte des 30 Jahrigen Kriegs." 
 Schiller's histories are distinguished rather by graphic power and 
 vivid narrative, than by depth or authority. At tins period he 
 
Sup. Chap. LXV. GERMAN LITERATURE. 481 
 
 (l(;v()tc(l liiinself to philosopliy, and especially to tlie study of 
 Kant's- '' Kritik der reinen Vernunft ;" the result of Avliicii 
 studies were his critical and philosophical essays. He su])se- 
 quently resumed his poetical labours, and in 1799 appeared the 
 dramatic poem of " Wallenstein." This was followed in quick 
 succession by the tragedies of " Maria Stuart," " Die Jungfrau 
 von Orleans," "Die Braut von Messina," and " Wilhelm Tell." 
 Besides these and other works, Schiller left several dramatic frag- 
 ments, and two comedies of no great merit, namely, " Der Netfe 
 als Onkel," and " Der Parasit." He also produced a great many 
 small poems and lyrical pieces of preeminent beauty, which it 
 would be too long to enumerate here. Among these " Das Lied 
 von der Glocke " is the best known, from its being sometimes 
 represented on the stage. 
 
 Many other names might be mentioned ; as the dramatic 
 poets Kotzebiie (1761-1819) and Iffland (1759-1814); the lyric 
 poets Burger (1748-1794), the two Counts Stolberg, Uhland, 
 Korner, and others ; but our limits do not allow us to par- 
 ticularize. 
 
 The prose litornture of Germany presents us with an equally dis- 
 tinguished list oi .uunes. At the head of her philosophers stands the 
 Hanoverian Baron von Leibnitz (1646-1716), mIio was likewise 
 distinguished as a mathematician. His philosophy partook of 
 tliat of Des Cartes, and most of his works were written in French. 
 Immanuel Kant of Konigsberg (1724-1804), the founder of the 
 aesthetical and transcendental philosophy in Germany, was a 
 writer of a much more national character. Plis " Kritik der 
 reinen Vernunft " and " Kritik der Urtheilskraft " have exerted 
 an immense influence over the minds of his countrymen. Kant 
 was succeeded by a long list of metaphysical writers, who carried 
 tlie transcendental pliilosophy to a still profounder depth, but 
 whose works are little understood or relished out of Germany. 
 The mcJst distinguished names among them are those of Fichte, 
 Hegel, and Schelling. 
 
 The natural tendency of the German mind towards metapliy- 
 sical speculations has found its way even into theology ; and 
 where it has not resulted in open infidelity, has displayed itself in 
 '•rationalistic" and other theories which are at all events wholly 
 at variance with the simple doctrines of Christianity. The origin 
 of "rationalism" in Germany may be traced to the writings of 
 Spinoza, tlie Jew philosopher of Amsterdam. The head of the 
 
482 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Chap. LXV. 
 
 school — if that be any distinction — is Dr. Strauss, the author of 
 the " Leben Jesu." Germany, liowever, has produced many 
 profound and justly celebrated Biblical critics and historians, 
 among whom may be mentioned Mosheim, Neander, Krum- 
 macher, Griesbach, Wetstein, Gesenius, Bretschneider, Schleier- 
 macher, and others. 
 
 In the successful study of the Eastern and classical languages, 
 and of philosophy in general, modern Germany stands unrivalled ; 
 though we sometimes miss in her critics that soberness of judg- 
 ment which distinguishes their brethren in England and Holland, 
 Heyne in Gottingen was the first German who explained the 
 classics with elegance and taste. It would be endless to enumerate 
 the long list of modern German philologists. At the head of the 
 German Hellenists may be placed Hermami of Leipsic (lately 
 deceased), and Bockh, who still lectures at the University of 
 Berlin. Bopp lias distinguished himself by his researches in 
 general philology, and the brothers Grimm by their investiga- 
 tions of their own and of the Northern languages. Among 
 archaeologists should be mentioned K. 0. Miiller, Wachsmuth, 
 Creutzer, Becker, and others ; but especially Winkelmann (1717- 
 1768), whose '' Geschichte der Kunst" is a work no less elegant 
 than profound. In natural philosophy and science, Alexander 
 von Humboldt, Liebig, and Ritter stand at the head of a long- 
 list of distinguished names. Germany is particularly rich in 
 historical works. Among the writers of ancient and of universal 
 liistory we find Heeren, Schlosser, Rotteck, and especially Nie- 
 buhr (born at Copenhagen 1776-1831), whose " Romische Ges- 
 chichte " forms an epoch in historical literature. Among the 
 writers of modern history may be noted Johannes von Miiller, 
 Archenholz, Mentzel, Ranke, von Raumer. In criticism the 
 two Schlegels stand distinguished. Among the writers of novels 
 and romances are Tieck, Fouque, Novalis, J. P. Richter, Musiius, 
 Hoffmann, La Fontaine, and numerous others. It would, how- 
 ever, be both tedious and useless to extend a list of names which 
 could after all convey but a very imperfect idea of the achieve- 
 ments of the Germans in the various departments of literature ; 
 and the preceding scanty details must be regarded only as sketcli- 
 ing out as it were the main headlands and promontories of literary 
 Germany. 
 
483 ) 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Adat,oisius, 38 
 
 Adelbert, archbishop of Bremen, 80 
 
 Adolphus of Nassau, 171 
 
 Adrian of Utrecht, pope, 2G0 
 
 ^neas Sylvius, 201 
 
 Autius, 15 
 
 Agnes, regent of Germany, 84 
 
 Air-pump, invention of the, .'345 
 
 Aix, defeat of the Germans at, 3 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, founded, 45 
 
 Alaric, 13 
 
 Albert of Austria, 172, 174 
 
 the Bear, 113 
 
 of Brandenburg, 291 
 
 of Culmbach, 284 
 
 of Prussia, 258 
 
 II., 21G 
 
 Alboin, 25 
 Alcuin, 53 
 
 ^lemauni, 11, 21 
 Alfonso of Castile, 157 
 Alexander, emperor, 415 
 Allied monarchs visit England, 
 459 
 
 Alliteration (in laws), 29 
 
 Allodes, 51 
 
 Amalasontha, 23 
 
 Ambroues, 2 
 
 Anabaptists 256, 2G2 
 
 Anglo-Saxons, 10 
 
 Angilbert, 53 
 
 Antharis, 26 
 
 Antioch, 108 
 
 Antoninus, M. Aurelius, 10 
 
 Archenholz, 482 
 
 Architecture, 79, 1G4 
 
 Ariovistus, 3 
 
 Armiuius, 4 
 
 Arnold of Brescia, 119 
 
 Arnulph of Bavaria, G3 
 
 Artc'velde, Jas. van, 189 
 
 Assassins, sect of, 114 
 
 Ataulf, 14 
 
 Attianaric, 17 
 
 Attila, 15, seq. 
 
 Auerswald, general Von, 47? 
 Augsburg, diet of, 267 
 
 — ~ , peace of, 291 
 
 Augustine monks, 235 
 Augustus Caesar, 5 
 Augustus of Saxony, king of Po- 
 land, 3G3 
 Aulic Council, 226 
 Austrasia, 23 
 
 Austria declares war against Napo- 
 leon, 435 ; extent of its empire, 
 4G0 ; constituent diet of, 468 ; 
 new constitution of, 474 
 Austrian empire, origin of,' 412 
 Avars, 59 
 Azzo of Milan, 83 
 
 Baden, insurrection in, 475 
 Baldwin, count of Flanders, 108 
 , I., II., and III., kings of 
 
 Jerusalem, 114 
 Banner, general, 325 
 Basilica at Treves, 18 
 Basle, council of, 214, 217; peace 
 
 of, 406 
 Batthyani, count, 474 
 Battle of Aix in Provence, 3 
 
 . Aix-la-Chapelle, 75 
 
 ■ Andernach, 69 
 
 Antioch, 109 
 
 ■ Arcis sur Aube, 451 
 
 Aspern, 423 
 
 ■ Auerstadt, 116 
 
 Austerlitz, 411 
 
 . • Bautzen, 434 
 
 Beuevento, 158 
 
 Blenheim, 359 
 
 Cortenuova, 149 
 
 Culm, 437 
 
 — Dennewitz, 43S 
 
 Dresden, 437 
 
 Eylau, 418 
 
 Fladenheim, 102 
 
 Fontenay, 57 
 
484 
 
 HISTORY OF GERTMANY. 
 
 Battle of Friedland, 418 
 
 Groua, 1U2 
 
 Gross Beereu, 43G 
 
 ■ Hastenbek, 381 
 
 Hochkirch, 383 
 
 Hohenlinden, 409 
 
 Jemappes, 405 
 
 Jena, 416 
 
 Katzbach, 436 
 
 Keuschberg, 65 
 
 Kollin, 381 
 
 Kunnersdorf, 383 
 
 Langen Salza, 91 
 
 La Eothiere, 449 
 
 The Lech, 71 
 
 Leipsic, 321, 438, 444 
 
 ■ Lieguitz, 151 
 
 Ligiiy, 454 
 
 Lowositz, 380 
 
 Liitter, 313 
 
 Liitzen, 329, 433 
 
 Malplaquet, 360 
 
 Marengo, 409 
 
 Miudeu, 383 
 
 Montereau, 450 
 
 Miihlberg, 285 
 
 Miihldort; 184 
 
 the Neckar, 102 
 
 Oppenheim, 156 
 
 Oudenaarde, 300 
 
 Pavia, 260 
 
 Prague, 212, 214 
 
 Nordlingen, 338 
 
 Quatre Bras, 455 
 
 Ramilies, 360 
 
 Eivoli, 406 
 
 Rossbach, 382 
 
 — Sarcola, 159 
 
 Schwaderloch, 225 
 
 Sievershausen, 291 
 
 Sondershausen, 65 
 
 of the Spurs, 226 
 
 Stoekach, 408 
 
 ■ Testri, 32 
 
 Teutoburgian Forest, 5 
 
 Tiberias, 125 
 
 Torgau, 383 
 
 Tours, 33 
 
 Ulm, 411 
 
 Valmy, 104 
 
 Wagram, 423 
 
 Waterloo, 455 
 
 Worms, 172 
 
 Xeres de la Frontera, 32 
 
 Ziilpich, 22 
 
 Zorpdorf, 383 
 
 Baudis, general; 325 
 
 Bavaria becomes a kingdom, 411 
 
 Beatrice, empress, insulted by tlic 
 Milanese, 123 
 
 Beguines, 195 
 
 Belgica, 12 
 
 Belgium, independence of, 398 
 
 Bells, introduction of, 79 
 
 Beli sarins, 23 
 
 Bem, general, 474 
 
 Benedict, St., 51 
 
 Bennigsen, 438 
 
 Berengarius, 70 
 
 Berlin, taken by the Russians, 383 ; 
 by the French, 417 ; university of, 
 431 ; riots at, 464 
 
 Bernadotte, general, 408, 436 
 
 Bernard of Clairvaux, 114 
 
 S. Weimar, 333, 338; 
 
 death of, 341 
 
 Bertha, queen of Henry IV., 99 
 
 Berthold of Zahringen, 85 
 
 Bishops, sole judges of clerical of- 
 fences, 52 
 
 Black death, the, 194 
 
 Blucher, 417, 433, 436, 450, 454, 
 457, sqq. 
 
 Blum, Robert, 471 
 
 Boar of Ardennes, the, 220 
 
 Bobadilla, 295 
 
 Bockelsou, John, 263 
 
 Bodmer, 478 
 
 Boemund, 108, 110 
 
 Boethius, 22 
 
 Bohemia, re-annexation of, 181 
 
 Bohemian Brethren, 239 
 
 Bohemians, defeat of the, 305 ; in- 
 surrection of, 468 
 
 Boii, 26 
 
 Boniface, the apostle of Germany, 
 34, 36 
 
 Bourmout, 454 
 
 Brahe, Tycho, 301 
 
 Brand, Sebastian, 231 
 
 Brandenburg, count, 472 
 
 , March of, 115 
 
 Breslau University, 431 
 
 Brettschneider, 482 
 
 Briihl, count, 380 
 
 Brunehilde, 31 
 
 Bruno, bishop of Toul, 83 
 
 Brunswick, Ferdinand duke of, his 
 manifesto, 404 
 
 Bull, the Golden, 190 
 
 BUlow, general, 436 
 
 Buonaparte, 406; assumes the im- 
 perial crown, 410; enters Berlin, 
 417 ; visits the tomb of Frederic!^ 
 
INDEX. 
 
 485 
 
 the Great, 418 ; liis expedition to 
 Russia, 429 ; fortilics Dresden, 
 435 ; evacuates Dresden, 43S ; ab- 
 dicates, 4")! ; returns from Elba, 
 452 ; conveyed to St. Helena, 
 459 
 
 Biiren, count, 102 
 
 Biirger, 481 
 
 Burgundians, 1 1 
 
 Burgundy annexed to the German 
 empire, 82 
 
 C-aESAR, J., invades Germany, 3 
 
 Caietanus, card'mal, 241 
 
 Calvin, 244 
 
 Calycadmis, river, 126 
 
 Camel, sultan, 140 
 
 Campeggio, cardinal, 269 
 
 Canons, institution of, 45 
 
 Canossa, Henry IV. does penance 
 at, 100 
 
 Canute, king of England, 81 
 
 Capitularies, Charlemagne's, 49 
 
 Capuchins, 187 
 
 Carbo, Papirius, 2 
 
 Carlovingians, 34 
 
 Carloman, 33 
 
 Carlsbad, baths discovered, 191 
 
 Carlstadt, 255 
 
 Cassiodorus, 22 
 
 Cassius, defeat of, 2 
 
 Castlereagh, Lord, 451 
 
 Catherine of Bora, 258 
 
 Celibacy of the clergy, 94 
 
 Cents, Swiss, 119 
 
 Charlemagne, accession of, 37 ; as- 
 sumes the crown of Lombardy, 
 38 ; visits Rome, ih. ; attacks the 
 Saxons, 39 ; conquers the Moors, 
 40 ; takes Majorca and Minorca, 
 lb. ; subdues the Avars, Poles, 
 and Bohemians, ib. ; crowned by 
 the Pope, 41 ; demands the hand 
 of Irene, ib. ; visits Paderborn, 
 ib. ; his buildings, 45 : his literary 
 ardour, ib. ; zeal for Christianity, 
 ib. ; will, 47 ; death, 48 ; laws, 
 ib.\ militia, 51; church under, 
 ib. ; character, 53 ; tomb of, 
 opened, 77 
 
 Charles of Anjou, 158 
 
 the Bald, 57 
 
 • the Bold of Burgundy, 22 1 
 
 the Fat, 59 
 
 Martel, 32, 33 
 
 the Simple, 59 
 
 Charles IV., 188 
 
 V,, accession of, 245 ; ex- 
 pedition to Africa, 273 ; abdi- 
 cates, 292 ; in his retirement, ib. 
 
 VI., 360 
 
 VII., 376 
 
 Albert of Sardinia, 475 
 
 , duke of Brunswick, 462 
 
 X. of France, 462 
 
 ■ XII. of Sweden, 362 
 
 Chartres, duke of, 405 
 Childeric, 33 
 Chlotaire, 30 
 
 II., 31 
 
 Christian IV. of Denmark, 307 
 
 Christina of Sweden, 351 
 
 Church in the sixteenth century 
 
 228 
 Cimbri, 2 
 Circles, division of Germany into, 
 
 225 
 Cities, German, progress of, 95 
 Clesel, Bishop of Vienna, 299 
 Clovis, or Chlodwig, defeats the 
 
 Alemanni, 22 ; sole king of the 
 
 Franks, 23 
 Clovis II., 32 
 Coalition, first groat, 405 ; second, 
 
 408; third, 411 
 Coblenz, 12 
 j Codex Argenteiis, 1 7 
 I Colloredo, 438 
 
 Cologne, three kings of, 1 23 ; ca- 
 I thedral, 165 
 Colours, the German, 461 
 Commendone, cardinal, 296 
 Common penny, the, 225 
 Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle, 456, 
 
 461; of Chatillon, 459; of Ra- 
 
 stadt, 407 ; of Vienna, 452 
 Conrad of Franconia, 60 
 I., 60 
 
 IT ,81 
 
 III., 112 
 
 IV., 156 
 
 , Count Palatine, 129 
 
 of Marburg, 144 
 
 Couradin, 158 
 
 Concordat of Worms, 111; of "\i- 
 enna, 218 
 
 Consacramentales, 28 
 
 Constance, Council of, 201 ; Re- 
 public proclaimed at, 467 
 
 Constantinople taken by tlie Turks, 
 219 
 
 Copernicus, 345 
 
 Cornwall, Richard of, 157 
 
486 
 
 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 
 
 Corvey, monastery of, 38 
 
 Cotta, Baron, 462 
 
 Cranach, Lucas, 262 
 
 Crell, Dr., 299 
 
 Crescentius, 76 ; beheaded, 77 
 
 Creutzer, 482 
 
 Cross and Sword, order of the, 
 143 
 
 Crusades, first, 105; second, 114; 
 third, 126; effect of, 127; child- 
 ren's, 141 
 
 Cunimund, 25 
 
 Dagobert, 32 
 
 Dante, 181 
 
 D'Enghien, duke, murdered, 410 
 
 Decretals, the false, 60 
 
 Descartes, 305, note 
 
 Desiderata, 54 
 
 Desiderius, 37 
 
 Deveroux murders Wallenstein, 
 
 33G 
 T>3 Witt, assassination of, 350 
 Diet, German, 460, 466, sq. 
 Dittmar, bishop of Merseburg, 78 
 Dohna, count, 306 
 Doria, Andrew, 273, 274 
 Dragonnades, 306 
 Dresden, Napoleon at, 429 ; riots at, 
 
 475 
 Drusus, 3 
 
 Dumouriez, general, 404, 405 
 Diirer, Albert, 244 
 
 Eagle, double, of Austria and Ilus- 
 sia, 117 
 
 Eck, Dr., 241 
 
 Egbert of Brunswick, 86 
 
 Eginhard, 53 
 
 E!>ector, the Great, of Brandenburg, 
 348 ; his death, 355 ; character, 
 356 
 
 Electors, increase of, 345 
 
 Electorates, spiritual, abolished, 410 
 
 Eniicho, count of Leiningen, 108 
 
 England assists Prussia, 433 ; forms 
 an alliance with Russia, Prussia, 
 and Sweden, ib. 
 
 Eperies, shambles of, 354 
 
 Erasmus, 235; death, 278; charac- 
 ter, 280 
 
 Erfurt, Luther's cell at, 236 ; par- 
 liament at, 475 
 
 Esikoses, 473 
 
 Etzel. See Attila 
 
 Eudo, duke, 32 
 
 Eugene Beauharnais, 433 
 
 , prince, 358, 360 
 
 Eulenspiegel, Till, 222 
 
 Europe, its state at the beginning of 
 
 the Thirty Years' war, 308 
 Everard, duke of Franconia, 67 
 Exarchs of Ravenna, 25 
 Excommunication of Henry IV., 
 
 99 ; of Lewis of Bavaria, 187 
 Eyder, the, boundary of Germany, 
 
 81 
 
 Fabinger, Stephen, 306 
 
 Famine, 340 
 
 Faust-recht, 162; expires, 253 
 
 Faustus, Dr., origin of the legend, 
 223 
 
 Ferdinand L, 295 
 
 IL, 302 ; his death and 
 
 character, 339 
 
 IIL, 341 ; death, 348 
 
 I. of Austria, 468 ; abdi- 
 cates, 472 
 
 Fichte, 481 
 
 Fiefs made hereditary, 81 
 
 Flagellants, 195 
 
 Fouque, 482 
 
 France declares war against Austria, 
 403 
 
 Francis I., 378 
 
 II., 403 ; resigns the impe- 
 rial crown, 412 
 
 Joseph I. of Austria, 473 
 
 Franciscans, 186 
 
 P'rankfort, riots at, 471 
 
 Franks, 10 
 
 Fredegund, 31 
 
 Frederick Augustus of Saxony, 452 
 
 I. (Barbarossa), 117, 119, 
 
 120, 127 
 
 II., 138 ; character, 143 , 
 
 marries Isabella of England, 149 ; 
 death, 152 
 
 III., 217; marriage, 218; 
 
 death, 221 
 
 I. of Prussia, 3C3 
 
 II. of Prussia, surnamed 
 
 the Great, 376, 384 ; his habits, 
 
 390, sqq. ; scene at his tomb, 419 
 Frederick of Brunswick, 198 
 , elector Palatine, chosen 
 
 King of Bohemia, 304 
 
 the Fair, 183 
 
 of Saxony, 241 
 
 von HohenzoUeru 200 
 
INDEX. 
 
 487 
 
 Frederick William of Brandenburg, 
 the Great Elector, 348 ; liis death 
 and character, 355, s(/. 
 
 William I. of Prussia, 3G5 
 
 n. of Prussia, 
 
 415; abandons Berlin, 4r33 
 
 III., lb.', 403, 
 
 4r.4 
 IV. of Prussia, 
 
 404 ; elected emperor, 474 
 Frei-Gericht, 145 
 Frei-Graf, 146 
 Frei-Schoppeu, 146 
 French revolution, 402 ; republic, 
 
 404 ; French enter Brussels, 405 ; 
 
 overrun Holland, ib. ; soldiers, 
 
 excesses of the, 414 
 Fria, 9 
 Friedlaud, duke of. See Wallcn- 
 
 stein 
 Frohn-boten, 140 
 Frundsberg, George of, 2G0, 200 
 Fuggor of Augsburg, 274 
 Fiirsten, 8 
 
 Gabor, Bethlehem, 304 
 
 Gageru, baron Von, 407 
 
 — — , general Von, 407 
 
 Garlic King, 103 
 
 Gau, what, 7 
 
 Gail-Graf, 7, 50 
 
 Gellert, 478 
 
 Genseric, 15 
 
 George, duke of Saxony, 250 
 
 Gepidaj, 11 
 
 Gerold, count, 40 
 
 German Confederation, 400 
 
 courts, 348, 371 
 
 Legion, 410 
 
 Germanicus, 5 
 
 Germans, ancient, manners and cus- 
 toms of, ; i-eligioH; 8 ; principal 
 tribes of, 10 
 
 Germany, ancient, description of, I ; 
 its condition during the first six 
 centuries, 20; in 13th century, 
 100; divided into circles, 225 ; its 
 state after the Thirty Years' war, 
 342 ; forces of, 405 ; extinction of 
 the empire of, 412 ; settlement of 
 after the peace, 400 
 
 Gi-rmany, emperor of, how consti- 
 tuted, 73 
 
 Gorstingen, peace of, 91 
 
 Gcschlechter, 97 
 
 Gesenius, 482 
 
 Gessler, shot by Tdl, 178 
 
 Gessncr, 478 
 
 Ghibellines, 83 
 
 Giant guard, Frederick William's, 
 
 307 
 Gleim, 478 
 
 Gneisenau, general, 428 
 Godfrey of Bouillon, 102, 108 
 Goethe, 478 
 Giirgey, general, 474 
 Goths, 11 ; their religion, 10 
 Gottsched, 477 
 
 Gutz von Berlichingen, 250, 20 1 
 Gregory VII. (Hildebrand), 92 
 XIII., pope, reforms tlio 
 
 calendar, 300 
 
 of Tours, 30 
 
 Griesbach, 482 
 
 Grimoald, 32 
 
 Groote, Gerhard de, 230 
 
 Grotius, 341, 345 
 
 Grouchy, general, 456 
 
 Grumbach, William of, 298 
 
 Guelph of Bavaria, 103 
 
 Guelphs, 83 ^ 
 
 Gunpowder, invention of, 192 
 
 Giiuther of Schwartzburg, 1 89 
 
 Gustavus Adolphus, 315 ; lands at 
 
 Usedom, 310 ; his progress, 319 ; 
 
 narrow escape of, 322 ; crosses tlio 
 
 Khine, 326 ; enters Munich, 327 ; 
 
 killed at Lutzen, 330 
 Gustavus Vasa, 258 
 Guttenberg, John, invents moveable 
 
 type, 222 
 Guy de Lusignan, 125 
 
 Hagedorn, 478 
 
 Hanno, archbishop of Cologne, 85, 
 
 Sqq. 
 
 Hanover, seized by France, 410 
 Hanoverian constitution, 403 
 Hauseatic league, 153, sqq. 
 Hans Sachs, 231 
 Hardenberg, baron, 415, 428 
 Hartz mountains, siher mines dis- 
 covered in, 75 
 Harun al Easchid, 42 
 Hassenpfiug, 470 
 Haugwitz, 415 
 
 Hausmeier (major-domo), 27 
 Haxo, general, 437 
 Haynau, general, 474 
 Ilecker, 407 
 Ik-erbann, 29 
 I Hegel, 481 
 
488 
 
 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 
 
 Heidelberg catechism, 297 
 
 destroyed by Tilly, 307 ; 
 
 meeting at, 466 
 
 Helden-buch, the, 163 
 
 Hengist and Horsa, 10 
 
 Henry the Fowler, 02 
 
 II., 77 
 
 III., 82 
 
 IV., 84 ; excommunicated 
 
 by Gregory VII., 99 ; does pen- 
 ance at Canossa, 100 ; compelled 
 to abdicate, 104 
 
 v., 104 
 
 • VI., 128 ; tyramiy of, 130 
 
 VII., 179; death, 182 
 
 — of Carinthia, 181 
 
 of Bavaria, revolt of, 7.5 
 
 the Lion, of Saxony, 118, 128 
 
 llercynian forest, 2 
 
 Herder, 478 
 
 Herman of Salza, 144 
 
 of Luxemburg, 103 
 
 of Siebeneichen, 124 
 
 Hermann. See Arminius 
 Hermanu, 482 
 Ilermanric, 12 
 
 Herotoga (Herzog, dahe), 8 
 
 Hesse, disturbances in, 476 
 
 Hesse Cassel, electorate of, 410 
 
 Heeren, 482 
 
 Herrnhuters, 369 
 
 Hertha, 8 
 
 Heruli, 11 
 
 Heyne, 482 
 
 Hildebrand. See Gregory VII. 
 
 Hildersheim, library at, 192 
 
 Hoffmann, 477 
 
 Hofer, Andrew, 404, S'/'/. 
 
 Hohenstaufeu family founded, 102 
 
 Ilohenzollern, house of, 200 
 
 Holland annexed to France, 429 
 
 Holy Alliance, 460 
 
 Holy Germanic Roman empire, 44 
 
 Humboldt, 482 
 
 Hungarian army approaches Vien- 
 na, 470 ; campaign, 473, sqq. 
 
 Hungary annexed to the German 
 crown, 82 ; kingdom of made he- 
 reditary in house of Habsburg, 
 354; rebellion of, 467 
 
 Huns, invasion of the, 12 
 
 Huss, John, 202, sqq. 
 
 Hussite war, 209 
 
 Hutten, Ulrich von, 231 
 
 Iun-al-Aradi, 40 
 
 " Ich dien," origin of the motto, 189 
 
 Illuminati, the, 400 
 
 Imperial chamber, 226 
 
 cities, abolition of most, 
 
 410 
 
 crown, assumed by Charle- 
 magne, 41 
 
 Indulgences, sale of, 238 
 
 Interim, the, 289 
 
 Interregnum, the, 157 
 
 Irene, 41 
 
 Iron Cross, order of the, 433 
 
 Iselin, the indulgence monger, 239 
 
 Italy, kingdom of, 410 
 
 Jahn, professor, 430 
 Jellachich, the Ban, 468 
 Jerome of Prague, 203, sqq. 
 Jerusalem, capture of, 110 
 Jesuits, 283, 288 
 Jews, 108; persecution of, 195 
 Joachim II. of Brandenbui'g, 284 
 Jodocus of Moravia, 199 
 John, archduke, 467 
 
 Frederick of Saxony, 28-1, 287 
 
 of Leyden, 203 
 
 Joseph I., 360 
 
 II., 396 
 
 , Father, 339 
 
 Jourdan, general, 406 
 Julian, emperor, 10 
 
 " Junker George," 255 
 Justinian, emperor, 23 
 Justus Jonas, Dr., 262 
 
 Kaisersweuth, 85 
 Kammercr, 27 
 Kamnierboten, 03 
 Kant, 481 
 Katte, 385, 387 
 Kaunitz, 379, 399 
 Kepler, 299, 302 
 King, office of in Germany, 7 
 Kleist, general, 437 
 Kleist, 478 
 Klopstock, 478 
 Kniphausen, general, 331 
 Knipperdolling, 203 
 Konigs-stuhl at Hhense, 182 
 Korner, Theodore, 441 
 Kossuth, 407, 470 
 Kotzebue, 401, 481 
 Kremsier, diet at, 474 
 Krunimacher, 482 
 KutiisolF, general, 411 
 
INDEX. 
 
 WJ 
 
 Ladist-aits, 21G 
 
 Landgraf, 7 
 
 LaiidscUadon v.Ncckar Steinaclj, IG'J 
 
 Laiulsliut, university of, 4G2 
 
 Lansquenets, what, 225 
 
 Landwehr, 51 
 
 Latour, count, murder of, 469 
 
 League, catholic, 300 
 
 League of North Germany, o'j8 
 
 Legates, Koniau, 95 
 
 Leibnitz, 481 
 
 Leo tlie Great, his interview with 
 Attila, 15 
 
 Leo III., pope, 41 
 
 X., pope, 237 
 
 Leopold L, 348 
 
 IL, 399 
 
 , duke of Austria, 113 
 
 Lessing, 478 
 
 Letter of Majesty, 300 
 
 Lewis the Child, 60 
 
 ■ the Gei-man, 57 
 
 the Pious, 55, 57 
 
 of Bavaria, 183, 187 
 
 Leyden, John of, 263 
 
 Liberalism, German, 461 
 
 Lichnowsky, prince, 472 
 
 Liebig, 482 
 
 Literature, 53, 477 
 
 Lollards, 208 
 
 Lombards, or Langobardi, 11 
 
 Lombardy, kingdom of, 26 
 
 , revolt of, 467 
 
 London, Hanse factory at, 156 
 
 Lorraine, 57 
 
 Lothario, emperor, 112 
 
 Louis, King of Bavaria, 462 ; abdi- 
 cates, 466 
 
 Louis XVI., execution of, 405 
 
 Louisa, queen of Prussia, 416 
 
 Lothaire, 57 
 
 Ludolph of Swabia, 70 
 
 Luitprand, bishop, 78 
 
 Luneville, peace of, 409 
 
 Lusatia, 11 
 
 Luther, Martin, birth and education 
 of, 231; turns monk, 232; Pro- 
 fessor at Wittenberg, 234 ; jour- 
 ney to Kome, 234; cell, 236; 
 Theses, 240 ; dispute with Caie- 
 tanus, 241 ; excommunicated, 
 242 ; burns the Pope's bull, ib. ; 
 at Worms, 247 ; outlawed, 250 ; 
 carried to the Wartburg, 254, 
 261 ; marriage, 258 ; illness, 275 ; 
 death, 278 ; character, 280 
 LiitzoAv's black volunteers, 441 
 
 Macponald, marsluil, 417 
 
 Magdeburg, capture of, 319 
 
 Magi, skulls of the, 123 
 
 Magnus, duke of Swabia, 90 
 
 Magyars, 59 
 
 Manfred, King of Apulia, 158 
 
 Manners, 344 
 
 Mansfcld. count, 307, 314 
 
 Marck, William de la, 220 
 
 Maresclialk, what, 27 
 
 Margrave, what, 7 
 
 Maria Louisa of Austria, 423, 424 
 
 Maria Theresa, 376 
 
 Marius defeats the Germans, 3 
 
 Mark-Graf, 50 
 
 Marks, 7 
 
 Marlborough, duke of, 358 
 
 Marmont, marshal, 456 
 
 Mars, sword of, 18 
 
 Marzfelder, 28 
 
 Massmann, 461 
 
 Matilda, countess of Tuscany, 93, 
 
 100, 103 
 Matthias, emperor, 302 
 Matthison, John, 263 
 Maupertuis, 389 
 Maurice of Saxe Thuringia, 284, 
 
 290 
 Maximilian L 220, 223; his cha- 
 racter, 224; death, 241 ; funeral, 
 242 
 Maximilian IL, 298 
 
 , elector, 361 
 
 II. of Bavaria, 466 
 
 Mayors of the palace, 31 
 
 Mead, how made, 6 
 
 Melancthon, 268, 270 
 
 Mendicant orders, 135 ; suppressed, 
 397 
 
 Mentzel, 482 
 
 Merowig, 22 
 
 Metternich, prince, 434, 440, 462, 468 
 
 Meyer, Marx, 154 
 
 Metz, Toul, and Verdun annexed to 
 France, 290 
 
 Milan, capture of, 122 
 
 Milanese, treachery of the, 123 
 
 Minne-lieder, 163 
 
 Minne-siinger, 163 
 
 Missi Dominici, 49 
 
 Moga, general, 470 
 
 Monguls invade Germany, 151 
 
 Monro, colonel, 317 
 
 Moreau, general, 406, 437 
 
 Moscow, Buonaparte's retreat from, 
 430 
 
 Moslieim, 482 
 
490 
 
 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 
 
 Miiller, 284 
 
 Municli, 462 
 
 Miinster, anabaptists at, 263 
 
 Miiiizer, Thomas, 256, sqq. 
 
 Murat, 437 
 
 Musseus, 482 
 
 Music, German sensibility for, 29 
 
 Napoleon Feancis, 429 
 
 Narses, 25 
 
 Navalis, 482 
 
 Neander, 482 
 
 Nepomuk, John of, 197 
 
 Netherlands, independence of the,30 1 
 
 Neustria, 23 
 
 Newspaper, first German, 345 
 
 Ney, marshal, 437, 453 
 
 Nicephorus, 41 ; sends an embassy 
 
 to Chai'lemagne, 42 
 Niebelungen-lied, 163 
 Niebuhr, 482 
 Nicsea, storm of, 108 
 Nobility, German, 169 
 
 , Prussian, abolished, 473 
 
 Nobles' acre, 121 
 Noricum, 2 
 Northmen, the, 58 
 
 Odd ACER, 16; his defeat, 21 
 Olmiitz, conferences at, 476 
 Opitz, Martin, 345, 477 
 Orange, house of, 227 
 
 , prince of, 455 
 
 Ordeals, 28, 49 
 
 Osiander, 297 
 
 Ostro-Goths and Visi-Goths, 
 
 Otho 
 73 
 
 I., 67 ; crowned at 
 
 11 
 Kome, 
 
 II., 75 
 
 III., 7G 
 
 IV., 134; excommunicated, lOi 
 
 , Duke of Bavaria, 89 
 
 of Wittelsbach, 134 
 
 Ottocar of Bohemia. 168 
 
 of Horneck, 192 
 
 Oudinot, marshal, 436 
 Oxenstiern, 333 . 
 
 Paderdorn, 41 
 
 Palatine, Frederick, Elector, 304 
 
 Palm, the bookseller, 420 
 
 Palitz, Philip, 203 
 
 Pappeuheim, 331, sq. 
 
 Paris, capitulation of, 451 
 
 Parliament, German, 466 
 
 Parsons' king, 101 
 
 Pasewalk, 323 
 
 Patrimony of St. Peter, 52 
 
 Paulus Diaconus, 53 
 
 Pavia, battle of, 260 
 
 Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 349, 378 ; 
 Amiens, 410; Baden, 361; Cam- 
 po Formic, 407 ; Hubertsburg, 
 384 ; Nymeguen, 351 ; Paris, 
 456; Passau, 291; "religious," 
 273; Ryswick, 356; Tetschen, 
 397; Tilsit, 418; Utrecht, 360; 
 Vienna, 423 ; Westphalia, 342 
 
 Peasants' war, 255 
 
 Pepin of Landon, 32 
 
 Heristal, 32 
 
 the Short, 33 
 
 the Hermit, 106 
 
 Petrarch, 190 
 
 Pfalz-Graf, 50 
 
 Pharamond, 22 
 
 Philip of Hohenstaufen, 133 
 
 Piccoluomini, Ottavio, 334 
 
 Pius VI. visits Germany, 397 
 
 Pleissnitz, armistice of, 434 
 
 Podiebrad, George of, 218 
 
 Poland, first partition, 397 ; second 
 and third partitions, 412 
 
 Poniatowski, prince, death of, 439 
 
 Pope Joan, 61 
 
 Porta Martis, 20 
 
 Post office established, 225 
 
 Potato war, 397 
 
 Pragmatic sanction, 370 
 
 Prague, splendour of, 191 ; reform- 
 ers of, 215 ; convention of, 338 ; 
 provisional government at, 468 
 
 Presburg, peace of, 411 
 
 Printing, invention of, 222 
 
 Probus, wall of, 10 
 
 Protestants, 260 ; condemned, 269 
 
 Prussia subdued by the Teutonic 
 knights, 143; becomes a king- 
 dom, 363 ; accession of territory 
 to, 410 ; declares war against Na- 
 poleon, 416; boundaries of in 
 1815, 460 ; constitution of, 463 
 
 Prussia, prince of, 466 
 
 QUADI, 10 
 
 Radetzkv, marshal, 475 
 Railroads, German, 464 
 Ranke, 482 
 
INDEX. 
 
 491 
 
 li'astadt, numlcr of French pleiiipo- 
 
 tontiaries at, 408 
 Kather, bisliop of Verona, 78 
 Katisbon, diet of, 211) 
 JJaumer, von, 482 
 lieeruits, sale of, 400 
 Keformation, beginning of the, 223 ; 
 causes of the, 237 ; pautonunie of 
 the, 270 
 lieginar, 91 
 
 Religion in tenth century, 78 
 Ivemigius, bishop of Kheinis, 23 
 llestitution, edict of, 314 
 IJeunion chambers, 352 
 Revolutions, German, 460, 466 
 Rhenish confederation, 412 ; deserts 
 
 Napoleon, 449 
 Rhine, campaign on the, 405 
 Richard, Coeur de Lion, 132 
 Richelieu, 339 
 Richter, 482 
 
 Rienzi, Cola di, 190 
 
 Ring forts, 40 
 
 Ripuarian Franks, 22 
 
 Ritter, 482 
 
 Ritter-poesie, 163 
 
 Robert, king of Naples, 181 
 
 Robert, of Normandy, 108 
 
 Roland, 40 ; statue of, 96 
 
 Rollo, 58 
 
 Roman provinces in Germany, 1 2 
 
 Rome, taken by Alaric, 13 ; by Gen- 
 seric, 15; by Frederick I., 120; 
 by George of Frundsberg, 260, 
 266 
 
 Roncesvalles, 40 
 
 Rosicrucians, 345 
 
 Roswitha of Gandersheim, 79 
 
 Rotteck, 482 
 
 Riidiger, general, 474 
 
 Rudolph of Habsburg, 167 
 
 II., 299 
 
 of Rheinfelden, 85 
 
 of Swabia, 101 
 
 Runes, 29 
 
 Rupert, election of, 198 
 
 Russians reduce Hungary, 474 
 
 Sachs, Hans, 231 
 
 Sagibarones, 49 
 
 St. John, knights of, 110 
 
 Saladin, 125 
 
 Salian code, 27 
 
 Franks, 22 
 
 Salique law, 22 
 
 Salzburg, persecution at, 375 
 
 Sand, the student, 461 
 Saxons, 10 ; their conversion, 29 
 Saxony, ancient, 39 ; made a king- 
 dom, 419 
 Scandinavia, 11 
 Schadland, John, 192 
 Scharnhorst, general, 428 
 Schelling, 481 
 Schertlin, 284 
 Schlegel, 482 
 
 Schill, Ferdinand von, 418, 428 
 Schiller, 479 
 Schleiermacher, 482 
 Schleswic Holstein, 471, 476 
 Schlosser, 482 
 
 Schmalkalden, league of, 272 
 Schoppen, 49 
 Schubart, 478 
 Schwartz, Berthold, 192 
 Schwartzenberg, prince, 436, 449, 
 
 473 
 Schwedenstein (Swede's stone), 332 
 Schweppermann, Sey fried, 184 
 Schwerin, marshal, 381 
 Sclavouians, 26 
 
 , congress of, 468 
 
 Scotists, 187 
 
 Scott, Michael, 143 
 
 Scultetus, 305 
 
 Secret Tribunal. See Vehme 
 
 Segestes, 4 
 
 Serfs, 7 
 
 Seven Years' war, 379 
 
 Sickingen, Franz von, 251 
 
 Sicilian Vespers, 160 
 
 Sigismund, emperor, 199 
 
 Simeon, St., 20 
 
 Silanus, Jmiius, 2 
 
 Silesian school, 477 
 
 Silvester II., 77 
 
 Silver mines, 72, 75 
 
 Smoking club, 368 
 
 Sobieski, John, 354 
 
 Soldiers of the Key?, 112 
 
 Spanish succession, Avar of the, 
 
 357 
 Spinning wheel, invention of, 345 
 Steffens, professor, 43o 
 Stephania, 77 
 Stolberg, 481 
 Storch, Klaus, 256 
 Stourdza, 461 
 Strasburg seized by the French, 
 
 352 
 Stralsuud, siege of, 313 
 Strasburg cathedral, 79 
 Strauss, 482 
 
492 
 
 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 
 
 Striive, 4G7, 472 
 
 Steiu, von, 428 
 
 Students, German, 4G1 
 
 Sturm und Drang Periode, 478 
 
 Suevi, 11 
 
 Suwarolf, 409, 413 
 
 Swabians, 2G 
 
 Swiss, their origin, 2G; confederacy 
 of the, 175; cantons, independ- 
 ence of, 181 ; lieformation, 243 
 
 Sybilla of Clevcs, 286 
 
 Taborites, 211 
 
 Talleyrand, 407, 45 G 
 
 Tancred, 130 
 
 Telescopes, invention of, 345 
 
 Tell, William, 17G 
 
 Tcias, 25 
 
 Templars, knights, 110 
 
 Tetzel, 238 
 
 Teutoburgian forest, 5 
 
 Teutones, 2 
 
 Teutonic Order, 132, 170 
 
 Theodolinda, 26 
 
 Theodoric, 15 
 
 the Great, 21 
 
 Theodotus, 23 
 
 Thierry, 23 
 
 III., 32 
 
 Thirty Years' War, 303 ; termina- 
 tion of the, 342 
 
 Thomists, 187 
 
 Thor, 9 
 
 Thundering legion, 10 
 
 Thurn, count, 303 
 
 Thugut, 406 
 
 Thuriugia, kingdom of, 26 
 
 Thuisco, 8 
 
 Tiberius, 5 
 
 Tigurini, 2 
 
 Tieck, 482 
 
 Tilly, count, 305, 308, 321, 326 
 
 Torstenson, 342 
 
 Totila, 24 
 
 Tournaments, origin of, G4 
 
 Trent, council of, 284, 290, 296 
 
 Treves, antiquities of, 18 
 
 Trial by jury, 81 
 
 Tribur, diet of, 59, 88, 99 
 
 Truchsetz, 27 
 
 " Tugendbund," the, 428, 430 
 
 Turpin, bishop, 53 
 
 Tyrol, the, annexed to the posses- 
 sions of Lewis of Bavaria, 185 
 
 Tyrolese, rising of the, 424 
 
 Uhland, 481 
 
 Ulm, diet of, 101 ; occupation of 
 
 by the elector Maximilian, 361 
 Ulphilas, bishop, 16, 17 
 Ulrich of Cosheim, 91 
 Union, German commercial, 462 
 
 , Protestant, 300 
 
 Universities, 191, 193 
 Unknown student, the, 306 
 Unstrutt, passage of the, 439 
 Upsal, temple at, 16 
 Utraquists, 305 
 
 Valens, emperor, 12, sqq. 
 
 Valhalla, the, 9, 462 
 
 Vandals, or Wends, 11 
 
 Vandamme, 437 
 
 Varus, Q., 4 
 
 Vehme, 145 
 
 Venice, foundation of, 15; reduced 
 
 by the Austrians, 475 
 Verdun, treaty of, 57 
 Vermandois, Hugh de, IDS 
 Vicar of the Empire, 467 
 Vienna, siege of, 354 ; taken by 
 
 Napoleon, 423; tumults at, 468, 
 
 sqq. 
 Villars, marshal, 359 
 Villeroi, marshal, 358 
 Vineis, Peter de, 152 
 Virgilius, bishop of Salzburg, 36 
 Visi-Goths, 14 
 Vitigis, 23 
 Voltaire, 389 
 
 " Vorparlament," the, 466 
 Vortigern, 10 
 Voss, 478 
 
 Wachsmuth, 482 
 
 Walcheren, expedition to, 429 
 
 Waldeck, 472 
 
 Wallenstein, 310 ; becomes Duke of 
 Friedland, 311; disgraced, 313; 
 restored to command, 327 ; as- 
 sassination of, 335 ; character, 337 
 
 Walter of Pexejo, 107 
 
 Wartburg, assembly at the, 461 
 
 Weinsberg, siege of, 113 
 
 Wellington, 454 
 
 Wenceslaus, emperor, 196 
 
 Wends, 11 
 
 Werth, general Von, 339 
 
 Wessel, John, 230 
 
 Western empire, fall of the, 1 6 
 
 Westphalia, kingdom of, 419 
 
Wetstcin, 4 82 
 Wielif, 207 
 Wi eland, 478 
 Willigis, 70 
 
 Wiiulisch Giiitz, 4G9, 473 
 Winki'lniann, 482 
 Winziiigorode. general, 451 
 Wiprecht of Groitsch, I(i3 
 Witt, John de, 350 
 Wittekind, 31), 78 
 Wittenagemot, 28 
 Wittgenstein, general, 433 
 Woden, 9 
 
 Worms, diet of, 247 
 Wrangel, general, 342 
 Wrede, general, 439 
 Wullenweber, Jiirgcn, 154 
 
 INDKX. 11),*? 
 
 Wiirtemberg, kingdom of, 411 
 
 York, general Von, 432 
 
 Zaciiaria, 478 
 Zapolya, John, 2G0 
 Zent, what, 7 
 Zent-Graf, 7 
 
 Ziethen, general, 384, 395 
 Zingis Khan, 151 
 Ziska, John, 210, 214 
 Zollverein, 4G3 
 Ziinfte, or Guilds, 97 
 Zwentibald, GO 
 Zwingli, 243 
 
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