IT 1 xr K, GIFT OF LATIN GRAMMAR BY CHARLES E. BENNETT PROFESSOR OF LATIN IN CORNELL UNIVERSITY Boston ALLYN AND BACON 1895 *#/ , ~ COPYRIGHT, 1895, BY CHARLES E. BENNETT. J, S. Gushing & Co. Berwick & Smith, Norwood, Mass,, U,S,A, PREFACE. THE object of this book is to present the essential facts of Latin grammar in a direct and simple manner, and within the smallest compass consistent with scholarly standards. While intended primarily for the secondary school, it has not neglected the needs of the college student, and aims to furnish such grammatical in- formation as is ordinarily required in undergraduate courses. The experience of German educators in recent years has tended to restrict the size of school-grammars of Latin, and has demanded an incorporation of the main principles of the language in com- pact manuals of 250 pages. 1 Within the past decade, several gram- mars of this scope have appeared which have amply met the exacting demands of the full Gymnasial Latin course, a period of study representing quite as much reading as that covered by the average American undergraduate. The publication in this country of a grammar of similar plan and scope seems fully justified at the present time, as all recent editions of classic texts summarize in introductions the special idioms of grammar and style peculiar to individual authors. This makes it feasible to dispense with the enumeration of many minutiae of usage which would otherwise demand con- sideration in a student's grammar. In the chapter on Prosody, I have designedly omitted all special treatment of the lyric metres of Horace and Catullus, as 1 One of the most eminent of living Latinists, Professor Eduard Wolfflin, of Munich, has expressed the opinion that the essentials may be given within even smaller compass than this. See his Preface to the Schmalz-Wagener Lateinische tik^ 1891. iii 451920 iv Preface. well as of the measures of the comic poets. Our standard editions of these authors all give such thorough consideration to versifica- tion that repetition in a separate place seems superfluous. In the matter of ''hidden quantities/ I have conformed to Lewis's Latin Dictionary for Schools, and the same editor's later Elementary Latin Dictionary. In several cases this procedure has involved a sacrifice of convictions as to the actual quantity of vowels; but the advantages of uniformity in our educational practice seemed, for the present at least, to warrant this conces- sion of personal views. The discussion of inflectional forms and of the development of case and mood constructions has been reserved for the Appendix for Teachers, where these and some other matters receive full and systematic consideration. To several of my colleagues, who have generously assisted me with their advice and criticism during the preparation and print- ing of this book, I desire to offer my sincerest thanks, especially to Professors H. C. Elmer and B. I. Wheeler, of Cornell Univer- sity, Professor Alfred Gudeman, of the University of Pennsylvania, Professor George L. Hendrickson, of the University of Wisconsin, and Professors Francis W. Kelsey and John C. Rolfe, of the University of Michigan. ITHACA, N. Y., Dec. 15, 1894. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PART I. SOUNDS, ACCENT, QUANTITY, ETC. PAGE The Alphabet i Classification of Sounds ......... i Sounds of the Letters 3 Syllables ............ 4 Quantity ............ 4 Accent ............. 5 Vowel Changes ........... 6 Consonant Changes .......... 7 Peculiarities of Orthography . . .7 PART II. INFLECTIONS. CHAPTER I. Declension. A. NOUNS. Gender of Nouns ........... 10 Number .11 Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . .11 The Five Declensions 12 First Declension . . . . . . . . . . -13 Second Declension .......... 14 Third Declension 18 Fourth Declension .......... 28 Fifth Declension . . . . . . . . . . .29 Defective Nouns ........... 30 B. ADJECTIVES. Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions 34 Adjectives of the Third Declension ....... 36 v vi Table of Contents. PAGE Comparison of Adjectives 40 Formation and Comparison of Adverbs ...... 43 Numerals ............ 45 C. PRONOUNS. Personal Pronouns .......... 48 Reflexive Pronouns .......... 49 Possessive Pronouns .......... 49 Demonstrative Pronouns ......... 50 The Intensive Pronoun 51 The Relative Pronoun 51 Interrogative Pronouns . . . . . . . . .52 Indefinite Pronouns 52 Pronominal Adjectives 53 CHAPTER II. Conjugation. Verb-Stems. . 54 The Four Conjugations . . -55 Conjugation of Sum .......... 56 First Conjugation . . -58 Second Conjugation . . . . . . . . .62 Third Conjugation .......... 66 Fourth Conjugation .......... 70 Verbs in -id of the Third Conjugation ....... 74 Deponent Verbs . . . . . . . . . .76 Semi-Deponents ........... 78 Periphrastic Conjugation ......... 78 Peculiarities of Conjugation ......... 79 Formation of the Verb-Stems ........ 80 List of the Most Important Verbs with Principal Parts .... 83 Irregular Verbs ........... 95 Defective Verbs 102 Impersonal Verbs . . . . . . . . . .104 PART III. PARTICLES. Adverbs 106 Prepositions 107 Interjections 108 Table of Contents. vii PART IV. WORD FORMATION. I. DERIVATIVES. PAGE Nouns 109 Adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . iri Verbs. . 113 Adverbs . 114 II. COMPOUNDS. Examples of Compounds .' . . .. . .. .115 PART V. SYNTAX. CHAPTER I. Sentences. Classification of Sentences 117 Form of Interrogative Sentences . . . . . . . .117 Subject and Predicate . . . . . . . . . .119 Simple and Compound Sentences 119 CHAPTER II. Syntax of Nouns. Subject . . . 1 20 Predicate Nouns . . . . . . . . . . .120 Appositives . .... . . . . . . . 121 The Nominative . . . . . . . . . . .122 The Accusative . 122 The Dative ............ 129 The Genitive . . . . . . . . . . .134 The Ablative ........... 142 The Locative . . . . . . . . . . .152 CHAPTER III. Syntax of Adjectives. Agreement of Adjectives 153 Adjectives used Substantively . . . . . . . .154 Adjectives with the Force of Adverbs . . . . . .156 Comparatives and Superlatives . . . . . . . .156 Other Peculiarities 156 viii Table of Contents. CHAPTER IV. Syntax of Pronouns. PAGE Personal Pronouns 157 Possessive Pronouns . . . . . . . . . .157 Reflexive Pronouns . . . . . . . . . .158 Reciprocal Pronouns . . . . . . . . . -159 Demonstrative Pronouns . . . . . % . . 159 Relative Pronouns . . . . . . . .161 Indefinite Pronouns . . . . . . . . .' . 163 Pronominal Adjectives . . . . . . . . .164 CHAPTER V. Syntax of Verbs. Agreement of Verbs . . .',.-. ~. . . . 165 Voices . . . . ... . . . . . 167 Tenses . . ... . . . . .. . ' * . . . 167 Of the Indicative . . . : ...... . .1. 167 Of the Subjunctive . . ... . . . . .171 Of the Infinitive . . . . 1 74 Moods ; . . . J . . . .. . .176 In Independent Sentences . . ... . . .176 Volitive Subjunctive . . .- . . . .176 Optative Subjunctive . . . . . . .178 Potential Subjunctive . . 179 Imperative . . . ... ' . . . . . . 180 In Dependent Sentences . . . . . . .181 Clauses of Purpose . ... ... . . . 181 Clauses of Characteristic . . . . . . .182 Clauses of Result . . . ' 184 Causal Clauses 185 Temporal Clauses . . * . ... . . . 187 Introduced by Postquam, Ut, Ubi, etc. . . . . .187 6ww-Clauses . . . .> 188 Introduced by Antequam and Priusquam . . . .190 Introduced by Dum, Donee, Quoad ..... 191 Substantive Clauses . . y 192 Developed from the Volitive . . . . . .192 Developed from the Optative . . . . . .194 Of Result . 195 After ribn dubito, etc. . . . . . . . -195 Introduced by Quod . . . . . . . .196 Indirect Questions ........ 197 Conditional Sentences . . . . . . . .198 Use of Sz, Nisi, Sin 202 Table of Contents. ix PAGE Conditional Clauses of Comparison ...... 203 Concessive Clauses . . . . . . . . . 203 Adversative Clauses with Quamv'zs, Quamquam, etc. . . . 203 Clauses of Wish and Proviso . . ..... 205 Relative Clauses ......... 205 Indirect Discourse 206 Moods in Indirect Discourse 206 Tenses in Indirect Discourse ...... 208 Conditional Sentences in Indirect Discourse . . . . 209 Implied Indirect Discourse . 211 Subjunctive by Attraction . . . . . . ..212 Noun and Adjective Forms of the Verb . . . . . .212 Infinitive . . . . . . . . . . .213 Participles . . . . . . . . . . .217 Gerun^i 220 Supine ............ 223 CHAPTER VI. Particles. Coordinate Conjunctions ....... . . 223 Adverbs ............ 227 CHAPTER VII. Word-Order and Sentence- Structure. Word-Order 227 . Sentence-Structure .......... 232 CHAPTER VIII. Hints on Latin Style. Nouns ............ 233 Adjectives ............ 235 Pronouns ............ 236 Verbs ............. 236 The Cases ............ 238 PART VI. PROSODY. . Quantity of Vowels and Syllables 240 Verse-Structure ........... 243 The Dactylic Hexameter ......... 245 The Dactylic Pentameter 246 Iambic Verses ........... 246 x Table of Contents. SUPPLEMENTS TO THE GRAMMAR. PAGE I. Roman Calendar - . . . . 247 II. Abbreviations of Proper Names ...... . 249 III. Figures of Syntax and Rhetoric ....... 249 PART 1. SOUNDS, ACCENT, QUANTITY. THE ALPHABET. 1. The Latin Alphabet is the same as the English, except that the Latin has no w. 1 . K occurs only in Kalendae and a few other words ; y and z were introduced from the Greek about 50 B.C., and occur only in foreign words chiefly Greek. 2. With the Romans, who regularly employed only capitals, I served both as vowel and consonant ; so also V. For us, however, it is more convenient to distinguish the vowel and consonant sounds, and to write i and u for the former, j and v for the latter. Yet some scholars prefer to employ i and u in the function of consonants as well as vowels. CLASSIFICATION OF SOUNDS. 2. i. The Vowels are a, e, i, o, u, y. The other letters are Consonants. The Diphthongs are ae, oe, ei, au, eu, ui. 2. Consonants are further subdivided into Mutes, Liquids, Nasals, and Spirants. 3. The Mutes are p, t, c, k, q; b, a, g; ph, th, ch. Of these, a) p, t, c, k, q are voiceless, 1 i.e. sounded without voice or vibration of the vocal chords. b) b, d, g are voiced, 2 i.e. sounded with vibration of the vocal chords. 1 For ' voiceless,' ' surd,' ' hard,' or 'tenuis ' are sometimes used. 2 For ' voiced,' ' sonant,' ' soft,' or ' media ' are sometimes used. B I Sounds, Accent, Quantity. c) ph, ch, ch r.re aspirates. These are confined almost exclu- sively to words derived from the Greek, and were equivalent " * 1 tb p -f- h, t f h, c -i- h, i.e.. to the corresponding voiceless mutes with a following breath, as in Eng. loop-hole, hot-house* block- house. 4. The Mutes admit of classification also as Labials, p, b, ph. i Dentals (or Linguals), t, d, th. Gutturals (or Palatals), c, k, q, g, ch. 5. The Liquids are l, r. These sounds were voiced. 6. The Nasals are m, n. These were voiced. Besides its ordinary sound, n, when followed by a palatal mute, also had another sound, that of ng in sing, the so-called n adulterinum ; as, anceps, double, pronounced angceps. 7. The Spirants (sometimes called Fricatives) are f, s, h. These were voiceless. 8. The Semivowels are j and v. These were voiced. 9. Double Consonants are x and z. Of these, x was equivalent to cs, while the equivalence of z is uncertain. See 3. 3- 10. The following table will indicate the relations of the consonant sounds : VOICELESS. VOICED. ASPIRATES. f p, b, ph, (Labials). Mutes, t, d, th, . (Dentals). [ c, k, q, g, ch, (Gutturals). Liquids, 1, r, Nasals, m, n, f, (Labial). Spirants Semivowels, (Dental). (Guttural). a. The Double Consonants, x and z, being compound sounds, do not admit of classification in the above table. Sounds of the Letters. SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. 3. The following pronunciation (often called Roman) is substantially that employed by the Romans at the height of their civilization ; i.e. roughly, from 50 B.C. to 50 A.D. 1. Vowels. a asin/tf//^r; a as in the first syllable of ahd ; e as in they ; & as in met ; I as in machine ; I as in pin ; 6 as in note ; 6 as in obey, melody ; u as in rude ; ft. as in put ; y like French ?/, German u. 2. Diphthongs. ae like ai in aisle; eu with its two elements, S and ti, pro- oe like oi in oil; nounced in rapid succession ; ei as in rein ; ui occurs almost exclusively in cut and au like ow in how ; huic. These words are pronounced as though written kivee and ivheek. 3. Consonants. b, d, f, h, k, 1, m, n, p, qu are pronounced as in English, except that bs, bt are pronounced ps, pt. c is always pronounced as k. t is always a plain /, never with the sound of sh as in Eng. oration. g always as in get ; when ngu precedes a vowel, gu has the sound of gw, as in anguis, languidus. j has the sound of y as in yet. r was probably slightly trilled with the tip of the tongue. s always voiceless as in sin ; in suadeo, suavis, suesco, and in com- pounds and derivatives of these words, su has the sound of sw. v like w. x always like ks ; never like Eng. gz or z. z uncertain in sound ; possibly like Eng. zd, possibly like z. The latter sound is recommended. The aspirates ph, ch, th were pronounced very nearly like our stressed Eng. /, /, c so nearly so, that, for practical purposes, the latter sounds suffice. Doubled letters, like 11, mm, tt, etc., should be so pronounced that both members of the combination are distinctly articulated, v Sounds, Accent, Quantity. SYLLABLES. 4. There are as many syllables in a Latin word as there are separate vowels and diphthongs. In the division of words into syllables, 1 . A single consonant is joined to the following vowel ; as, vo-lat, ge-rit. 2. Doubled consonants, like tt, ss, etc., are always separated ; as, vit-ta, mis-sus. 3. In case of other combinations of consonants, such as can stand at the beginning of a word are joined to the following vowel ; as, ma-gi- stri, di-gnus, te-xi. 4. But compounds are separated into their component parts ; as, per-it, ab-radit. QUANTITY. 5. A. Quantity of Vowels. A vowel is long or short according to the length of time required for its pronunciation. No absolute rule can be given for determining the quantity of Latin vowels. This knowledge must be gained, in large measure, by experience. The following general principles, however, are of assistance : 1. A vowel is long, 1 a) before nf, ns, gn, gm ; as, Tnfans, censed, dignus, agmen. b) when the result of contraction ; as, nilum for nihilum. c) before j ; as, hujus. 2. A vowel is short, a) before nt, nd ; as, amant, amandus. A few rare exceptions occur in cases of compounds whose first member has a long vowel ; as, nondum (non dum) . b) before another vowel, or h ; as, meus, traho. Some excep- tions occur, chiefly in proper names derived from the Greek ; as, Aeneas. NOTE. Occasionally we meet with vowels that are sometimes long, sometimes short. Such vowels are called common. The variation appears only in poetry. Examples are the first vowel in Diana, 6he. 1 In this book, long vowels are indicated by a horizontal line above them ; as, a, I, 6, etc. Vowels not thus marked are short. Occasionally a curve is set above short vowels ; as, S, ii. Accent. 5 B. Quantity of Syllables. Syllables are distinguished as long or short according to the length of time required for their pronunciation. Their quantity is governed by the following principles : 1. A syllable is long, 1 a) if it contains a long vowel ; as, mater, magnus, dms. b) if it contains a diphthong ; as, causae, foedus. c) if it contains a short vowel followed by x, z, or any two con- sonants (except a mute with 1 or r) ; as, axis, gaza, resto. 2. A syllable is short, if it contains a short vowel followed by a vowel or by a single consonant ; as, mea, amat. 3. Sometimes a syllable varies in quantity, viz. when its vowel is short and is followed by a mute with 1 or r, i.e. by pi, cl, tl ; pr, cr, tr, etc.; as, gri, volticris.' 2 Such syllables are called common. In prose they were regularly short, but in verse they might be treated as long at the option of the poet. NOTE. These distinctions of long and short are not arbitrary and artificial, but are purely natural. Thus, a syllable containing a short vowel followed by two consonants, as ng, is long, because such a syllable requires more time for its pronunciation ; while a syllable containing a short vowel followed by one consonant is short, because it takes less time to pronounce it. In case of the common syllables, the mute and the liquid blend so easily as to produce a combination which takes scarcely more time than a single consonant. Yet by sepa- rating the two elements (as ag-ri) the poets were able to use such syllables as long. ACCENT. 6. i. Words of two syllables are accented upon the first ; as, t^git, morem. 2. Words of more than two syllables are accented upon the penult (next to the last) if that is a long syllable, otherwise upon the ante- penult (second from the last) ; as, amavi, amantis, miserum. 3. The enclitics -que, -ne, -ve, -ce, -met, -dum always throw an accent back upon the preceding syllable, even when that is short ; as, miseraque, eg6met, age'dum. 4. Sometimes the final -e of -ne and -ce disappears, but without affecting the accent ; as, tant6n, istfc, illdc, videhi (for videsne) . 1 To avoid confusion, the quantity of syllables is not indicated by any sign. 2 But if the 1 or r introduces the second part of a compound, the preceding syllable is always long; as, abrumpo. 6 Sounds, Accent, Quantity. 5. In utraque, each, and pler&que, most, -que is not properly an enclitic ; yet these words accent the penult, owing to the influence of their other cases, ute'rque, utriimque, plenimque. 6. But in other words, -que does not throw back an accent unless it is a true enclitic, meaning and. Thus, regularly, denique, lindique, utique, itaque ; but if itaque means and . . . so (-que being enclitic), it is accented itaque. VOWEL CHANGES. 1 7. i. In Compounds, a) g before a single consonant becomes I ; as, colligo for con-lego. b) a before a single consonant becomes i ; as, adigo for ad-ago. c) 3. before two consonants becomes ; as, expers for ex-pars . d) ae becomes I ; as, couquiro for con-quaero e) au becomes u, sometimes o ; as, conclude for con-claud5 ; explSdo for ex-plaudo. 2. Contraction. Concurrent vowels were frequently contracted into one long vowel. The first of the two vowels regularly prevailed ; as, tres for tre-es ; copia for co-opia ; malo for ma(v)elo ; cogo for co-ago ; amasti for ama(v)isti; com5 for co-emo ; debeo for de(h)abeo ; junior for ju(v)enior. nil for nihil ; 3. Parasitic Vowels. In the environment of liquids and nasals a parasitic vowel sometimes develops ; as, vinculum for earlier vinclum. So periculum, saeculum. 4. Syncope. Sometimes a vowel drops out by syncope; as, ardor for aridor (cf. aridus) ; valde for valide (cf. validus). 1 Only the simplest and most obvious of these are here treated. Peculiarities of Orthography. CONSONANT CHANGES. 1 8. i. Rhotacism. An original s between vowels became r ; as, arbos, Gen. arboris (for arbosis) ; genus, Gen. generis (for genesis) ; dirimo (for dis-emo) . 2. dt, tt, ts each give s or ss ; as, pensum for pend-tum ; versum for vert-tum ; miles for milet-s ; sessus for sedtus ; passus for pattus . 3. Final consonants were often omitted ; as, cor for cord ; i lac for lact. 4. Assimilation of Consonants. Consonants are often assimilated to a following sound. Thus : accurro (adc-); aggero (adg-); assero (ads-); allatus (adl-); apporto (adp-); attuli (adt-); arrideo (adr-); affero (adf-); occurro (obc-); siipponS (subp-); offero (obf-); corruo (comr-); collatus (coml-); etc. 5. Partial Assimilation. Sometimes the assimilation is only partial. Thus : a) b before s or t becomes p ; as, scrips! (scrib-si), scriptum (scrib-tum). b) g before s or t becomes c ; as, actus (ag-tus). c) m before a dental or guttural becomes n ; as, eundem (eum-dem) ; prmceps (prim-ceps) . PECULIARITIES OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 9. Many words have variable orthography. i. Sometimes the different forms belong to different periods of the language. Thus, quom, voltus, volnus, volt, etc., were the prevailing 1 Only the simplest and most obvious of these are here treated. 8 Sounds, Accent, Quantity. forms almost down to the Augustan Age ; after that, cum, vultus, vulnus, vult, etc. So optumus, maxumus, lubet, lubido, etc., down to about the same era ; later, optimus, maximus, libet, libido, etc. 2. In some words the orthography varies at one and the same period of the language. Examples are exspecto, expects ; exsisto, existo ; epistula, epistola ; adulescens, adolescens ; paulus, paul- lus ; cottidie, cotidie ; and, particularly, prepositional compounds, which, even in those cases where actual assimilation took place in the spoken language ( 8. 4), often make a concession to the etymology in the spelling ; as, ad-gero or aggero ; ad-sero or assero ; ad-licio or alliciS ; in-latus or illatus ; ad-rogans or arrogans ; sub-moveo or summoveo ; and many others. 3. Compounds of jacio were usually written eicio, deicio, adicio, obicio, etc., but were probably pronounced as though written adjicio, objicio, etc. 4. Adjectives and nouns in -quus, -quum ; -vus, -vum ; -uus, -uum preserved the earlier forms in -quos, -quom ; -vos, -vom ; -uos, -uom, down through the Ciceronian age ; as, antiques, aiiti- quom ; saevos ; perpetuos ; equos ; servos. Similarly verbs in the 3d plural present indicative exhibit the terminations -quont, -quontur ; -vont, -vontur ; -uont, -uontur, for the same period ; as, relinquont, loquontur ; vivont, metuont. The older spelling, while generally followed in editions of Plautus and Terence, has not yet been adopted in our prose texts. PART II. INFLECTIONS. 10. The Parts of Speech in Latin are the same as in English, viz. Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections; but the Latin has no article. 11. Of these eight parts of speech the first four are capable of Inflection, i.e. of undergoing change of form to express modifications of meaning. In case of Nouns, Adjectives, and Pronouns, this process is called Declen- sion ; in case of Verbs, Conjugation. CHAPTER I. Declension. A. NOUNS. 12. A Noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or quality ; as, Caesar, Caesar ; Roma, Rome ; penna, feather ; virtus, courage. 1. Nouns are either Proper or Common. Proper nouns are perma- nent names of persons or places ; as, Caesar, Roma. Other nouns are Common; as, penna, virtus. 2. Nouns are also distinguished as Concrete or Abstract. a) Concrete nouns are those which designate something having material substance; as, mons, mountain] pea, foot. 9 io Inflections. Under concrete nouns are included, also, collective nouns ; as, legio, legion ; comitatus, retinue. &) Abstract nouns designate qualities ; as, constantia, stead- fastness ; paupertas, poverty. GENDER OF NOUNS. 13. There are three Genders, Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. Gender in Latin is either natural or gram- matical. Natural Gender. 14. The gender of nouns is natural when it is based upon sex. Natural gender is confined entirely to names of persons ; and these are 1 . Masculine, if they denote males ; as, nauta, sailor ; agricola, farmer. 2. Feminine, if they denote females ; as, mater, mother; regma, queen. Grammatical Gender. 15. Grammatical gender is determined not by sex, but by the general signification of the word, or the ending of its Nominative Singular. By grammatical gender, nouns denoting things or qualities are often Masculine or Femi- nine, simply by virtue of their signification or the ending of the Nominative Singular. The following are the general principles for determining grammatical gender : A. Gender determined by Signification. 1. Names of Rivers, Winds, and Months are Mascu- line ; as, Sequana, Seine; Eurus, east wind; Aprilis, April. 2. Names of Trees, and such names of Countries, Towns, and Islands as end in -us, are Feminine ; as, quercus, oak-, Pontus, Pontus; Corinthus, Corinth; Rhodus, Rhodes. Number. Cases. 1 1 Other names of countries, towns, and islands follow the gender of their endings (see B, below) ; as, Delphi, m. ; Leuctra, n. ; Latium, n. ; Tibur, n. ; Carthago, f. 3. Indeclinable nouns are Neuter ; as, nihil, nothing; nefas, wrong. NOTE. Exceptions to the above principles sometimes occur ; as, Allia (the river), f. B. Gender determined by Ending of Nominative Singular. The gender of other nouns is determined by the ending of the Nominative Singular. 1 NOTE i . Common Gender. Certain nouns are sometimes Mascu- Une, sometimes Feminine. Thus, sacerdos may mean either priest or priestess, and is Masculine or Feminine accordingly. So also civis, citizen ; parens, parent ; etc. The gender of such nouns is said to be common. NOTE 2. Names of animals usually have grammatical gender, according to the ending of the Nominative Singular, but the one form may designate either the male or female; as, anser, m., goose or gander. So vulpes, f.,fox; aquila, f., eagle. NUMBER. 16. The Latin has two Numbers, the Singular and Plural. The Singular denotes one object; the Plural, more than one. CASES. 17. There are six Cases in Latin : Nominative, Case of Subject ; Genitive, Objective with of; Dative, Objective with to or for ; Accusative, Case of Direct Object ; Vocative, Case of Address ; Ablative, Objective with by, from, in, with. 1 The great majority of all Latin nouns come under this category. The prin- ciples for determining their gender are given under the separate declensions. 1 2 Inflections. 1. LOCATIVE. Vestiges of another case, the Locative (denoting place where), occur in names of towns and in a few other words. 2. OBLIQUE CASES. The Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Abla- tive are called Oblique Cases. 3. STEM AND CASE-ENDINGS. The different cases are formed by appending certain case-endings to a fundamental part called the Stem. 1 Thus, portam (Accusative Singular) is formed by adding the case-ending -m to the stem porta-. But in most cases the final vowel of the stem has coalesced so closely with the actual case-ending that the latter has become more or less obscured. The apparent case- ending thus resulting is called a termination. THE FIVE DECLENSIONS. 18. There are five Declensions in Latin, distinguished from each other by the final letter of the Stem, and also by the Termination of the Genitive Singular, as follows : DECLENSION. FINAL LETTER OF STEM. GEN. TERMINATION. First a -ae Second 6 -I Third \ * -is / Some consonant Fourth ti -us Fifth e -ei Cases alike in Form. 19. i. The Vocative is regularly like the Nominative, except in the Singular of nouns in -us of the Second Declension. 2. The Dative and Ablative Plural are always alike. 3. In Neuters the Accusative and Nominative are always alike, and in the Plural end in -a. 4. In the Third, Fourth, and Fifth Declensions, the Accusative Plural is regularly like the Nominative. 1 The Stem is often derived from a more primitive form, called the Root. Thus, the stem porta- goes back to the root per-, por-. Roots are mono- syllabic. The addition made to a root to form a stem is called a Suffix. Thus in porta- the suffix is -ta-. First Declension. 13 FIRST DECLENSION. a-S terns. 20. Pure Latin nouns of the First Declension regu- larly end, in the Nominative Singular, in -&, weakened from -a, and are of the Feminine Gender. They are declined as follows : Porta, gate ; stem, portS-. SINGULAR. CASES. MEANINGS. TERMINATIONS. Nom. porta a gate (as subject) -a Gen. portae of a gate -ae Dat. portae to or far a gate -ae Ace. portam a gate (as object) -am Voc. porta O gate ! -5. Abl. porta with, by, from, in a gate -a -ae -arum -is -as -ae -is i . The Latin has no article, and porta may mean either a gate or the gate ; and in the Plural, gates or the gates. I Peculiarities of Nouns of the First Declension. 21. i. EXCEPTIONS IN GENDER. Nouns denoting males are Mascu- line; as, nauta, sailor; agricola, farmer; also Hadria, Adriatic Sea. 2.. Rare Case-Endings, a) An old form of the Genitive Singular in -as is preserved in the combination pater f amilias, father of a family ; also in mater f amilias, filius f amilias, filia f amilias. But the regular form of the Genitive in -ae is also admissible in these expressions ; as, pater familiae. b) In poetry a Genitive in -ai also occurs ; as, aulai. PLURAL. Nom. portae gates (as subject) Gen. portarum of gates Dat. portis to or for gates Ace. portas gates (as object) Voc. portae O gates! Abl. portis with, by, from, in gates 14 Inflections. c) The Locative Singular ends in -ae ; as, RSmae, at Rome. d) A Genitive Plural in -urn instead of -arum sometimes occurs ; as, Dardanidum instead of Dardanidarum. This termina- tion -um is not a contraction of -arum, but represents an entirely different case-ending. e) Besides the regular ending -is, we find also -abus in the Dative and Ablative Plural of dea, goddess, and filia, daugh- ter, especially when it is important to distinguish these nouns from the corresponding forms of deus, god, and films, son. A few other words sometimes have the same peculiarity ; as, libertabus (from liberta, freedwomari), equabus (niares\ to avoid confusion with libertis (from libertus, freedmari) and equis (from equus, horse). Greek Nouns. 22. These end in -e (Feminine); -as and-es (Masculine). In the Plural they are declined like regular Latin nouns of the First Declension. In the Singular they are declined as follows : Archias, Archias. Epitome, epitome. Cometes, comet. Nom. Archias epitome cometes Gen. Archiae epitomes cometae Dat. Archiae epitomae cometae Ace. Archiam (or -an) epitomen cometen Voc. Archia epitome comete (or -3.) Abl. Archia epitome comete (or -a) 1 . But most Greek nouns in -e become regular Latin nouns in -a, and are declined like porta ; as, grammatica, grammar ; musica, music; rhetorica, rhetoric. 2. Some other peculiarities occur, especially in poetry. SECOND DECLENSION. d-S terns. 23. Pure Latin nouns of the Second Declension end in -us, -er, -ir, Masculine ; -um, Neuter. Originally -us in the Nominative of the Masculines was -os, and -um of the Neuters -om. So also in the Accusative. Second Declension. Nouns in -us and -um are declined as follows : Hortus, garden ; stem, hort6-. SINGULAR. Bellum, war ; stem, bel!6-. TERMINATION. TERMINATION. Nom. hortus -US bellum -um Gen. horti -1 belli -I Dat. horto -6 bellS -6 Ace. hortum -um bellum -um Voc. horte -e bellum -um Abl. horto -5 bellS -6 PLURAL. Nom. horti -1 bella -a Gen. hortorum -orum bellorum -drum Dat. hortis -is bellis -is Ace. hortos -5s bella -a Voc. horti -I bella -a Abl. hortis -is bellis -is Nouns in -er and -ir are declined as follows : Puer, boy ; stem, puerfi-. Ager, field '; stem, agr6-. Vir, man; stem, virS-. SINGULAR. TERMINATION. Nom. puer Gen. pueri Dat. puero Ace. puerum Voc. puer Abl. puero ager agri agro agrum ager agro vir viri viro virum vir viro Wanting -1 -6 -um Wanting -5 PLURAL. Nom. pueri Gen. puerorum Dat. pueris Ace. pueros Voc. pueri Abl. pueris agri agrSrum agris agros agri agris viri virorum viris viros viri viris -I -orum -is -6s -I -is i. Note that in words of the type of puer and vir the final vowel of the stem has disappeared in the Nominative and Vocative Singular. 1 6 Inflections, In the Nominative and Vocative Singular of ager, the stem is further modified by the development of e before r. 2. The following nouns in -er are declined like puer : adulter, adulterer', gener, son-in-law, Liber, Bacchus ; socer, father-in-law, vesper, evening; and compounds in -fer and -ger, as signifer, armiger. Nouns in -vus, -vum, -quus. 24. Nouns ending in the Nominative Singular in -vus, -vum, -quus, exhibited two types of inflection in the classical Latin, an earlier and a later, as follows : Earlier Inflection (including Caesar and Cicero). Servos, m., slave. Aevom, n., age. Equos, m., horse. SINGULAR. Nom. servos aevom equos Gen. servi aevi equi Dat. servo aevo equo Ace. servom aevom equom Voc. serve aevom eque Abl. servo aevo equo Later Inflection (after Cicero). SINGULAR. Nom. servus aevum equus Gen. servi aevi equi Dat. servo aevo equo Ace. servum aevum equum Voc. serve aevum eque Abl. servo aevo equo i. The Plural of these nouns is regular, and always uniform. Peculiarities of Inflection in the Second Declension. 25. i. Proper names in -ius regularly form the Genitive Singular in -I (instead of -ii), and the Vocative Singular in -I (for -ie); as, Vergili, of Vergil, or O Vergil (instead of Vergilii, Vergilie). In such words the accent stands upon the penult, even though that be short. 2. Nouns in -ius and -ium, until after t\ie beginning of the reign of Augustus (31 B.C.), regularly formed the Genitive Singular in -I (instead of -ii) ; as, Second Declension. 17 Nom. ingenium films Gen. ing^ni fill These Genitives accent the penult, even when it is short. 3. Filius forms the Vocative Singular in -I (for -ie); viz., fill, O son! 4. Deus, god, lacks the Vocative Singular. The Plural is inflected as follows : Nom. di (dei) Gen. deorum (deum) Dat. dis (dels) Ace. decs Voc. di (del) Abl. dis (dels) 5. The Locative Singular ends in -I; as, Corinthi, at Corinth. 6. The Genitive Plural has -urn, instead of -orum, a) in words denoting money and measure ; as, talentum, of talents, medium, of pecks. b) in duumvir, triumvir, decemvir; as, duumvirum. c) sometimes in other words ; as, liberum, of the children ; socium, of the allies. Exceptions to Gender in the Second Declension. 26. i. The following nouns in -us are Feminine by exception : a) Names of countries, towns, islands, trees according to the general rule laid down in 15. 2. b) Five special words, alvus, belly; carbasus, flax-, humus, ground; vannus, winnowing-fan . c) A few Greek Feminines ; as, atomus, atom ; diphthongus, diphthong. 2. The following nouns in -us are Neuter : pelagus, sea ; virus, poison ; vulgus, crowd. c 1 8 Inflections. Greek Nouns of the Second Declension. 27. These end in -os, -6s, Masculine or Feminine ; and -on, Neuter. They are mainly proper names, and are declined as follows : Barbitos, m. and f., Androgeos, m., Ilion, n., lyre. Androgeos. Troy. Nom. barbitos Androgeos Ilion Gen. barbiti Androgeo, -I Ilii Dat. barbito Androgeo Ilio Ace. barbiton Androgeo, -on Ilion Voc. barbite Androgeos Ilion Abl. barbito Androgeo Ilio 1. Nouns in -os sometimes form the Accusative Singular in -um, instead of -on ; as, Delum, Delos. 2. The Plural of Greek nouns, when it occurs, is usually regular. 3. For other rare forms of Greek nouns the lexicon may be con- sulted. THIRD DECLENSION. 28. Nouns of the Third Declension end in -a, -e, -I, -6, -y, -c, -1, -n, -r, -s, -t, -x. The Third Declension includes several distinct classes of Stems, I. Pure Consonant-Stems. II. i-Stems. III. Consonant-Stems which have partially adapted themselves to the inflection of I-Stems. IV. A very few Stems ending in a long vowel or a diphthong. V. Irregular Nouns. I. Consonant Stems. 29. i. In these the stem appears in its unaltered form in all the oblique cases ; so that the actual case-endings may be clearly recognized. Third Declension. 19 2. Consonant-Stems fall into several natural subdivisions, according as the stem ends in a Mute, Liquid, Nasal, or Spirant. A. Mute-Stems. 30. Mute-Stems may end, 1. In a Labial (b or p); as, trab-s ; prmcep-s. 2. In a Guttural (g or c) ; as, remex (remeg-s) ; dux (duc-s). 3. In a Dental (d or t); as, lapis (lapid-s); miles (milet-s). i. STEMS IN A LABIAL MUTE (b, p). 31. Trabs, f., beam. Princeps, m., chief. Nom. trabs Gen. trabis Dat. trabi Ace. trabem Voc. trabs Abl. trabe Nom. trabes Gen. trabum Dat. trabibus Ace. trabes Voc. trabes Abl. trabibus SINGULAR. princeps principis prmcipi principem princeps prmcipe PLURAL. principes principum principibus principes principes principibus TERMINATION. -s -is -I -em -s -e -es -um -ibus -es -es -ibus 2. STEMS IN A GUTTURAL MUTE (g-, c). 32. In these the termination -s of the Nominative Singular unites with the guttural, thus producing -x. Remex, m., rower. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Nom. remex remiges Gen. remigis remigum Dat. remigi remigibus Ace. remigem remiges Voc. remex remiges Abl. remige remigibus Dux, c., leader. SINGULAR. PLURAL. duces ducum ducibus duces ducgs dux ducis duel ducem dux duce ducibus 20 Inflections. 3. STEMS IN A DENTAL MUTE (d, t). 33. In these the final d or t of the stem disappears in the Nomi- native Singular before the ending -s. Lapis, m., stone. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Norn, lapis lapides Gen. lapidis lapidum Dai. lapidi lapidibus Ace. lapidem lapides Voc. lapis lapides Abl. lapide lapidibus Miles, m., soldier. SINGULAR. miles militis militi militem miles mllite PLURAL. milites militum mllitibus milites milites mllitibus B. Liquid Stems. -34. These end in -1 or -r. Vigil, m., watchman. Nom. vigil Gen. vigilis Dat. vigili Ace. vigilem Voc. vigil Abl. vigile Nom. vigiles Gen. vigilum Dat. vigilibus Ace. vigiles Voc. vigiles Abl. vigilibus Victor, m., conqueror. SINGULAR. victor victoris victor! victorem victor victore PLURAL. victores victorum victoribus victores victores victoribus Aequor, n., sea. aequor aequoris aequori aequor aequor aequore aequora aequorum aequoribus aequora aequora aequoribus 1 . Masculine and Feminine stems ending in a liquid form the Nomi- native and Vocative Singular without termination. 2. The termination is also lacking in the Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative Singular of all neuters of the Third Declension. Third Declension. 21 C. Nasal Stems. 35. These end in -n. 1 Leo, m., lion. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Nom. leo Gen. leonis leoni leonem leo leone Dat. Ace. Voc. Abl. leones leonum leonibus leones leones leonibus Nomen, n., name. SINGULAR. PLURAL. nomen nomina nominis nominum nomini nominibus nomen nomina nomen nomina nomine nominibus 36. Mos, m., custom. Nom. mos Gen. moris Dat. mori Ace. morem Voc. mos Abl. more Nom. mores Gen. morum Dat. moribus Ace. mores Voc. mores Abl. moribus D. B-Stems. Genus, n., race. SINGULAR. genus generis generi genus genus genere PLURAL. genera generum generibus genera genera generibus Honor, m., honor. honor honoris honor! honorem honor honore honores honorum honoribus honores honores honoribus i. Note that the final s of the stem becomes r (between vowels) in the oblique cases. In a few words (honor, color, labor, arbor) the r of the oblique cases has. by analogy, crept into the Nominative, displacing the earlier s, though the forms honos, colos, etc., also occur, particularly in early Latin and in poetry. 1 There is only one stem ending in -m, hiems, hiemis, winter. 22 Inflections. II. I-S terns. A. Masculine and Feminine \-Stems. 37. These regularly end in -is in the Nominative Singu- lar, and always have -ium in the Genitive Plural. Originally the Accusative Singular ended in -im, the Ablative Singular in -I, and the Accusative Plural in -is ; but these endings have been largely displaced by -em, -e, and -es, the end- ings of Consonant-Stems. 38. Twuti*,f.,c0ugb; Ignis, m.,fire; stem, tussir. stem, igni-. Hostis, c., enemy] stem, hosti-. SINGULAR. TERMINATION. Nom. tussis Ignis hostis -is Gen. tussis ignis hostis -is Dat. tussi Igni host! -I Ace. tussim ignem hostem -im, -em Voc. tussis Ignis hostis -is Abl. tussi Igni or -e hoste -e,-i PLURAL. Nom. tusses Ignes hostes -es Gen. tussium Ignium hostium -ium Dat. tussibus Ignibus hostibus -ibus Ace. tussis or -es Ignis or -es hostis or -es -is, -es Voc. tusses Ignes hostes -es Abl. tussibus Ignibus hostibus -ibus i . To the same class belong *amussis, rule. corbis, basket. apis, bee. auris, ear. avis, bird. axis, axle. *buris, plough-beam. clavis, key. collis, hill. cratis, hurdle. *febris, fever. orbis, circle. ovis, sheep. pelvic, basin. puppis, stern. restis, rope. and many others. Words marked with a star have Ace. -im, Abl. -I. Of the others, many at times show i-forms. Town and river names in -is regularly have -im, -I. scobis, sawdust. *securis, axe. sementis, sowing. *sitis, thirst. torris, brand. *trris, tower. trudis, pole. vectis, lever. Third Declension. 23 2. Not all nouns in -is are i-Stems. Some are genuine consonant- stems, and have the regular consonant terminations throughout, nota- bly, canis, dog; juvenis, youth 1 3. Some genuine i-Stems have become disguised in the Nominative Singular; as, pars, part, for par(ti)s; anas, duck, for ana(ti)s; so also mors, death] dos, dowry] nox, night] sors, lot] meiis, mind] and some others. B. Neuter \-Stems. 39. These end in the Nominative Singular in -e, -al, and -ar. They always have -I in the Ablative Singular, -ia in the Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative Plural, and -ium in the Genitive Plural, thus holding more steadfastly to the i-character than do Masculine and Feminine i-Stems. Sedlle, seat] Animal, animal] Calcar, spur] stem, sedili-. stem, animali-. stem, calcari-. Norn, sedlle Gen. sedilis Dat. sedili Ace. sedlle Voc. sedlle AbL sedili SINGULAR. TERMINATION. animal calcar Wanting animalis calcaris -is animali calcari -i animal calcar Wanting animal calcar Wanting animali calcari -1 PLURAL. Norn. sedilia animalia calcaria -ia Gen. sedllium animalium calcarium -ium Dat. sedilibus animalibus calcaribus -ibus Ace. sedilia animalia calcaria -ia Voc. sedilia animalia calcaria -ia Abl. sedilibus animalibus calcaribus -ibus 1. In most words of this class the final -i of the stem is lost in the Nominative Singular ; in others it appears as -e. 2. Proper names in -e form the Ablative Singular in -e ; as, SSracte, Soracte] so also sometimes mare, sea. 1 Mensis, month, originally a consonant-stem (mens-), has in the Genitive Plural both mensium and mensum. The Accusative Plural is menses. Inflections. III. Consonant-Stems that have partially adapted themselves to the Inflection of I-Stems. 40. Many Consonant-Stems have so far adapted them- selves to the inflection of i-stems as to take -ium in the Genitive Plural, and -Is in the Accusative Plural. Their true character as Consonant-Stems, however, is shown by the fact that they never take -im in the Accusative Singu- lar, or -I in the Ablative Singular. The following words are examples of this class : Caedes, f., slaughter; Arx, f., citadel; Linter, f., skiff; stem, caed-. stem, arc-. stem, lintr-. Nom. caedes Gen. caedis Dat. caedi Ace. caedem Voc. caedes AbL caede Nom. caedes Gen. caedium Dat. caedibus Ace. caedes, -is Voc. caedes Abl. caedibus SINGULAR. arx arcis arci arcem arx arce PLURAL. arces arcium arcibus arces, -is arces arcibus linter lintris lintri lintrem linter lintre lintres lintrium lintribus lintres, -is lintres lintribus The following classes of nouns belong here : a) Nouns in -es, with Genitive in -is ; as, nubgs, aedes, clades, etc. b) Many monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by one or more consonants ; as, urbs, mons, stirps, lanx. c) Most nouns in -ns and -rs ; as, aliens, cohors. d) Uter, venter ; fur, Us, mas, mus, nix ; and the Plurals fauces, penates, Optimates, Samnites, Quirites. e) Sometimes nouns in -tas with Genitive -tatis ; as, civitas, aetas. Third Declension. IV. Stems in -I, -u, and Diphthongs. 41. Vis, f., Sus, c., Bos, c., Jupiter, m., force ; swine ; ox, cow ; Jupiter ; stem, vi- . stem, su-. stem, bou-. stem, Jou-. SINGULAR. Nom. vis SUS bos Jupiter Gen. vis suis bovis Jo vis Dat. VI SUl bovi Jovi Ace. vim suem bovem Jovem Voc. vis sus bos Jupiter Abl. VI sue bove Jove PLURAL. Nom. vires sues boves j bovum Gen. virium suum ( boum Dat. viribus ( suibus 1 subus j bobus "/ bubus Ace. vires sues boves Voc. vires sues boves Abl. viribus ) suibus "i subus j bobus / bubus 1. Notice that the oblique cases of sus have ti in the root syllable. 2. Grus is declined like sus, except that the Dative and Ablative Plural are always gruibus. 3. Jupiter is for Jou-pater, and therefore contains the same stem as in Jov-is, Jov-i, etc. 4. Navis was originally a diphthong stem ending in au-, but it has passed over to the i-stems ( 37). V. Irregular Nouns. 42. Senex, m., old man. Caro, i., flesh. SINGULAR. caro Nom. senex Gen. senis Dat. seni Ace. senem Voc. senex Abl. sene carnis carni carnem caro carne os, n., bone. OS ossis ossi os OS osse 26 Inflections. PLURAL. Nom. sengs carries ossa Gen. senum carnium ossium Dat. senibus carnibus ossibus Ace. series carries ossa Voc. series carries ossa Abl. senibus carnibus ossibus 1. Iter, itineris, n., way, is inflected regularly throughout from the stem itiner-. 2. Supellex, supellectilis, f., furniture, is confined to the Singular. The oblique cases are formed from the stem supellectil-. The Ablative has both -I and -e. 3. Jecur, n., liver, forms its oblique cases from two stems, jecor- and jecinor-. Thus, Gen. jecoris or jecinoris. 4. Femur, n., thigh, usually forms its oblique cases from the stem femor-, but sometimes from the stem femin-. Thus, Gen. femoris or feminis. General Principles of Gender in the Third Declension. 43. i. Nouns in -6, -or, -os, -er, -8s are Masculine. 2. Nouns in -as, -es, -is, -ys, -x, -s (preceded by a consonant); -do, -go (Genitive -inis) ; -io (abstract and collective), -us (Genitive -utis or -udis) are Feminine. 3. Nouns ending in -a, -e, -i, -y, -c, -1, -n, -t, -ar, -ur, -tis are Neuter. Chief Exceptions to Gender in the Third Declension. 44. Exceptions to the Rule for Masculines. 1 . Nouns in -5. a. Feminine: caro,y7^. 2. Nouns in -or. a. Feminine : arbor, tree. b. Neuter : aequor, sea ; cor, heart ; marmor, marble. 3. Nouns in -6s. a. Feminine : dos, dowry. b. Neuter: os (oris), mouth 4. Nouns in -er. a. Feminine : linter, skiff. Third Declension. 27 b. Neuter: cadaver, corpse; iter, way,; tuber, tumor; uber, udder. Also botanical names in -er ; as, acer, maple. 5. Nouns in -6s. a. Feminine : seges, crop. 45. Exceptions to the Rule for Feminines. % 1 . Nouns in -as. a. Masculine, as, an as (coin) ; vas, bondsman. b. Neuter : vas, vessel. 2. Nouns in -s. a. Masculine: abies,yr; aries, ram; paries, wall; pes,/^/. 3. Nouns in -is. a. Masculine: all nouns in -nis and -guis ; as, amnis, river; ignis, fire; panis, bread; sanguis, blood; unguis, nail. Also axis, axle. piscis, fish. collis, hill. postis, post. fascis, btindle. pulvis, dust. lapis, stone. orbis, circle. mensis, month. sentis, brier. 4. Nouns in -x. a. Masculine : apex, peak ; codex, tree-trunk ; grex, flock ; imbrex, tile; pollex, thumb; vertex, summit; calix, cup. 5. Nouns in -s preceded by a consonant. a. Masculine : dens, tooth ; f 6ns, fountain ; mons, mountain ; pons, bridge. 6. Nouns in -do. a. Masculine: cardo, hinge; ordo, order. 46. Exceptions to the Rule for Neuters. 1. Nouns in -1. a. Masculine : sol, sun ; sal, salt. 2. Nouns in -n. a. Masculine : pecten, comb. 3. Nouns in -ur. a. Masculine : vultur, vulture. 4. Nouns in -us. a. Masculine : lepus, hare. 28 Inflections. Greek Nouns of the Third Declension. 47. The following are the chief peculiarities of these : 1 . The ending -a in the Accusative Singular ; as, aethera, aether ; Salamma, Salamis. 2. The ending -Ss in the Nominative Plural ; as, Phryggs, Phrygians. 3. The ending -as in the Accusative Plural; as, Phrygas, Phrygians. .-4. Proper names in -as (Genitive -antis) have -a in the Vocative Singular; as, Atlas (Atlantis), Vocative Atla, Atlas. 5. Neuters in -ma (Genitive -matis) have -is instead of -ibus in the Dative and Ablative Plural ; as, poematis, poems. 6. Orpheus, and other proper names ending in -eus, form the Vocative Singular in -eu (Orpheu, etc.). But in prose the other cases usually follow the second declension ; as, Orphei, Orpheo, etc. 7. Proper names in -es, like Pericles, form the Genitive Singular sometimes in -is, sometimes in -I ; as, Periclis or Pericli. 8. Feminine proper names in -6 have -us in the Genitive, but -6 in the other oblique cases ; .as, Nom. Dido Ace. Dido Gen. Didus Voc. Dido Dat. Dido Abl. Dido 9. The regular Latin endings often occur in Greek nouns. FOURTH DECLENSION. iz-Stems. 48. Nouns of the Fourth Declension end in -us Mascu- line, and -u Neuter. They are declined as follows : Fructus, fruit. Cornu, horn. SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Nom. fructus friictus cornu cornua Gen. fructus fructuum cornus cornuum Dat. fructui fructibus cornu cornibus Ace. fructum fructus cornu cornua Voc. fructus fructus corirtt cornua Abl. fructu fructibus cornu cornibus Fourth Declension. Fifth Declension. 29 Peculiarities of Nouns of the Fourth Declension. 49. i. Nouns in -us, particularly in early Latin, often form the Genitive Singular in -I, following the analogy of nouns in -us of the Second Declension; as, senati, ornati. This is usually the case in Plautus and Terence. 2. Nouns in -us sometimes have -u in the Dative Singular, instead of -ui ; as, f ructu (for f ructui) . 3. The ending -ubus, instead of -ibus, occurs in the Dative and Ablative Plural of artus (Plural), limbs ; tribus, tribe; and in dis- syllables in -cus; as, artubus, tribubus, arcubus, lacubus. But with the exception of tribus, all these words admit the forms in -ibus as well as those in -ubus. 4. Domus, house, is declined according to the Fourth Declension, but has also the following forms of the Second : domi (locative), at home; domum, homewards, to one^s home; domo, from home; domos, homewards, to their (etc.) homes. 5. The only Neuters of this declension in common use are: cornu, genii, and veru. Exceptions to Gender in the Fourth Declension. 50. The following nouns in -us are Feminine: acus, needle; domus, house; manus, hand; porticus, colonnade; tribus, tribe; Idus (Plural), Ides. FIFTH DECLENSION. e-Stems. 51. Nouns of the Fifth Declension end in -es, and are declined as follows : Dies, m., day. Res, f., thing. SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Nom. dies dies- res res Gen. die! dierum rel rerum Dat. die! diebus r5i rebus Ace. diem dies rem res Voc. dies dies res res Abl. die diebus re rebus 30 .Inflections. Peculiarities of Nouns of the Fifth Declension. 52. i. The ending of the Genitive and Dative Singular is -e% instead of -61, when a consonant precedes ; as, spi, rei, fidel. 2,. A Genitive ending -I (for -Si) is found in plebi (from plebes = plebs) in the expressions tribunus plebi, tribune of the people, and plebi scitum, decree of the people; sometimes also in other words. 3. -A Genitive and Dative form in -e sometimes occurs ; as, acie. 4. With the exception of dies and res, most nouns of the Fifth Declension are not declined in the Plural. But acies, series, species, spes, and a few others, are used in the Nominative and Accusative Plural. Gender in the Fifth Declension. 53. Nouns of the Fifth Declension are regularly Feminine, except dies, day, and meridies, mid-day. But dies is sometimes Feminine in the Singular, particularly when it means an appointed day. DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 54. Here belong - 1 . Nouns used in the Singular only. 2. Nouns used in the Plural only. 3. Nouns used only in certain cases. 4. Indeclinable Nouns. Nouns used in the Singular only. 55. Many nouns, from the nature of their signification, are regularly used in the Singular only. Thus : 1 . Proper names ; as, Cicero, Cicero ; Italia, Italy. 2. Nouns denoting material; as, aes, copper; lac, milk. 3. Abstract nouns; as, ignorantia, ignorance; bonitas, good- ness. 4. But the above classes of words are sometimes used in the Plural. Thus : - a) Proper names, to denote different members of a family, or specimens of a type ; as, Cicerones, the Ciceros ; Catones, men like Cato. Defective Nouns. 31 b) Names of materials, to denote objects made of the mate- rial, or different kinds of the substance ; as, aera, bronzes (i.e. bronze figures) ; ligna, woods. c) Abstract nouns, to denote instances of the quality; as, ignorantiae, cases of ignorance. Nouns used in the Plural only. 56. Here belong 1. Many geographical names; as, Thebae, Thebes ; Leuctra, Leuctra; Pompeji, Pompeii. 2. Many names of festivals; as, Megalesia, the Megalesian fes- tival. 3. Many special words, of which the following are the most important : angustiae, narrow pass. manes, spirits of the dead. arma, weapons. minae, threats. deliciae, delight. moenia, city walls. divitiae, riches. nuptiae, marriage. Idus, Ides. poster!, descendants. indutiae, truce. reliquiae, remainder. msidiae, ambush. tenebrae, darkness. ma j ores, ancestors. verbera, blows. Also in classical prose regularly cervices, neck. nares, nose. fides, lyre. viscera, viscera. Nouns used only in Certain Cases. 57. i. Used in only One Case. Many nouns of the Fourth Declension are found only in the Ablative Singular ; as, jussu, by the order; in jussu, without the order; natu, by birth. 2. Used in Two Cases. a. Fors (chance), Nom. Sing. ; forte, Abl. Sing. b. Spontis (free-will}, Gen. Sing. ; sponte, Abl. Sing. 3. Used in Three Cases. Nemo, no one (Nom.), has also the Dat. nemini and the Ace. neminem. The Gen. and Abl. are supplied by the corresponding cases of nullus ; viz. nullius and nullo. 32 Inflections. 4. Impetus has the Norn., Ace., and Abl. Sing., and the Norn, and Ace. Plu. ; viz. impetus, impetum, impetu, impetus. 5. a. Preci, precem, prece, lacks the Nom. and Gen. Sing. b. Vicis, vicem, vice, lacks the Nom. and Dat. Sing. 6. Opis. dapis, and frugis, all lack the Nom. Sing. 7. Many monosyllables of the Third Declension lack the Gen. Plu. ; as, cor, lux, sol, aes, 6s (oris), rus, sal, tus. Indeclinable Nouns. 58. Here belong fas, n., right. nefas, n., impiety. ins tar. n., likeness. niliil, n., nothing. mane, n., morning. secus, n., sex. i . With the exception of mane (which may serve also as Ablative, in the morning), the nouns in this list are simply Neuters confined in use to the Nominative and Accusative Singular. Heteroclites. 59. These are nouns whose forms are partly of one declension, and partly of another. Thus : 1. Several nouns have the entire Singular of one declension, while the Plural is of another ; as, vas, vasis (vessel) ; Plu., vasa, vasorum, vasis, etc. jugerum, jugeri (acre) ; Plu , jugera, jugerum, jugeribus, etc. 2. Several nouns, while belonging in the main to one declension, have certain special forms belonging to another. Thus : a) Many nouns of the First Declension ending in -ia take also a Nom. and Ace. of the Fifth; as, materies, materiem, material, as well as materia, materiam. b) Fames, hunger, regularly of the Third Declension, has the Abl. fame of the Fifth. c) Requies, requigtis, rest, regularly of the Third Declension, takes an Ace. of the Fifth, requiem, in addition to requi- etem. d) Besides plebs, plebis, common people, of the Third Declen- sion, we find plebes, plebel (also plebi, see 52. 2), of the Fifth. Heterogeneous Nouns. 33 Heterogeneous Nouns. 60. Heterogeneous nouns vary in Gender. Thus : 1 . Several nouns of the Second Declension have two forms, one Masc. in -us, and one Neuter in -um ; as, clipeus, clipeum, shield', carrus, carrum, cart. 2. Other nouns have one gender in the Singular, another in the Plural ; as, SINGULAR. PLURAL. balneum, n., bath; balneae, f., bath-house. epulum, n., feast; epulae, f., feast. frenum, n., bridle; freni, m. (rarely frena, n.), bridle. jocus, m.,jest; joca, n. (also joci, m.), jests. locus, m., place; loca, n., places; loci, m., passages or topics in an author. rastrum, n., rake; rastri, m. ; rastra, n., rakes. a. Heterogeneous nouns may at the same time be heteroclites, as in case of the first two examples above. Plurals 'with Change of Meaning. 61. The following nouns have one meaning in the Singular, and another in the Plural : SINGULAR. PLURAL. aedes, temple; aedes, house. auxilium, help ; auxilia, auxiliary troops. career, prison ; carceres, stalls for racing-chariots. castrum, fort ; castra, camp. copia, abundance ; cdpiae, troops, resources. finis, end; fines, borders, territory. f ortuna, fortune ; f ortunae, possessions, wealth. gratia, favor ; gr atiae, thanks . impedimentum, hindrance; impedimenta, baggage. littera, letter (of the alphabet) ; litterae, epistle, literature. mos, habit, custom ; mSres, character. opera, help, service; operae, laborers. (ops) opis, help; opes, resources. pars, part ; partes, party, role. sal, salt ; sales, wit. D 34 Inflections. B. ADJECTIVES. 62. Adjectives denote quality. They are declined like nouns, and fall into two classes, 1. Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions. 2. Adjectives of the Third Declension. ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS. 63. In these the Masculine is declined like hortus, puer, or ager, the Feminine like porta, and the Neuter like bellum. Thus, Masculine like hortus : Bonus, good. SINGULAR. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. IVojn. bonus bona bonum Gen. boni bonae boni Dat. bono bonae bono Ace. bonum bonam bonum Voc. bone bona . bonum Abl. bono bona bono PLURAL. Norn, boni bonae bona Gen. bonorum bonarum bonorum Dat. bonis bonis bonis Ace. bonos bonas bona Voc. boni bonae bona Abl. bonis bonis bonis a. The Genitive Singular Masculine and Neuter of Adjectives in -ius ends in -ii (not in -i as in case of Nouns ; see 25. i ; 2). So also the Vocative Singular of such Adjectives ends in -ie, not in -i. Thus eximius forms Genitive exi.mii ; Vocative eximie. Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions. 35 64. Masculine like puer : Tener, tender. SINGULAR. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. Nom. tener tenera tenerum Gen. teneri tenerae teneri Dat. tenero tenerae tenero Ace. tenerum teneram tenerum Voc. tener tenera tenerum Abl. tenero tenera tenero PLURAL. Nom. teneri tenerae tenera Gen. tenerorum tenerarum tenerorum Dat. teneris teneris teneris Ace. teneros teneras tenera Voc. teneri tenerae tenera Abl. teneris teneris teneris 65. Masculine like ager : MASCULINE. Nom. sacer Gen. sacri Dat. sacro Ace. sacrum Voc. sacer Abl. sacro Nom. sacri Gen. sacrorum Dat. sacris Ace. sacros Voc. sacri Abl. sacris Sacer, sacred. SINGULAR. FEMININE. sacra sacrae sacrae sacram sacra sacra PLURAL. sacrae sacrarum sacris sacras sacrae sacris NEUTER. sacrum sacri sacro sacrum sacrum sacro sacra sacrorum sacris sacra sacra sacris I. Most adjectives in -er are declined like sacer. The following are declined like tener : asper, rough ; lacer, torn ; liber, free ; 36 Inflections. miser, wretched; prosper, prosperous ; compounds in -fer and -ger ; sometimes dexter, right. 2. Satur, full, is declined : satur, satura, saturum. Nine Irregular Adjectives. 66. Here belong - alius, another; alter, the other i ullus, any; nullus, none; uter, which ? (of two) ; neuter, neither ; solus, alone ; totus, whole ; unus, one, alone. They are declined as follows : MASCULINE. FEMININE. Nom. alius alia Gen. alterius alterius Dat. alii alii Ace. alium aliam AbL alio alia SINGULAR. NEUTER. aliud alterius 1 alii aliud alio MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. alter altera alterum alterius alterius alterius alter! alter! 2 alter! alterum alteram alterum altero altera altero Nom. uter utra utrum Gen. utrius utrius utrms Dat. utri utr! utr! Ace. utrum utram utrum Voc. Abl. utr5 utra utro 1 . All these words lack the Vocative. 2. The Plural is regular. totus totius tot! totum toto tota totms tot! totam tota totum tot!us tot! totum toto ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 67. These fall into three classes, - 1. Adjectives of three terminations in the Nominative Singular, one for each gender. 2. Adjectives of two terminations. 3. Adjectives of one termination. 1 This is almost always used instead of alms in the Genitive. 2 A Dative Singular Feminine alterae also occurs. Adjectives of the Third Declension. 37 With the exception of Comparatives, and a few other words mentioned below in 70. i, all Adjectives of the Third Declension follow the inflection of i-stems ; i.e. they have the Ablative Singular in -i, the Genitive Plural in -ium, the Accusative Plural in -is (as well as -es) in the Masculine and Feminine, and the Nominative and Accusative Plural in -ia in Neuters. Adjectives of Three Terminations. 68. These are declined as follows : Acer, sharp. SINGULAR. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. Nom. acer acris acre Gen. acris acris acris Dat. acri acri acri Ace. acrem acrem acre Voc. acer acris acre Abl. acri acri acri PLURAL. Nom. acres acres acria Gen. acrium acrium acrium Dat. acribus acribus acribus Ace. acres, -is acres, -is acria Voc. acres acres acria Abl. acribus acribus acribus 1. Like acer are declined alacer, lively ; campester, level '; cele- ber, famous ; equester, equestrian; paluster, marshy; pedester, pedestrian; puter, rotten; saluber, wholesome; Silvester, woody; terrester, terrestrial; volucer, winged; also names of months in -ber, as September. 2. Celer, celeris, celere, swift, is declined like acer, but lacks the Genitive Plural. 3. In the Nominative Singular of Adjectives of this class the Femi- nine form is sometimes used for the Masculine. This is regularly true of salubris, silvestris, and terrestris. In case of the other words in the list, the use of the Feminine for the Masculine is confined chiefly to early and late Latin, and to poetry. 3 Inflections. Adjectives of Two Terminations. 69. These are declined as follows : Fortis, strong. Fortior, stronger. SINGULAR. M. AND F. NEUT. M. AND F. NEUT. Nom. fortis forte fortior fortius Gen. fortis fortis fortioris fortioris Dat. forti forti fortiori fortiori Ace. fortem forte fortiorem fortius Voc. fortis forte fortior fortius Abl. forti forti fortiore, -I fortiore, -I PLURAL. Nom. fortes fortia fortiores fortiora Gen. fortium fortium fortiorum fortiorum Dat. fortibus fortibus fortioribus fortioribus Ace. fortes, -is fortia fortiores, -is fortiora Voc. fortes fortia fortiores fortiora Abl. fortibus fortibus fortioribus fortioribus i. Fortior is the Comparative of fortis. All Comparatives are regularly declined in the same way. The Ace. Plu. in -is is rare. 70. Adjectives of One Termination. Felix, happy. Frudens, prudent. SINGULAR. M. AND F. NEUT. M. AND F. NEUT. Nom. felix felix prudens prudens Gen. fellcis fellcis prudentis prudentis Dat. felici felici prudent! prudent! Ace. felicem felix prudentem prudens Voc. felix felix prudens prudens Abl. felici felici prudent! prudent! PLURAL. Nom. fellces felicia prudentes prudentia Gen. felicium felicium prudentium prudentium Dat. fellcibus fellcibus prudentibus prudentibus Ace. fel!ce*s, -is felicia prudentes, -is prudentia Voc. fellcgs felicia prudentes prudentia Abl. felicibus fellcibus prudentibus prudentibus Adjectives of the Third Declension. 39 Vetus, old. SINGULAR. Mr. AND F. NEUT. Nom. vetus vetus* Gen. veteris veteris Dat. veteri veteri Ace. veterem vetus Voc. vetus vetus Abl. vetere vetere PLURAL. Nom. veteres vetera Gen. veterum veterum Dat. veteribus veteribus Ace. veteres vetera Voc. veteres vetera Abl. veteribus veteribus Plus, more. M. AND F. plures plurium pluribus plures, -is NEUT. pins pluris plus plure plura plarium pluribus plura pluribus pluribus 1 . It will be observed that vetus is declined as a pure Consonant- Stem ; i.e. Ablative Singular in -e, Genitive Plural in -um, Nominative Plural Neuter in -a, and Accusative Plural Masculine and Feminine in -es only. In the same way are declined compos, controlling; dives, rich; particeps, sharing; pauper, poor; prmceps, Chief; sospes, safe; superstes, surviving. Yet dives always has Neut. Plu. ditia. 2. Inops, needy , and memor, mindful, have Ablative Singular inopi, memoiT, but Genitive Plural inopum, memorum. 3. Participles in -ans and -ens follow the declension of I-stems. But they do not have -I in the Ablative, except when employed as adjec- tives ; when used as participles or as substantives, they have -e ; as, a sapient! viro, by a wise man ; but a sapiente, by a philosopher ; Tarquinio regnante, under the reign of Tarquin. 4. Plus, in the Singular, is always a noun. 5 . In the Ablative Singular, adjectives, when used as substantives, a) usually retain the adjective declension ; as, aequalis, contemporary, Abl. aequali. consularis, ex-consul, Abl. consular!. So names of Months ; as, April!, April; Decembri, De- cember. b} But adjectives used as proper names have -e in the Ablative Singular ; as, Celere, Celer ; Juvenale, Juvenal. 4O Inflections. c) Patrials in -as, -atis and -Is, -itis, when used as substantives, regularly have -I ; as, in Arpmati, on the estate at Arpinum ; yet -e, when used of persons ; as, ab Arpinate, by an Arpi- natian. 6. A very few indeclinable adjectives occur, the chief of which are frugi, frugal, nequam, 'worthless. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 71. i. There are three degrees of Comparison, the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative. 2. The Comparative is regularly formed by adding -ior (Neut. -ius), and the Superlative by adding -issimus (-a, -um), to the Stem of the Positive deprived of its final vowel ; as, altus, high, altior, higher, altissimus, { hi g hest * ( very high. fortis, brave, fortior, fortissimus. __ felix, fortunate, fellcior, felicissimus. dives, rich) divitior, divitissimus. So also Participles, when used as Adjectives ; as, doctus, learned, doctior, doctissimus. egens, needy, egentior, egentissimus . 3. Adjectives in -er form the Superlative by appending -rimus to the Nominative of the Positive. The Comparative is regular. Thus : asper, rough, asperior, asperrimus. pulcher, beautiful, pulchrior, pulcherrimus. acer, sharp, acrior, acerrimus. celer, swift, celerior, celerrimus. pauper, poor, pauperior, pauperrimus. a. Notice maturus, maturior, maturissimus or maturrimus. 4. Five Adjectives in -ills form the Superlative by adding -limus to the Stem of the Positive deprived of its final vowel. The Compara- tive is regular. Thus : facilis, easy, facilior, facillimus. difncilis, difficult, difficilior, difficillimus. similis, like, similior, simillimus. dissimilis, unlike, dissimilior, dissimillimus. humilis, low, humilior, humillimus. Comparison of Adjectives. 41 5. Adjectives in -dicus, -ficus, and -volus, form the Comparative and Superlative as though from forms in -dicens, -ficens, -volens. Thus : - maledicus, slanderous, maledicentior, maledicentissimus. magnificus, magnificent, magnificentior, magnificentissimus. benevolus, kindly, benevolentior, benevolentissimus. a. Positives in -dicens and -volens occur in early Latin ; as, maledicens, benevolens. Irregular Comparison. 72. Several Adjectives vary the Stem in Compari- son ; viz. bonus, good, melior, optimus . malus, bad, pejor, pessimus. parvus, small, minor, minimus, magnus, large, major, maximus. multus, much, plus, plurimus. frugl, thrifty, frugalior, frugalissimus. nequam, worthless, nequior, nequissimus. 1 . Observe that the i of -ior becomes j between vowels in pejor and major. Defective Comparison. 73. i. Positive lacking entirely, (Cf. prae, in front of.) prior, former, primus, first. (Cf. citra, this side of.) citerior, on this side, citimus, near. (Cf. ultra, beyond.) , ulterior, farther, ultimus, farthest. (Cf. intra, within.) interior, inner, intimus, inmost. (Cf. prope, near.) propior, nearer, proximus, nearest. (Cf. de, down.) deterior, inferior, deterrimus, worst. (Cf. archaic potis, possible.) potior, preferable, potissimus, chief est. 2. Positive occurring only in special cases, postero die anno, etc., j f trSm { **' the foiling day, etc., posterior , later> }"* { late-born, poster!, descendants, J | postumus, \ posthumous . exterl, foreigners, nationes exterae, for- \ exterior, outer, us> 1 outermost eign nations, I extimus, 42 Inflections. Infer!, gods of the lower world, j Mare Inferum, Mediterranean \ inferior, lower, Sta, } super!, gods above, 1 . Mare Superum, Adriatic Sea, J su P el or > *" 3. Comparative lacking. vetus, old, - * fidus, faithful, novus, new, sacer, sacred, falsus, false, Also in some other words less frequently used. 4. Superlative lacking. alacer, lively, alacrior, ingens, great, . ingentior, salutaris, wholesome, salutarior, juvenis, young, junior, senex, old, senior. _ u imus > I lowest. lmus ' I f supremus, last. summus, highest. veterrimus. f idissimus. novissimus, 3 last. sacerrimus. falsissimus. a. The Superlative is lacking also in many adjectives in -alis, -Ilis, -ilis, -bilis, and in a few others. Comparison by Magis and Ma,xime. 74. Many adjectives do not admit terminational compari- son, but form the Comparative and Superlative degrees by prefixing magis (more) and maxime (most). Here belong 1. Many adjectives ending in -alis, -aris, -idus, -ilis, -icus, -imus, -inus, -orus. 2. Adjectives in -us preceded by a vowel; as, idoneus, adapted-, arduus, steep] necessarius, necessary. a. Adjectives in -quus, of course, do not come under this rule. The first u in such cases is not a vowel, but a consonant. 1 Supplied by vetustior, from vetustus. 2 Supplied by recentior. 8 For newest, recentissimus is used. 4 Supplied by minimus natu. 6 Supplied by maximus natu. Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs. 43 Adjectives not admitting Comparison. 75. Here belong 1 . Many adjectives which, from the nature of their signification, do not admit of comparison ; as, hodiernus, of to-day ; annuus, annual; mortalis, mortal. 2. Some special words ; as, mirus, gnarus, ferus ; and a few others. FORMATION AND COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 76. Adverbs are for the most part derived from adjec- tives, and depend upon them for their comparison. 1. Adverbs derived from adjectives of the First and Second Declensions form the Positive by changing -I of the Genitive Singular to -e ; those derived from adjectives of the Third Declension, by changing -is of the Genitive Singular to -iter ; as, cams, care, dearly ; pulcher, pulchre, beautifully ; acer, acriter, fiercely ; levis, leviter, lightly. a. But Adjectives in -ns, and a few others, add -ter (instead of -iter), to form the Adverb ; as, sapiens, sapienter, wisely ; audax, audacter, boldly ; sellers, sollerter, skillfully. 2. The Comparative of all Adverbs regularly consists of the Accu- sative Singular Neuter of the Comparative of the Adjective ; while the Superlative of the Adverb is formed by changing the -I of the Genitive Singular of the Superlative of the Adjective to -e. Thus (carus) care, dearly ', carius, carissime. (pulcher) pulchre, beautifully, pulchrius, pulcherrime. (acer) acriter, fiercely, acrius, acerrime. (levis) leviter, lightly, levius, levissime. (sapiens) sapienter, 'wisely, sapientius, sapientissime. (audax) audacter, boldly, audacius, audacissimS. 44 Inflections. Adverbs Peculiar in Comparison and Formation. 77. i. bene, well, melius, optime. male, ///, pejus, pessime. magnopere, greatly, magis, maxime. multum, much, plus, plurimum. non multum, j,^ minus? minime. parum, diu, long, diutius, diutissime. nequiter, worthlessly, nequius, nequissime. saepe, often, saepius, saepissime. . , , . f maturrime, mature, betimes, maturms, [ maturissime. prope, near, propius, proxime. nuper, recently, nuperrime. potius, rather. potissimum, especially. prius, [Piously, 1 Im firsL I before, } secus, otherwise, secius, worse. 2. A number of adjectives of the First and Second Declensions form an Adverb in -o, instead of -e ; as, crebro, frequently ; falso, falsely ; continue, continuously; subito, suddenly; raro, rarely, and a few others. a. cito, quickly, has -6. 3. A few adjectives employ the Accusative Singular Neuter as the Positive of the Adverb ; as, multum, much; minimum, least; paulum, little; facile, easily. 4. A few adjectives of the First and Second Declensions form the Positive in -iter ; as, firmus, firmiter,yr#//x; humanus, humaniter, humanly; largus, largiter, copiously ; alius, aliter, otherwise. a. violentus has violenter. 5. Various other adverbial suffixes occur, the most important of which are -tus and -tim ; as, antiquitus, anciently ; paulatim, gradually. Numerals. 45 NUMERALS. 78. Numerals may be divided into I. Numeral Adjectives, comprising a. Cardinals] as, unus, one] duo, two] etc. b. Ordinals] as, primus, first ; secundus, second] etc. c. Distributives] as, singuli, one by one] bini,/-^ by two] etc. II. Numeral Adverbs ; as, semel, once ; bis, twice ; etc. 79 TABLE OF NUMERAL ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. CARDINALS. ORDINALS. DISTRIBUTIVES. ADVERBS. I. unus, una, unum primus.yfr-j/ singuli, one by one semel 2. duo, duae, duo secundus, second binl, two by two bis 3- tres, tria tertius, third term (trim) ter 4- quattuor quartus, fourth quaterm quater 5- qulnque qumtus.yf/?^ quml qulnquies 6. sex sextus sen! sexies 7- septem septimus septem septies 8. octo octavus octoni octies 9- novem nonus novem novies 10. decem decimus deni decies ii. undecim undecimus undenl undecies 12. duodecim duodecimus duodeni duodecies 13- tredecim tertius decimus ternl deni terdecies 14. quattuordecim quartus decimus quaterni deni quaterdecies IS- quindecim qulntus decimus qulni deni qulnquies decies 16.' !S6Q6Cim / ( sextus decimus sen! deni sexies decies i sexdecim > 17- septendecim septimus decimus septem deni septies decies 18. duodevlginti duodevicesimus duodevlcenl octies decies 19. undevlgintl undevicesimus undevlcenl novies decies 20. viginti vicesimus vicenl vlcies i 21. ( viginti unus vicesimus primus viceni singuli / vlcies semel 1 ! unus et viginti unus et vicesimus singuli et viceni 22. ( viginti duo vicesimus secundus viceni binl J vlcies bis i duo et viginti alter et vicesimus binl et viceni 30. triginta tricesimus tricenl tricies 40. quadraginta quadragesimus quadragenl quadragies SO- quinquaginta qulnquagesimus qulnquagenl qulnquagies 60. sexaginta sexagesimus sexagenl sexagies 70. septuaginta septuagesimus septuagenl septuagies 80. octoginta octogesimus octogenl octogies 90. nonaginta nonagesimus nonagenl nonagies 100. centum centesimus centenl centies 4 6 Inflections. CARDINALS. ORDINALS. DISTRIBUTIVES. ADVERBS. 101. j centum unus centesimus primus centeni singuli [ centies semel \ centum et unus centesimus et primus centeni et singuli 200. ducenti, -ae, -a ducentesimus duceni ducenties 300. trecenti trecentesimus trecenl trecenties 400. quadringentl quadringentesimus quadringenl quadringenties 5 00. qumgenti qulngentesimus qumgeni quingenties 600. sescenti sescentesimus sesceni sescenties 700. septingenti septingentesimus septingeni septingenties 800. octingentl octingentesimus octingeni octingenties 900. nongentl nongentesimus nongeni nongenties 1,000. mille miliesimus singula millia millies 2,000. duo millia bis miliesimus bma millia bis millies 100,000. centum millia centies miliesimus centena millia centies millies 1,000,000. decies centena decies centies milie- decies centena decies centies millia simus millia millies NOTE. ensimus and -iens are often written in the numerals instead of -esimus and -ies. Declension of the Cardinals. 80. i . The declension of unus has already been given under 66. 2. Duo is declined as follows : Nom. duo duae duo Gen. duorum duarum duorum Dat. duobus duabus duobus Ace. duos, duo duas duo Abl. duobus duabus duobus a. So ambo, both^ except that its final o is long. 3. Tres is declined, Norn, tres tria Gen. trium trium Dat. tribus tribus Ace. tres (tris) tria Abl. tribus tribus 4. The hundreds (except centum) are declined like the Plural of bonus. 5. Mille is regularly an adjective in the Singular, and indeclinable. In the Plural it is a substantive (followed by the Genitive of the objects enumerated; 201. i), and is declined, Nom. millia Ace. millia Gen. millium Voc. millia Dat. mlllibus Abl. mlllibus Numerals. 47 Thus mille homines, a thousand men; but duo millia hominum, two thousand men, literally two thousands of men. a. Occasionally the Singular admits the Genitive construction; as, mille hominum. 6. Other Cardinals are indeclinable. Ordinals and Distributives are declined like Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions. Peculiarities in the Use of Numerals. 81. i. The compounds from 21 to 99 may be expressed either with the larger or the smaller numeral first. In the latter case, et is used. Thus : triginta sex or sex et triginta, thirty -six. 2. The numerals under 90, ending in 8 and 9, are often expressed by subtraction ; as, duodeviginti, eighteen (but also octodecim) ; undequadraginta, thirty-nine (but also triginta novem or novem et triginta) . 3. Compounds over 100 regularly have the largest number first; the others follow without et ; as, centum viginti septem, one hundred and twenty-seven. anno millesimo octingentesimo octogesimo secundo, in the year 1882. Yet et may be inserted where the smaller number is either a digit or one of the tens ; as, centum et septem, one hundred and seven ; centum et quadraginta, one hundred and forty. 4. The Distributives are used a) To denote so many each, so many apiece ; as, bina talenta iis dedit, he gave them two talents each. U) When those nouns that are ordinarily Plural in form, but Singular in meaning, are employed in a Plural sense ; as, bmae litterae, two epistles. But in such cases, uni (not singuli) is regularly employed for one, and trim (not term) for three ; as, uiiae litterae, one epistle. trmae litterae, three epistles, c) In multiplication ; as, bis bina sunt quattuor, twice two are four. 48 Inflections. C. PRONOUNS. 82. A Pronoun is a word that indicates something with- out naming it. 83. There are the following classes of pronouns : I. Personal. V. Intensive. II. Reflexive. VI. Relative. III. Possessive. VII. Interrogative. IV. Demonstrative. VIII. Indefinite. I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 84. These correspond to the English /, yon, he, she, it, etc., and are declined as follows : Third Person. is, he; ea, she; id, it (For declension see 87.) First Person. Second Person. SINGULAR. Noni. ego,/ tu, thou Gen. mei tul Dat. mini 1 tibi 1 Ace. me te l/nr v t/6 . AbL me te PLURAL. Nom. nos, we vos, you Gen. \ nostrum nostri f vestrum i vestri Dat. nobls vobis Ace. nos vos /^S Voc. vos Abl. nobls vobis 1 . A Dative Singular mi occurs in poetry. 2. Emphatic forms in -met (accented on the penult according to 6. 3) occur ; as, eg6met, / myself; tiblmet, to you yourself; tu has tute and tutemet. 1 The final i is sometimes long in poetry. Pronouns. 49 3. In early Latin, med and ted occur as Accusative and Ablative forms. II. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS. 85. These refer to the subject of the sentence or clause in which they stand ; like myself, yourself, in ' '/ see myself J etc. They are declined as follows : First Person. Second Person. Third Person. Supplied by oblique Supplied by oblique cases of ego. cases of tu. Gen. me!, of myself \m, of thyself sui Dat. mihi, to myself tibi, to thyself sibi 1 Ace. me, myself te, thyself se or sese Voc. Abl. me, with myself, etc. te, with thyself, etc. se or sese 1 . The Reflexive of the Third Person serves for all genders and for both numbers. Thus sui may mean, of himself, herself, itself, or of themselves; and so with the other forms. 2. All of the Reflexive Pronouns have at times a reciprocal force ; inter se pugnant, they fight with each other. 3. In early Latin, sed occurs as Accusative and Ablative. III. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 86. These are strictly adjectives of the First and Second Declensions, and are inflected as such. They are First Per s oft. Second Person. meus, -a, -um, my; tuus, -a, -um,,Mx; noster, nostra, nostrum, our; vester, vestra, vestrum, your; Third Person. suus, -a, -um, his, her, its, their. i . Suus is exclusively Reflexive ; as, pater suds liberos amat, the father loves his children. Otherwise, his, her, its are regularly expressed by the Genitive Singu- lar of is, viz. ejus ; and their, by the Genitive Plural, eorum, earum. 1 The final i is sometimes long in poetry. 50 Inflections. 2. The Vocative Singular Masculine of meus is mi. 3. The enclitic -pte may be joined to the Ablative Singular of the Possessive Pronouns for the purpose of emphasis. This is particularly common in case of suo, sua ; as, suopte, suapte. IV. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 87. These point out an object as here or there, or as previously mentioned. They are hie, this (where I am) ; iste, that (where you are) ; ille, that (something distinct from the speaker) ; is, that (weaker than ille) ; idem, the same. Hie, iste, and ille are accordingly the Demonstratives of the First, Second, and Third Persons respectively. Hie, this. SINGULAR. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. Nom. hie 1 haec hoc Gen. hujus 2 hujus hujus Dat. huic huic huic Ace. hunc hanc hoc Abl. hoc hac hoc PLURAL. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. hi hae haec horum harum horum his his his hos has haec his his his Nom Gen. Dat. Ace. Abl. Ille, MASCULINE, . iste istius isti istum Iste, that, that of yours. SINGULAR. , FEMININE. NEUTER. MASCULINE. ista istud 3 isti istius istius istorum isti isti istis istam istud istos PLURAL. FEMININE. istae istarum istis istas istis . NEUTER. ista 3 istorum istis ista 3 istis isto ista isto that, that one, he, is declined istis like iste. 4 1 The vowel is sometimes short in poetry, hie. . 2 Forms of hie ending in -s sometimes append -ce for emphasis ; as, hujusce, this . . . here; hSsce, hisce. When -ne is added, -ce becomes -ci ; as, hoscine. 3 For istud, istuc sometimes occurs; for ista, istaec. 4 For illud, illuc sometimes occurs. The Intensive Pronoun. The Relative Pronoun. 5 1 Is, he, this, that. SINGULAR. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. Nom. is ea id Gen. ejus ejus ejus Dot. el el el Ace. eum earn id Abl. eo ea eo PLURAL. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. el, ii, (I) eae ea eorum earum eorum els, iis els, iis els, iis eos eas ea els, iis els, iis els, iis Idem, the same. SINGULAR. PLURAL. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. MASCULINE. FEMININE. eaedem Nom. idem eadem idem Gen. ejusdem ejusdem ejusdem Dat. eldem eidem eldem Ace. eundem eandem idem Abl. eodem eadem eodem NEUTER. eadem MASCULINE. J eldem [ iidem eorundem earundem eorundem eisdem eisdem eisdem eosdem easdem eadem elsdem eisdem eisdem The Nom. Plu. Masc. also has idem, and the Dat. Abl. Plu. isdem or ilsdem. V. THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN. 88. The Intensive Pronoun in Latin is ipse. It corre- sponds to the English myself, etc., in 'I myself, he himself.' SINGULAR. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. Nom. ipse ipsa ipsum Gen. ipsius ipsius ipsius Dat. ipsi ipsi ipsi Ace. ipsum ipsam ipsum Abl. ipso ipsa ipso PLURAL. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. ipsi ipsae ipsa ipsorum ipsarum ipsorum ipsis ipsls ipsls ipsos ipsas ipsa ipsls ipsls ipsis VI. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. 89. The Relative Pronoun is qul, who. It is declined: SINGULAR. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. MASCULINE. Nom. quT quae quod qul Gen. cujus cujus cujus quorum Dat. cui cui cui . quibus 2 Ace. quern quam quod quos Abl. quo x qua x quo 1 quibus 2 PLURAL. FEMININE. NEUTER. quae quae quarum quorum quibus 2 quibus 2 quas quae quibus 2 quibus 2 1 An Ablative qul occurs in qulcum. 2 Sometimes quis. Inflections. VII. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 90. The Interrogative Pronouns are quis, who? (sub- stantive) and qui, what? what kind of? (adjective). I . Quis, who f SINGULAR. MASC. AND FEM. NEUTER. PLURAL. Wanting. Nom. quis quid Gen. cujus cujus Dat. cui cui Ace. quern quid AbL quo quo 2. qui, what? what kind of? is declined precisely like the Rela- tive Pronoun ; viz. qui, quae, quod, etc. a. An old Ablative qui occurs, in the sense of how? b. Qui is sometimes used for quis in Indirect Questions. c. Quis, when limiting words denoting persons, is sometimes an adjective. But in such cases quis homo = what man? whereas qui homo = what sort of a man ? d. Quis and qui may be strengthened by adding -nam. Thus : Substantive, quisnam, who, pray ? quidnam, what, pray ? Adjective. qumam, quaenam, quodnam, of what kind, pray? VIII. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 91. These have the general force of some one, any one. SUBSTANTIVES. ADJECTIVES. M. AND F. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. quis, . , ( anyone, quid, \ ... ( anything. qui, quae or qua, quod, any. aliquis, aliquid, | someo > ( something. aliqui aliqua, aliquod, any. quisquam, quidquam, { an >' e > ( anything^ No corresponding adjective. quispiam, quisque, qui vis, quae vis, quilibet, quaelibet, quidpiam, j an y of * e > ( anything. quidque, each. quidvls, { anyo "'\ . ,,., i anything quispiam, quisque, .qui vis, quilibet, quaepiam, quaeque, quaevis, quaelibet, quodpiam, any. quodque, each. quodvis, f ar quidam, quaedam, ( a certain quiddam, \ person, ( or thing. quidam, quaedam, quoddam, \ acer ~ \ tain. Indefinite Pronouns. Pronominal Adjectives. 53 1. In the Indefinite Pronouns, only the pronominal part is declined. Thus : Genitive Singular alicujus, cujuslibet, etc. 2. Note that aliqui has aliqua in the Nominative Singular Femi- nine, also in the Nominative and Accusative Plural Neuter. QuI has both qua and quae in these same cases. 3. Quidam forms Accusative Singular quendam, quandam ; Geni- tive Plural quorundain, quarundam ; the m being assimilated to n before d. 4. Aliquis may be used adjectively, and (occasionally) aliqui sub- stantively. 5. In combination with ne, si, nisi, num, either quis or qui may stand as a Substantive. Thus : si quis or si qui. 6. Ecquis, anyone, though strictly an Indefinite, generally has interrogative force. It has both substantive and adjective forms, substantive, ecquis, ecquid ; adjective, ecqui, ecquae and ecqua, ecquod. 7. Quisquam is not used in the Plural. 8. There are two Indefinite Relatives, quicumque and quisquis, whoever. Quicumque declines only the first part ; quisquis declines both, but has only quisquis, quidquid, quoquo in common use. PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 92. The following adjectives, also, frequently have pro- nominal force : 1 . alius, another ; alter, the other ; uter, which of two? (interr.) ; neuter, neither ; whichever of two (rel.) ; firms, one; nullus, no one (in oblique cases). 2. The compounds, uterque, utraque, utrumque, each of two; utercumque, utracumque, utrumcumque, whoever of two; uterlibet, utralibet, utrumlibet, either one you please; utervis, utravis, utrumvis, either one you please; alteruter, alterutra, alterutrum, the one or the other. In these, uter alone is declined. The rest of the word remains unchanged, except in case of alteruter, which may decline both parts ; as, Nom. alteruter altera utra alterum utrum Gen. alterius utrius etc. 54 Inflections, CHAPTER II. Conjugation. 93. The Inflection of Verbs is called Conjugation. 94. Verbs have Voice, Mood, Tense, Number, and Person : 1. Two Voices, Active and Passive. 2. Three Moods, Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative. 3. Six Tenses, Present, Perfect, Imperfect, Pluperfect, Future, Future Perfect. But the Subjunctive lacks the Future and Future Perfect ; while the Imperative employs only the Present and Future. 4. Two Numbers, Singular and Plural. 5. Three Persons, First, Second, and Third. 95. These make up the so-called Finite Verb. Besides this, we have the following Noun and Adjective Forms : 1. Noun Forms, Infinitive, Gerund, and Supine. 2. Adjective Forms, Participles (including the Gerundive). 96. The Personal Endings of the Verb are, ACTIVE. PASSIVE. Sing. i. -6; -m; -I (Perf. Ind.); -r. 2. -s; -sti (Perf. Ind.); -to or -ris, -re ; -re, -tor (Impv.). wanting (Impv.); 3. -t; -to (Impv.); -tur ; -tor (Impv.). Plu. i. -mus ; -mur. 2. -tis; -stis (Perf. Ind.); -te, -mini. -tote (Impv.) ; 3. -nt; -erunt (Perf. Ind.); -nto -ntur ; -ntor (Impv.). (Impv.); VERB-STEMS. 97. Conjugation consists in appending certain endings to the Stem. We distinguish three different stems in a fully inflected verb, Verb- Stems. The Four Conjugations. 55 I. Present Stem, from which are formed 1. Present, Imperfect, and Future Indicative, l 2. Present and Imperfect Subjunctive, | Active and Pas- 3. The Imperative, sive. 4. The Present Infinitive, 5. The Present Active Participle, the Gerund, and Gerundive. II. Perfect Stem, from which are formed 1. Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative, 1 2. Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive, ^Active. 3. Perfect Infinitive, III. Participial Stem, from which are formed i. Perfect Participle, 2. Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative, Passive. 3. Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive, 4. Perfect Infinitive, Apparently from the same stem, though really of different ori- gin, are the Supine, the Future Active Participle, the Future Infinitive Active and Passive. I THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS. 98. There are in Latin four regular Conjugations, dis- tinguished from each other by the vowel of the termination of the Present Infinitive Active, as follows : P..., INFINITIVE DISTINGUISHING CONJUGATION. TERMINATION. VOWEL. I. -are a II. -ere e III. -ere 6 IV. -ire I 99. PRINCIPAL PARTS. The Present Indicative, Present Infinitive, Perfect Indicative, and the Perfect Participle 1 constitute the Principal Parts of a Latin verb, so called because they contain the different stems, from which the full conjugation of the verb may be derived. 1 Where the Perfect Participle is not in use, the Future Active Participle, if it occurs, is given as one of the Principal Parts. 56 Inflections. CONJUGATION OF SUM. 100. The irregular verb sum is so important for the conjugation of all other verbs that its inflection is given at the outset. PRINCIPAL PARTS. PRES. IND. PRES. INF. PERF. IND. Fur. PARTIC. J sum esse fui futurus SINGULAR. sum, I am, es, thou art, est, he is ; eram, I was, eras, thou wast, erat, he was ; ero, / shall be, eris, thou wilt be, erit, he will be ; fui, / have been, I was, INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. PLURAL. sumus, we are, estis, you are, sunt, they are. IMPERFECT. eramus, we were, eratis, you were, erant, they were. FUTURE. erimus, we shall be, eritis, you will be, erunt, they will be. PERFECT. i fuimus, we have been, we were, fuisti, thou hast been, thou wast, fuistis, you have been, you were, fuit, he has been, he was ; A!S* ** ' r ^/ h* 1 oeen i they were. fueram, / had been, fueras, thou hadst been, fuerat, he had been ; PLUPERFECT. fueramus, we had been, fueratis, you had been, fuerant, they had been. FUTURE PERFECT. fuero, / shall have been, fuerimus, we shall have been, fueris, thou wilt have been, fueritis, you will have been, fuerit, he will have been ; fuerint, they will have been. 1 The Perfect Participle is wanting in sum, Conjugation of Sum. 57 SINGULAR. sim, may I be, sis, mayst thou be, sit, let him be, may he be', essem, 2 / should be, esses, 2 thou wouldst be, esset, 2 he would be ; SUBJUNCTIVE.i PRESENT. PLURAL. simus, let us be, sitis, be ye, may you be, sint, let them be. IMPERFECT. essemus, we should be, essetis, you would be, essent, 2 they would be. PERFECT. fuerim, / may have been, fueris, thou mayst have been, fuerit, he may have been ; fuerimus, we may have been, fueritis, you may have been, fuerint, they may have been. PLUPERFECT. fuissem, / should have been, fuissemus, we should have been, fuisses, thou wouldst have been, fuissetis, you would have been, fuisset, he would have beett fuissent, they would have been. IMPERATIVE. Pres. es, be thou, Fut. esto, thou shalt be, esto, he shall be; este, be y estote, ye s sunto, they INFINITIVE. Pres. esse, to be. Perf. fuisse, to have been. Fut. futurus esse, 3 to be about to be. PARTICIPLE. Fut. futurus, 4 about to be. 1 The meanings of the different tenses of the Subjunctive are so many and so varied, particularly in subordinate clauses, that no attempt can be made to give them here. For fuller information the pupil is referred to the Syntax. 2 For essem, esses, esset, essent, the forms forem, fores, foret, forent are sometimes used. 3 For futurus esse the form fore is often used, 4 Declined like bonus, -a, -urn, 58 Inflections. FIRST (OR A-) CONJUGATION. 101. Active Voice. Amo, / love. PRINCIPAL PARTS. PRES. IND. PRES. INF. PERF. IND. PERF. PASS. PARTIC. amo amare amavi amatus INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. SINGULAR. PLURAL. amo, / love, amamus, we love, amas; you love, amatis, you love, amat, he loves; amant, they' love. IMPERFECT. amabam, I was loving, amabamus, we were loving, amabas, you were loving, amabatis, you were loving, amabat, he was loving-, amabant, they were loving. FUTURE. amabo, I shall love, amabimus, we shall love, amabis, you will love, amabitis, you will love, amabit, he will love ; amabunt, they will love. PERFECT. amavi, / have loved, I loved, amavimus, we have loved, we loved, arnavisti, yoii have loved, you amavistis, you have loved, you loved, love ' ved^ he loved-, amaverunt, -ere, they have loved, they loved. PLUPERFECT. amaveram, / had loved, amaveramus, we had loved, amaveras, you had loved, amaveratis, you had loved, amaverat, he had loved; amaverant, they had loved. \ FUTURE PERFECT. amavero, / shall have loved, amaverimus, we shall have loved, amaveri, you will have loved, amaveritis, you will have loved, amaverit, he will have loved; amaverint, they will have loved. \ First Conjugation. 59 SINGULAR. am em, may I love, ames, may you love, amet, let him love ; amarem, / should love, am ares, you would love, amaret, he would love ; SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT. PLURAL. amemus, let us love, ametis, may you love, arrient, let them love. IMPERFECT. amaremus, w e should love, amaretis; you would love, amarent, they would love. PERFECT. amaverim, / may have loved, amaverirrius, we may have loved, amaveris, you may have loved, amaveritis, you may have loved, amaverit, he may have loved; t amaverint, they may have loved. PLUPERFECT. amavissem, / should have loved, amavissemus, 1 ^ should have loved, amavisses, you would have loved, amavissetis, you would have loved, amavisset, he would have loved; amavissent, they would have loved. IMPERATIVE. Pres. ama, love thou ; Fut. amato, thou shalt love, amato, he shall love ; INFINITIVE. Pres. am are, to love. Perf. amavisse, to have loved. Fut. amaturus esse, to be about to love. amate, love ye. amatote, ye shall love, am an to, they shall love. jiflBfev PARTICIPLE. Pres. amans, 1 loving. (Gen. amaiitid^r Fut. amaturus, about to love. GERUND. Gen. amandi, of loving, Dat. amando, for loving, Ace. amandum, loving, Abl. amando, by loving. SUPINE. Ace. amatum, to love, Abl. amatu, to love, be loved. 1 For declension of amans, see 70. 3. 6o Inflections. 102. FIRST (OR A-) CONJUGATION. Passive Voice. Amor, / am loved. PRES. IND. amor PRINCIPAL PARTS. PRES. INF. amari PERF. IND. amatus sum SINGULAR. amor amaris amatur amabar amabaris, or -re amabatur amabor amaberis, or -re amabitur INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. I am loved. IMPERFECT. / was loved. FUTURE. / shall be loved. PLURAL. amamur amamini amantur amabamur amabamini amabantur amabimur amabimini amabuntur PERFECT. / have been loved or / was loved. amatus (-a, -um) sum * amatus es amatus est PLUPERFECT. / had been loved. amatus eram a amatus eras amatus erat amatus er5 x amatus eris amatus erit FUTURE PERFECT. 7 shall have been loved. amati (-ae, -a) sumus amatl estis amati sunt amati eramus amati eratis amati erant amati erimus amati eritis amati erunt 1 Ful, fuistl, etc., are sometimes used for sum, es, etc. So fueram, fueras, etc., for eram, etc. ; fuero, etc., for ero, etc. First Conjugation. 6l SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT. May I be loved, let him be loved. SINGULAR. PLURAL. amer amemur ameris, or -re amemini ametur amentur IMPERFECT. / should be loved, he would be loved. amarer amaremur amareris, or -re amaremini amaretur amarentur amatus sim 1 amatus sis amatus sit PERFECT. / may have been loved. amati simus amati sitis amati sint PLUPERFECT. / should have been loved, he would have been loved. amatus essem 1 amati essemus amatus esses amati essetis amatus esset amati essent IMPERATIVE. Pres. amare, be thou loved', amamini, be ye loved. Fut. amator, thou shalt be loved, amator, he shall be loved', amantor, they shall be loved. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. Pres. amari, to be loved. Perf. amatus esse, to have been Perfect. amatus, having been loved. loved. Fut. amatum. iri ? to be about to Gerundive, amandus, to be loved, be loved. deserving to be loved. 1 Puerim, etc., are sometimes used for sim ; so fuissem, etc., for essem. 62 Inflections. 103. SECOND (OR E-) CONJUGATION. Active Voice. Moneo, / advise. PRINCIPAL PARTS. PRES. IND. PRES. INF. PERF. IND. moneo monere monui INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. I advise. PERF. PASS. PARTIC. monitus SINGULAR. moneo mones monet PLURAL. monemus monetis monent IMPERFECT. / was advising, or / advised. monebam monebas monebat monbo monebis monebit FUTURE. / shall advise. monebamus monebatis monebant monebimus monebitis monebunt monui monuisti monuit monueram monueras monuerat monuero monueris monuerit PERFECT. / have advised, or / advised. monuimus PLUPERFECT. / had advised. monuistis monuerunt, or -ere monueramus monueratis monuerant FUTURE PERFECT. / shall have advised. monuerimus monueritis monuerint Second Conjugation. SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT. May I advise, let him advise. SINGULAR. PLURAL. moneam moneamus moneas moneatis moneat moneant IMPERFECT. / should advise, he would advise. monerem moneres monSret moneremug TtTSneretis monSrent PERFECT. / may have advised. monuerim monuerimus monueris monueritis monuerit monuerint PLUPERFECT. / should have advised, he would have advised. monuissem monuissemus monuisses monuissetis monuisset monuissent IMPERATIVE. Pres. mon, advise thou ; monete, advise ye. Fut. moneto, thou shalt advise, monetote, ye shall advise, moneto, he shall advise ; monento, they shall advise. INFINITIVE. Pres. monere, to advise. Perf. monuisse, to have advised. Fut. moniturus esse, to be about to advise. PARTICIPLE. Pres. monens, advising. (Gen. monentis.) Fut. moniturus, about to advise. GERUND. Gen. monendi, of advising, Dat. monendo, for advising, Ace. monendum, advising, Abl. monendo, by advising. SUPINE. Ace. monitum, to advise. Abl.^ monitu, to advise, be advised 6 4 Inflections. 104. SECOND (OR B-) CONJUGATION. Passive Voice. Moneor, I am advised. PRES. IND. moneor SINGULAR. moneor PRINCIPAL PARTS. PRES. INF. moneri INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. / am advised. monetur monebar monebaris, or -re monebatur IMPERFECT. I was advised. FUTURE. / shall be advised. monebor moneberis, or-re monebitur PERF. IND. monitus sum PLURAL. monemur monemini monentur monebamur monebamini monebantur monebimur monebimini monebuntur PERFECT. / have been advised, I was advised. monitus sum moniti sunius monitus es moniti estis monitus est moniti sunt PLUPERFECT. / had been advised. monitus eram monitus eras monitus erat moniti eramus moniti eratis moniti erant FUTURE PERFECT. / shall have been advised. monitus ero monitus eris monitus erit moniti erimus moniti eritis moniti erunt Second Conjugation. u? SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT. May I be advised, let him be advised. SINGULAR. PLURAL. monear moneamur monearis, or -re moneamini moneatur moneantur IMPERFECT. / should be advised, he would be advised. monerer moneremur monereris, or -re moneremini moneretur monerentur PERFECT. / may have been advised. monitus aim moniti simus monitus sis moniti sitis monitus sit moniti sint PLUPERFECT. / should have been advised, he would have been advised. monitus essem moniti essemus monitus esses moniti essetis monitus esset moniti essent IMPERATIVE. Pres. monere, be thou advised; monemini, be ye advised. Fut. monetor, thou shalt be ad- vised, monetor, he shall be advised. monentor, they shall be advised. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. Pres. moneri, to be advised. Perf. monitus esse ? to have been Perfect. monitus, advised. advised. Gerundive, monendus, to be ad- Fut. monitum iri, to be about to vised, deserving to be advised. be advised. F t Inflections. THIRD (OR CONSONANT-) CONJUGATION. 105. Active Voice. Rego, I rule. PRINCIPAL PARTS. PRES. IND. PRES. INF. PERF. IND. PERF. PASS. PARTIC. rego regere rexi rectus INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. SINGULAR. / rule. PLURAL. rego regimus regis regitis regit regunt IMPERFECT. I was ruling, or / ruled. regebam regebamus regebas regebatis regebat regebant FUTURE. / shall rule. regam regemus reges regetis reget regent PERFECT. / have ruled, or / ruled. rexi reximus rexisti rexistis rexit rexerunt, or -ere PLUPERFECT. / had ruled. rexeram rexeramus rexerts rexeratis rexerat rexerant FUTURE PERFECT. / shall have ruled. rexero rexerimus rexeris rexeritis rexerit rexerint Third Conjugation. 67 SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT. May I rule, let him rule. SINGULAR. PLURAL. regain regamus regas regatis regat regant IMPERFECT. / should rule, he would rule. regerem regeremus regeres regeretis regeret regerent PERFECT. / may have ruled. rexerim rexerimus rexeris rexeritis rexerit rexerint PLUPERFECT. / should have ruled, he would have ruled. rexissem rexissemus rexisses rexissetis rexisset rexissent IMPERATIVE. Pres. rege, rule thou ; regite, rule ye. Fut. regito, thou shalt rule, regitSte, ye shall rule, regito, he shall rule ; regunto, they shall rule. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. Pres. regere, to rule. Pres. regens, ruling. Perf. rexisse, to have ruled. (Gen. regentis.) Fut. recturus esse, to be about Fut. recturus, about to ride, to rule. GERUND. SUPINE. Gen. regendi, of ruling, Dat. regendo, for ruling, .Ace. regendum, ruling, Ace. rectum, to rule, Abl. regendo, by ruling. Abl. rectu, to rule, be ruled. 68 Inflections. THIRD (OR CONSONANT-) CONJUGATION. 106. Passive Voice. Regor, / am ruled. PRES. IND. regor SINGULAR. regor regeris regitur PRINCIPAL PARTS. PRES. INF. regi INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. I am ruled. IMPERFECT. I iv as ruled. PERF. IND. rectus sum regebar regebaris, or -re regebatur FUTURE. / shall be ruled. regar regeris, or -re regetur PERFECT. / have been ruled, or / was rectus fim * rectus es rectus est PLUPERFECT. I had been rufod. rectus eram rectus eras rectus erat rectus ero rectus eris rectus erit PLURAL. regimur regimini reguntur regebamur regebamiiii regebantur regemur regemini regentur ruled. recti sumus recti estis recti sunt recti eramus recti eratis recti erant FUTURE PERFECT. / shall have been ruled. recti erimus recti eritis recti erunt Third Conjugation. 69 SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT. May I be ruled, let him be ruled. SINGULAR. PLURAL. regar regamur regaris, or -re regamini regatur regantur IMPERFECT. / should be ruled, he would be ruled. regerer regeremur regereris, or -re regeremini regeretur regerentur PERFECT. / may have been ruled. rectus sim recti slmus rectus sis recti sitis rectus sit recti sint PLUPERFECT. / should have been ruled, he would have been ruled. rectus essem recti essemus rectus esses recti essetis rectus esset recti essent IMPERATIVE. o-> Pres. regere, be thou ruled; regimini, be ye ruled. Fut. regitor, thou shall be ruled, regitor, he shall be ruled-, reguntor, they shall be ruled. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. Pres. regi, to be ruled. Perf. rectus esse, to have been Perfect. rectus, ruled. ruled. Gemndive. regendus, to be ruled, Fut. rectum iri, to be about to deserving to be be ruled, ruled. Inflections. FOURTH (OR I-) CONJUGATION. 107. Active Voice. Audio, I hear. PRINCIPAL PARTS. PRES. INF. PERF. IND. PERF. PASS. PARTIC. audire audivi auditus PRES. IND. audio SINGULAR. audio audis audit audiebam audiebas audiebat audiam audies audiet INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. I hear. PLURAL. audimus auditis audiunt IMPERFECT. / was hearing, or / heard. audiebamus audiebatis FUTURE. / shall hear. audiebant audiemus audietis audient PERFECT. / have heard) or / heard. audivi audlvimus audivisti audivistis audivit audlverunt, or -ere PLUPERFECT. / had heard. audiveram audlveramus audiveras audlveratis audiverat audlverant audivero audiveris audlverit FUTURE PERFECT. / shall have heard. audiverimus audiveritis audiverint SINGULAR. audiam audias audiat Fourth Conjugation. SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT. May I hear, let him hear. PLURAL. audiamus audiatis audiant IMPERFECT. / should hear, he would hear. audirem audiremus audires audiretis audiret audirent audiverim audlveris audiverit PERFECT. / may have heard. audlverimus audlveritis audiverint PLUPERFECT. / should have heard, he would have heard. audivissem audivissemus audivisses audivissetis audivisset audivissent IMPERATIVE. Pres. audi, hear thou; audite, hear ye. Fut. audito, thou shalt hear, auditote, ye shall hear, audits, he shall hear; audiunto, they shall hear. INFINITIVE. Pres. audire, to hear. Perf. audivisse, to have heard. Fut. auditurus esse, to be about to hear. PARTICIPLE. Pres. audiens, hearing. (Gen. audientis.) Fut. auditurus, about to hear. % GERUND. Gen. audiendi, of hearing, Dat. audiendo, for hearing, Ace. audiendum, hearing, Abl. audiendo, by hearing. Ace. Abl. SUPINE. audltum, to hear, audltu, to hear, be heard. Inflections. 108. FOURTH (OR I-) CONJUGATION. Passive Voice. Audior, / am heard. PRES. IND, audior SINGULAR. audior audiris audltur PRINCIPAL PARTS. PRES. INF. audiri INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. / am heard. audiebar audiebaris, or -re audiebatur IMPERFECT. / was heard. PERF. IND. auditus sum PLURAL. audimur audimini audiuntur audiebamur audiebamin! audiebantur FUTURE. audiar / shall be heard. audiemur audieris, or -re audietur audiemini audientur PERFECT. / have been heard, or / was heard. auditus sum audit! sumus auditus es audit! estis auditus est audit! sunt PLUPERFECT. / had been heard. auditus eram auditus eras auditus erat audit! eramus audit! eratis audit! erant FUTURE PERFECT. / shall have been heard. auditus ero auditus eris auditus erit audit! erimus audit! eritis audit! erunt Fourth Conjugation. 73 SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT. May I be heard* let him be heard. SINGULAR. PLURAL. audiar audiamur audiaris, or -re audiamini audiatur audiantur IMPERFECT. / should be heard, he would be heard. audirer audiremur audireris, or -re audiremini audiretur audirentur PERFECT. / may have been heard. auditus sixn audit! simus auditus sis audit! sitis auditus sit audit! sint PLUPERFECT. / should have been heard, he would have been heard. auditus essem audit! essemus auditus esses audit! essetis auditus esset audit! essent IMPERATIVE. Pres. aud!re, be thou heard; aud!min!, be ye heard. Fut. auditor, thou shalt be heard, auditor, he shall be heard; audiuntor, they shall be heard. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. Pres. aud!r!, to be heard. Perf. auditus esse, to have been Perfect. auditus, heard. heard. Gerundive, audiendus, to be Fut. audltum !r!, to be about to heard, deserving be heard. to be heard. 74 Inflections. VERBS IN -10 OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION. X 109. i. Verbs in -io of the Third Conjugation take the endings of the Fourth Conjugation, wherever the latter endings have two successive vowels. This occurs only in the Present System. 2. Here belong a) capio, to take ; cupio, to desire; facio, to make; fodio, to dig; fugio, to flee; jacio, to throw; pario, to bear ; quatio, to shake ; rapio, to seize. b) Compounds of laciS and specie (both ante-classical); as, allicio, entice; conspicio, behold. c) The deponents gradior, to go ; morior, to die ; patior, to suffer. 110. Active Voice. Capio, / take. PRINCIPAL PARTS. PRES. IND. PRES. INF. PERF. IND. PERF. PASS. PARTIC. capio, capere, cepT, captus. INDICATIVE MOOD, SINGULAR. PRESENT TENSE. PLURAL. capio, capis, capit ; capimus, capitis, capiunt. IMPERFECT. capiebam, -iebas, -iebat ; capiebamus, -iebatis, -iebant. FUTURE. capiam, -ies, -iet; capiemus, -ietis, -ient. PERFECT. cepi, -isti, -it ; cepimus, -istis, -erunt, or ere. PLUPERFECT. ceperam, -eras, -erat ; ceperamus, -eratis, -erant. FUTURE PERFECT. cepero, -eris, -erit ; ceperimus, -eritis, -erint. Verbs in -16 of the Third Conjugation. 75 SUBJUNCTIVE. SINGULAR. PRESENT. PLURAL. capiam, -ias, -iat ; capiamus, -iatis, -iant. IMPERFECT. caperem, -eres, -eret ; caperemus, -eretis, -erent. PERFECT. ceperim, -eris, -erit ; ceperimus, -eritis, -erint. PLUPERFECT. cepissem, -isses, -isset ; cepissemus, -issetis, -issent. IMPERATIVE. Pres. cape ; capite. Fut. capito, capitote, capito ; capiunto. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. Pres. capere. Pres. capiens. Perf. cepisse. Fut. capturus esse. Fut. capturus. GERUND. SUPINE. Gen. capiendl, Dat. capiendo, Ace. capiendum, Ace. captum, Abl. capiendo. Abl. captu. 111. Passive Voice. Capior, ram taken. PRINCIPAL PARTS. PRES. IND. PRES. INF. PERF. IND. capior, capi, captus sum. INDICATIVE MOOD. SINGULAR. PRESENT TENSE. PLURAL. capior, caperis, capitur ; capimur, capimim, capiuntur. IMPERFECT. capiebar, -iebaris, -iebatur ; capiebamur, -iebamini, iebantur. FUTURE. capiar, -ieris, -ietur ; capiemur, -ieminT, -ientur. 76 Inflections. SINGULAR. PERFECT. PLURAL. captus sum, es, est ; capti sumus, estis, sunt. PLUPERFECT. captus eram, eras, erat ; capti eramus, eratis, erant. FUTURE PERFECT. captus ero, eris, erit ; capti erimus, eritis, erunt. SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT. capiar, -iaris, -iatur ; capiamur, -iaminl, -iantur. IMPERFECT. caperer, -ereris, -eretur ; caperemur, -eremim, -erentur. PERFECT. captus sim, sis, sit ; capti slmus, sltis, sint. PLUPERFECT. captus essem, esses, esset ; capti essemus, essetis, essent. IMPERATIVE. Pres. capere ; capimini. Put. capitor, capitor ; capiuntor. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. Pres. capi. Perf. captus esse. Perfect. captus. Fut. captum In. Gerundive, capiendus. DEPONENT VERBS. 112. Deponent Verbs have in the main Passive forms with Active meaning. But a. They have the following Active forms : Future Infinitive, Present and Future Participles, Gerund, and Supine. b. They have the following Passive meanings : always in the Gerundive, and sometimes in the Perfect Passive Participle ; as, sequendus, to be followed ; adeptus, attained. Deponent Verbs. 113. Paradigms of Deponent Verbs are I. Conj. miror, mirari, miratus sum, admire. II. Conj. vereor, vereri, veritus sum, fear. III. Conj. sequor, sequi, secutus sum, follow. IV. Conj. largior, largm, largitus sum, give. III. (in-ior) patior, pati, passus sum, suffer. INDICATIVE MOOD. 77 I. II. III. IV. III (in-ior). Pres. miror mlraris mlratur vereor vereris veretur sequor sequeris sequitur largior larglris largltur patior pateris patitur mlramur miramini mirantur veremur veremini verentur sequimur sequimini sequuntur larglmur larglminl largiuntur patimur patiminl patiuntur Impf. Put. Perf. Plup. P.P. mirabar mlrabor miratus sum miratus era in miratus ero verebar verebor veritus sum veritus eram veritus ero sequebar sequar secutus sum secutus eram secutus ero largiebar largiar largitus sum largitus eram largitus ero patiebar patiar passus sum passus eram passus ero SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres. Impf. Perf. Plup. mlrer mlrarer miratus sim miratus essem verear vererer veritus sim veritus essem sequar sequerer secutus sim secutus essem largiar larglrer largitus sim largitus essem patiar paterer passus sum passus essem IMPERATIVE. Pres. Put. mirare mirator verere veretor sequere sequitor largire largltor patere patitor INFINITIVE. Pies. Perf. Put. mlrari miratus esse mlraturus esse vereii veritus esse veriturus esse sequi secutus esse secuturus esse larglri largitus esse larglturus esse pati passus esse passurus esse PARTICIPLES. Pres. Put. Perf. Ger. mirans mlraturus miratus mlrandus verens veriturus veritus verendus sequens secuturus secutus sequendus largiens larglturus largitus largiendus patiens passurus passus patiendus GERUND. mirandl, verendi sequendl largiendl patiendi mlrando, etc. verendo, etc. sequendo, etc. largiendo, etc. patiendo, etc. SUPINE. mlratum, -tu veritum, -tu secutum, -tu largitum, -tu passum, -su 78 Inflections. SEMI-DEPONENTS. 114. i. Semi-Deponents are verbs which have the Pres- ent System in the Active Voice, but the Perfect System in the Passive without change of meaning. Here belong audeo, audere, ausus sum, to dare. gaudeo, gaudere, gavisus sum, to rejoice. soled, solere, solitus sum, to be wont. fid5, fidere, fisus sum, to trust. 2. The following verbs have a Perfect Passive Participle with Active meaning : adolesco, grow up; adultus, having grown up. cenare, dine ; cenatus, having dined. placere, please] placitus, having pleased, agreeable. prandere, lunch ; pransus, having lunched. potare, drink ; potus, having drunk. jurare, swear; juratus, having sworn. a. Juratus is used in a passive sense also. 3. Revertor and devertor both regularly form their Perfect in the Active Voice ; viz. revertor, revert! (Inf.), revert! (Perf.), to return. devertor, devert! (Inf.), devert! (Perf.), to turn aside. PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION. 115, There are two Periphrastic Conjugations, the Active and the Passive. The Active is formed by com- bining the Future Active Participle with the auxiliary sum, the Passive by combining the Gerundive with the same auxiliary. Active Periphrastic Conjugation. INDICATIVE MOOD. Pres. amaturus (-a, -um) sum, / am about to love. Imp. amaturus eram, / was about to love. Put. amaturus ero, / shall be about to love. Perf. amaturus f ui, / have been (was) about to love. Plup. amaturus fueram, / had been about to love. Fut. P. amaturus fuero, I shall have been about to love. Peculiarities of Conjugation. 79 SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres. amaturus Sim, / may be about to love. Imp. amaturus essem, / might be about to love. Perf. amaturus. fuerim, / may have been about to love. Plup. amaturus fuissem, / might have been about to love. INFINITIVE. Pres. amaturus esse, to be about to love. Perf. amaturus fuisse, to have been about to love. Passive Periphrastic Conjugation. INDICATIVE. Pres. amandus (-a, -um) sum, / am to be loved, must be loved. Imp. amandus eram, / -was to be loved. Put. amandus ero, / shall deserve to be loved. Perf. amandus f ui, / was to be loved. Plup. amandus fueram, / had deserved to be loved. Put. P. amandus fuero, / shall have deserved to be loved. SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres. amandus sim, I may deserve to be loved. Imp. amandus essem, / might deserve to be loved. Perf. amandus fuerim, / may have deserved to be loved. Plup. amandus fuissem, / might have deserved to be loved. INFINITIVE. Pres. amandus esse, to deserve to be loved. Perf. amandus fuisse, to have deserved to be loved. PECULIARITIES OF CONJUGATION. 116. i. Perfects in -avi, -evi and -ivi, with the forms derived from them, often drop the ve or vi before endings beginning with r or s. So also novi (from nosco) and the compounds of movi (from moveo) . Thus : amavistl amasti delevisti delesti amavisse amasse delevisse delesse amaverunt amarunt deleverunt delerunt amaverim amarim deleverim delerim amaveram amaram deleveram deleram amavero amaro delevero delero novistl nosti noverim norim riovisse nosse noveram noram audivistl audlsti audlvisse audlsse 8o Inflections. 2. In the Gerund and Gerundive of the Third and Fourth Conju- gations, the endings -undus, -uiidi, often occur instead of -endus and -endi, as faciundus, faciundi. 3. Dico, duco, facio, form the Imperatives, die, due, fac. But compounds of facio form the Imperative in -fice, as confice. Com- pounds of dico, duco accent the ultima ; as, educ, edlc. 4. Archaic and Poetic forms : a. The ending -ier in the Present Infinitive Passive ; as, amarier, moiierier, dicier, for amari, moneri, did. b. The ending -ibam for -iebam in Imperfects of the Fourth Conjugation, and -ibo for -iam in Futures ; as, scibam, scibo, for sciebam, sciam. c. Instead of the fuller forms, in such words as dixisti, scrip- sistis, surrexisse, we sometimes find dixti, scripstis, surrexe. d. The endings -im, -is, etc. (for -am, -as, etc.) occur in a few Subjunctive forms ; as, edim (eat\ duint, perduint. 5. In the Future Active and Perfect Passive Infinitive, the auxil- iary esse is often omitted ; as, acturum for acturum esse ; ejectus for ejectus esse. FORMATION OF THE VERB-STEMS. Formation of the Present Stem. 117. Many verbs employ the Verb Stem for the Present Stem ; l as, dicere, ducere, amare, monere, audire. Others form the Present Stem variously, as follows : 1 . By appending the vowels a, e, I ; as, juvare, Present Stem juva- (Verb Stem juv-). augere, " " auge- ( " " aug-). vincire, " " vinci- ( " " vine-). 2. By adding i, as capio, Present Stem capi- (Verb Stem cap-). 3. By the insertion of n (m before labial-mutes) before the final con- sonant of the Verb Stem ; as, fundo (Stem fud-), rumpo (Stem rup-). 4. By appending -n to the Verb Stem ; as, cern-6 pell-6 (for pel-no). 1 Strictly speaking, the Present Stem always ends in a Thematic Vowel (6 or 6) ; as, dic-6-, dic-6-; ama-a"-, am&-6-. But the multitude of phonetic changes involved prevents a scientific treatment of the subject here. See the Appendix. Formation of the Verb-Stems. 81 5. By appending t to the Verb Stem ; as, flect-6. 6. By appending so to the Verb Stem ; as, cresc-6 scisc-6. 7. By Reduplication, that is, by prefixing the initial consonant of the Verb Stem with i ; as, gi-gn-6 (root gen-) . si-st-6 (root sta-) . Formation of the Perfect Stem. 118. The Perfect Stem is formed from the Verb Stem 1 . By adding v (in case of Vowel Stems) ; as, amav-i, delev-i, audiv-i. 2. By adding u (in case of some Consonant Stems) ; as, strepu-T, genu-i, alu-i. 3. By adding s (in case of most Consonant Stems) ; as, carp-6, Perfect carps-i. scrib-6, " scrips-i (for scrib-si) . rid-eo, ris-i (forrid-si). sent-io, " sens-i (for sent-sT) . dic-5, " dix-i (i.e. die-si). a. Note that before the ending -si a Dental Mute (t, d) is lost; a Guttural Mute (c, g) unites with s to form x; while the Labial b is changed to p. 4. Without addition. Of this formation there are three types : a) The Verb Stem is reduplicated by prefixing the initial con- sonant with the following vowel or e ; as, curro, Perfect cu-curri. posco, " po-posci. pello, " po-puli. NOTE i. Compounds, with the exception of do, sto, disco, posco, omit the reduplication. Thus : com-puli, but re-poposci. NOTE 2. Verbs beginning with sp or st retain both consonants in the redu- plication, but drop s from the stem ; as, spondeo, spo-pondi ; sto, steti. b) The short vowel of the Verb Stem is lengthened ; as, lego, leg! ; ago, egi. c) The vowel of the Verb Stem is unchanged ; as, verto, verti ; miimo, miiiiu. G 82 Inflections. Formation of Participial Stem. 119. The Perfect Passive Participle, from which the Participial Stem is derived by dropping -us, is formed : 1. By adding -tus (sometimes to the Present Stem, sometimes to the Verb Stem) ; as, ama-re, Participle ama-tus. dele-re, " dele-tus. audi-re, " audi-tus. leg-ere, " lec-tus. scrib-ere, " scrip-tus. senti-re, " sen-sus (for sent-tus) . caed-ere, " cae-sus (for caed-tus) . a. Note that g, before t, becomes C (see 8,5); b becomes p ; while dt or tt became ss, which was then often simplified to S ($ 8, 2). 2. After the analogy of Participles like sensus and caesus, where -sus arises by phonetic change, -sus for -tus is added to other Verb Stems ; as, lab-T, Participle lap-sus. fig-ere, " fi-xus. a. The same consonant changes occur in appending this ending -SUS to the stem as in the case of the Perfect ending -si (see 118, 3, a). 3. A few Verbs form the Participle in -itus ; as, doma-re, dom-itus. mone-re, mon-itus. 4. The Future Active Participle is usually identical in its stem with the Perfect Passive Participle ; as, ama-tus, amaturus ; monitus, moniturus. But juva-re, Perf. Partic. jutus, has Fut. Act. Partic. juvaturus. 1 lava-re, a a lautus, a tt tt tt lavaturus. par-ere, a u partus, tt a tt tt pariturus . ru-ere, u a -rutus, tt tt tt tt ruiturus. seca-re, a a sectus, tt tt tt tt sedaturus. fru-i, a u -fructus, tt tt tt tt f ruiturus. mor-i, it a mortuus, tt tt tt tt moriturus. ori-ri, u tt ortus, tt tt tt tt oriturus. 1 But the compounds of juvo sometimes have -juturus ; as, adjuturus. List of the Most Important Verbs. LIST OF THE MOST IMPORTANT VERBS WITH PRINCIPAL PARTS. First (A-) Conjugation. 120. I. PERFECT IN -VI. amo amare amavi amatus love All regular verbs of the First Conjugation follow this model. poto potare potavi II. PERFECT IN -Ul. potus ( 114, 2) drink crepo cubo crepare cubare crepui cubui crepiturus cubiturus rattle lie down domo domare domui domiturus tame frico fricare fricuT frictus and fricatus rub mico dlmico ex-plico micare dimicare explicare micui dlmicavi explicavi (-ul) dlmicatum (est) 1 explicatus (-itus) glitter fight unfold im-plico seco implicare secare implicavl (-ul) secui implicatus (-itus) sectus entwine cut sono sonare sonul sonaturus sound tono tonare tonui thunder veto vetare vetui vetitus forbid III. PERFECT IN -I WITH LENGTHENING OF THE STEM VOWEL. JUVO lavo juvare lavare juvi lavi jutus lautus help wash IV. DEPONENTS. These are all regular, and follow miror, mirarl, miratus sum. Second (JE7-) Conjugation. 121. I. PERFECT IN -VI. deleo delere delevi deletus fleo flere flevi * fletus com-pleo 2 complere complevi completus aboleo abolere abolevi abolitus cieo 3 ciere clvi citus destroy weep, lament fill up destroy set in motion 1 Used only impersonally. 2 So impleo, expleo. 3 Compounds follow the Fourth Conjugation : ace id, acclre, etc. 8 4 Inflections. II. PERFECT IN -UI. ^ a. Type -eo, -ere, -ui, -itus. arceo arcere arcuT keep off coerceo coercere coercui coercitus hold in check exerceo exercere exercuT exercitus practise caleo calere calui calitOrus be warm careo carere carui cariturus be without doleo dolere dolui doliturus grieve habeo habere habuT habitus have debeo debere debui debitus owe praebeo praebere praebuT praebitus offer jaceo j ace re jacui jaciturus lie mereo mere re merul meritus earn, deserve moneo monere monui monitus advise noceo nocere nocui nocitum (est) injure pareo parere paruT pariturus obey placeo placere placuT placiturus please taceo t ace re tacui taciturus be silent terreo terrere terrui territus frighten valeo vale re valul valiturus be strong NOTE i. The following lack the Participial Stem : egeo egere egui want emineo eminere eminul stand forth n n fl ~~ ~ ij nor eo horreo norere horrere norm horrui OiOO/H bristle lateo latere latui lurk niteo nitere nitui gleam oleo olere oluT smell palleo pallere pallui be pale pateo pat ere patul lie open rubeo rube re rubuT be red sileo silere silui be silent splendeo splendere splendui gleam studeo studere studui study stupeo stupere stupul be amazed timeo timere timuT fear torpeo torpere torpuT be dull vigeo vigere vigui flourish vireo virere viruT be green and others. List of the Most Important Verbs. NOTE 2. The following are used only in the Present System : aveo avere wish frigeo frigere be cold immineo imminere overhang maereo maerere mourn polleo pollere be strong and others. b. Type -eo, -ere, -ui, -tus (-sus) . censeo censere censui census estimate doceo docere docuT doctus teach misceo miscere miscui mlxtus mix teneo tenere tenui hold So confined and sustineo ; but retineo retinere retinui retentus retain obtineo obtinere obtinuf obtentus maintain torreo torrere , torrui tostus bake III. PERFECT IN -SI. augeo augere auxi auctus increase torqueo torquere torsi tortus twist indulgeo indulgere indulsi indulge luceo lucere lux! be light lugeo lugere luxl mourn jubeo jubere jussi jussus order per-mulceo permulcere permulsi permulsus soothe rideo ride re risT rlsum (est) laugh suadeo suadere suasi suasum (est) advise abs-tergeo abstergere abstersT abstersus wipe off ardeo ardere arsi arsurus burn haereo haerere haesT haesurus stick maneo manere mans! mansurus stay algeo algere alsi be cold fulgeo fulgere fulsi gleam urge5 urgere ursi press IV. PERFECT IN -I WITH REDUPLICATION. mordeo mordere momordi morsus bite spondeo spondere spopondl sponsus promise tondeo tondere totondi tonsus shear pendeo pendere pependT hang 86 Inflections. V. PERFECT IN -I WITH LENGTHENING OF STEM VOWEL. cauturus take care fauturus favor fbtus cherish motus move fear sit caveo cave re cavi faveo favere favl foveo fovere fovi moveo movere movi paveo sedeo pavere sedere pavl sedi video videre vidi voveo vovere VOVl sessurus visus votus see vow VI . PERFECT IN -I WITHOUT EITHER REDUPLICATION OR LENGTH- ENING OF STEM VOWEL. ferveo fervere fervi (ferbui) boil prandeo prandere prandi pransus ( 1 14, 2) lunch strideo stridere stridi creak VII. DEPONENTS. liceor licerl polliceor polliceri mereor merer! misereor misereri vereor vereri fateor fateri confiteor confiteri reor reri medeor mederi tueor tueri licitus sum pollicitus sum meritus sum miseritus sum veritus sum fassus sum confessus sum ratus sum bid promise earn pity fear confess confess think heal protect Third (Consonant) Conjugation. 122. I. VERBS WITH PRESENT STEM ENDING IN A CONSONANT. i . Perfect in -si. a. Type -6, -Sre, -si, -tus. carpo sculpo repo serpo scribo nubo rego carpere sculpere repere serpere scribere nubere regere carps! sculps! reps! serps! scrips! mips! rex! carptus sculptus scnptus nupta (woman only) rectus pluck chisel creep crawl write marry govern List of the Most Important Verbs. 87 tego tegere texi tectus cover af-fllgo affllgere afflixT afflictus shatter dlco dicere dixT dictus say duco ducere duxi ductus lead coquo coquere coxl coctus cook traho trahere traxi tractus draw veho vehere vexi vectus carry cingo cingere cinxT cinctus gird tingo tingere tinxT tmctus dip jungo jungere junxi jQnctus join fingo fingere finxi f!ctus mould pingo pingere pinxT p!ctus paint stringo stringere strinxT strictus bind -stinguo l -stinguere -stinxi -stinctus blot out unguo unguere unxi unctus anoint vivo vivere V1X1 v!ctum (est) live gero gerere gessl gestus carry uro urere USSl ustus burn temno temnere con-tempsi con-temptus despise b. Type -6, -Sre, -si, -sus. flgo flgere fix! f!xus fasten mergo mergere mersT mersus sink spargo spargere spars! sparsus scatter flecto flectere flexi flexus bend necto nectere nexul (nexi) nexus twine mitto mittere mis! m!ssus send rado radere rasT rasus shave rodo rodere rosT rosus gnaw vado vadere -vasi 2 -vasum (est) 2 march, walk ludo ludere lusi lusum (est) play trudo trudere trusi trusus push laedo laedere laesl laesus injure* hurt claudo claudere clausi clausus close plaudo plaudere plausi plausum (est) clap explode explodere explosi explosus hoot off cedo cedere cess! cessum (est) withdraw divido dividere divisi d!v!sus divide premo premere press! pressus press 1 Fully conjugated only in the compounds : : exstinguo, restinguo, dlstinguo. 2 Only in the compounds : evado, in vado, per vado. 88 Inflections. 2. Perfect in -i with Reduplication. ab-do abdere abdidi red-d5 red-dere reddidi So addo, condo, dedo, per do, pro do, abditus redditus trddo, etc. conceal return take one^s stand resist surround fall kill weigh, pay stretch beat ) deceive drive out run spare sing touch prick NOTE. In the following verbs the perfects were originally redupli- cated, but have lost the reduplicating syllable : per-cello percellere perculi perculsus strike down fmdo findere fidi fissus split' scindd scindere scidi scissus tear apart tollo tollere sus-tuli sublatus remove 3. Perfect in -I with Lengthening of Stem-Vowel. con-sisto consistere constiti resisto resistere restiti circumsisto circumsistere circumstetT cado cadere cecidi casurus caedo caedere cecidi caesus pendo tendo pendere tendere pependT tetendi pensus tentus tundo fallo pello curro tundere fallere pellere currere tutudi fefelli pepuli cucurri tusus, tunsus (falsus, as Adj. pulsus cursum (est) parco parcere peperci parsurus cano canere cecim tango tangere tetigi tactus pungo pungere pupugi punctus ago agere egl actus drive, do perago peragere peregi peractus finish subigo subigere subegi subactus subdue cogo cogere coegl coactus force, gather frango frangere fregT fractus break perfringo perfringere perfregi perfractus break down lego legere legl lectus gather, read perl ego perlegere perlegi perlectus read through colligo colligere collegi collectus collect deligo deligere delegT delectus choose dlligo diligere dilexl dilectus love intellego intellegere intellexi intellectus understand neglego neglegere neglexi neglectus neglect List of the Most Important Verbs. emo emere eml emptus buy coemo coemere coemi coemptus buy up redimo redimere redemT redemptus buy back dirimo dirimere diremi diremptus destroy demo demere dempsl demptus take away sumo sumere sumpsl sumptus take promo promere prompsi (promptus, as Adj.) take out vinco vincere V1C1 v!ctus / conquer re-linquo relinquere rellqui rel!ctus leave rumpo rumpere rupl ruptus break edo edere edT esus eat fundo fundere fudi fusus pour 4. Perfect in -I without either Reduplication or Lengthening of Stem-Vowel, excudo excudere excudl excusus hammer { take one' 1 s consido considere consedi \ seat possldo possldere possedi possessus f take posses- \ sion accendo accendere accendi accensus kindle a-scendo ascendere ascend! ascensum (est) climb de-fendo defendere defend! defensus defend pre-hendo prehendere prehend! prehensus seize !co Tcere !c! ictus strike vello vellere veil! vulsus pluck verto vertere vert! versus turn pando pandere pand! passus spread solvo solvere solv! solutus loose viso visere v!s! v!sus visit volvo volvere volv! volutus roll verro verrere verr! versus sweep 5. Perfect in -ui. in-cumbo incumbere incubu! incubiturus lean on gTgno glgnere genu! genitus bring forth molo molere molu! molitus grind vomo vomere vomu! vomitus vomit fremo f re mere fremu! snort gemo gemere gemu! sigh meto metere messu! messus reap Inflections. tremo tremere tremui tremble strepo strepere strepui rattle alo alere alui alitus (altus) nourish colo colere colui cultus cultivate incolo incolere incolui inhabit excolo excolere excolui excultus perfect consulo consulere consuluT consultus consult consero conserere conseruT consertus join desero deserere deserui desertus desert dissero disserere disserui discourse texo texere texui textus weave 6. Perfect in -vi. sino sinere S1V1 situs allow desino desinere desii desitus cease pono ponere posui positus place ob-lino oblinere oblevi oblitus smear sero serere sevi satus sow consero conserere consevi consitus plant cerno cernere separate discerno discernere discrevi discretus distinguish decerno decernere decrevi decretus decide sperno spernere sprevi spretus scorn sterno sternere stravl stratus spread pro-sterno prosternere prostravl prostratus overthrow peto petere petivT (petii) petitus seek appeto appetere appetlvT appetitus long for tero terere trivi tntus rub quaero quaerere quaesivi quaesltus seek acquire acquirere acquisivi acquisitus acquire arcesso arcessere arcessivi arcessltus summon capesso capessere capessivi capessltus seize lacesso lacessere lacessivi lacessitus provoke 7. Used only in Present System. ango angere choke lambo lambere lick claudo claudere be lame furo furere rave vergo vergere bend and a few others. List of the Most Important Verbs. II. VERBS WITH PRESENT STEM ENDING IN -U. induo induere indui indutus put on imbuo imbuere imbul imbutus moisten luo lucre luT wash polluo polluere polluT pollutus defile minuo minuere minui minutus lessen statuo statuere statuT statutus set up constituo constituere constitui constitutus determine suo suere sul sutus sew tribuo tribuere tribui tributus allot ruo ruere rui ruiturus fall diruo diruere dirul dlrutus destroy obruo obruere obrui obrutus overwhelm acuo acuere acuT sharpen arguo arguere argul accuse congruo congruere congruT agree metuo metuere metul fear ab-nuo abnuere abnul decline re-spuo respuere respui reject struo struere strQxi structus build fluo fluere fluxl (fluxus, as Adj.) flow III. VERBS WITH PRESENT STEM ENDING IN -I. cupio cupere cuplvi cupltus wish sapio sapere saplvi taste rapio rapere rapui raptus snatch dlripio dlripere diripul direptus plunder conspicio conspicere conspexi conspectus gaze at aspicio aspicere aspexl aspectus behold illicio illicere illexji illectus allure pellicio pellicere pellexl pellectus allure elicio elicere elicui elicitus elicit quatio quatere quassus shake concutio concutere concuss! concussus shake pario parere peperi partus bring forth capio capere ceo! captus take accipio accipere accepi acceptus accept incipio incipere incepi inceptus begin facio facere feel factus make afficio afficere affeci affectus affect Passive, afficior, afficl, affectus sum. 9 2 Inflections. So other prepositional compounds, perficid, perficior ; interficid, interficior ; etc. But assuefacio assuefacere assuefeci assuefactus accustom Passive assuefio, assuefieri, assuefactus sum. So also patefaci 'd, pate fid; c ale f acid, c ale fid; and all non-prepositional compounds. jacio jacere jeci jactus hurl abicio abicere abjecl abjectus throw away fodio fodere fodi fossus dig fugio fugere fugi fugiturus flee effugio effugere effugi escape IV. VERBS IN -SCO. i. Verbs in -sco from Simple Roots. posco poscere poposcT demand J* - discere didicl 7 U1SCU pasco pascere pavl pastus feed pascor pasci pastus sum graze cresco crescere crevi cretus grow consuesco consuescere consuevi consuetus accustom one^s self quiesco quiescere quievi quieturus be still adolesco adolescere adolevT grow up obsolesco obsolescere obsolevi grow old. nosco noscere novi \ become acquainted \ with Ignosco Tgnoscere IgnovT Ignoturus pardon agnosco agnoscere agnovT agnitus recognize cognosco cognoscere cognovT cognitus j get acquainted' [ with 2. Verbs in -sco formed from other Verbs. These usually have Inchoative or Inceptive meaning (see 155. i)-. When they have the Perfect, it is the same as that of the Verbs from which they are derived. floresco sclsco aresco calesco c5nsenesco extimesco ingemisco adhaeresco florescere sciscere arescere calescere consenescere extimescere ingemlscere adhaerescere florui SC1V1 ami calui consenui extimuT ingemui adhaesi begin to bloom enact become dry become hot grow old fear greatly sigh stick (rloreo) (scio) (areo) (caleo) (seneo) (timeo) (gemo) (haereo) List of the Most Important Verbs. 93 3. Verbs in -sco derived from Nouns, usually with Inchoative meaning. obduresco obdurescere obdurui grow hard (durus) evanesce evanescere evanui disappear (vanus) percrebresco percrebrescere percrebruT grow fresh (creber) maturesco maturescere maturui grow ripe (maturus) obmutesco obmutescere obmutui grow dumb (mutus) V. DEPONENTS. fungor fungi functus sum perform queror queri questus sum complain loquor loqui locutus sum speak sequor sequi secutus sum follow fruor frul fruiturus enjoy perfruor perfruT perfructus sum thoroughly enjoy labor labi lapsus sum glide amplector amplecti amplexus sum embrace nltor niti nlsus sum, mxus sum strive gradior gradl gressus sum walk patior patl passus^sum suffer perpetior perpeti perpessus sum endure utor utl usus sum use morior mori mortuus sum die adiplscor adipiscT adeptus sum acquire comminlscor commimscT commentus sum invent remimscor remimsci remember nanclscor nanclscl nanctus (nactus) sum acquire nascor nascl natus sum be born obliviscor oblTvisci oblltus sum forget pads cor pacTsci pactus sum covenant proficiscor proficlscl profectus sum set out ulciscor ulclsci ultus sum avenge Trascor Trasci (Iratus, as Adj.) be angry vescor vesci eat Fourth Conjugation. 123. I. PERFECT ENDS IN -VI. audio audlre audivi auditus hear So all regular Verbs of the Fourth Conjugation, sepelio sepellre sepelivl sepultus bury 94 Inflections. II. PERFECT ENDS IN -UI. aperio aperlre aperul apertus open operio operire operui opertus cover salio sallre salui leap III. PERFECT ENDS IN -SI. saepio saepire saepsi saeptus hedge in sancio sancire sanxi sanctus ratify vincio vincire vinxi vinctus bind amicio amicire amictus envelope fulcio fulcire fulsi fultus prop up refercio refercire refers! refertus fin sarcio sarcire sarsi sartus patch haurio haurire hausi haustus draw sentio sentire sens! sensus feel IV. PERFECT IN -I WITH LENGTHENING OF STEM VOWEL. venio venire veni ventum (est) come advenio advenire advem adventum (est) arrive invenio invenire inveni inventus find \ V. PERFECT WITH Loss OF REDUPLICATION. reperio reperire repperl repertus find comperio comperire comperi compertus learn VI. USED ONLY IN THE PRESENT. ferio ferire strike esurio esurire be hungry VII. DEPONENTS. largior largiri largitus sum bestow So many others. experior experiri expertus sum try opperior opperiri oppertus sum await ordior ordiri orsus sum begin orior orlri ortus sum arise Orior also admits forms of the Third Conjugation ; as, oreris, orttur, orimur ; orerer (Imp. Subj.); orere (Imper.). metior metlri mensus sum measure assentior assentiri assensus sum assent Irregular Verbs. 95 IRREGULAR VERBS. 124. A number of Verbs are called Irregular. The most important are sum, do, edo, fero, volo, nolo, malo, eo, flo. The peculiarity of these Verbs is that they append the personal endings in many forms directly to the stem, instead of employing a connecting vowel, as fer-s (2d Sing, of fer-6) instead of fer-is. They are but the relics of what was once in Latin a large class of Verbs. 125. The Inflection of sum has already been given. Its various compounds are inflected in the same way. They are absum abesse aful am absent Pres. Partic. absens (absentis), absent. adsum adesse adfuT am present desum deesse deful am lacking insum inesse infui am in intersum interesse interful am among praesum praeesse praeful am in charge of Pres. Partic. praesens (praesentis) present. obsum obesse obfuT hinder prosum prodesse profui am of advantage subsum subesse subfuT am at the basis of supersum superesse superfui am left NOTE. Prosum is compounded of prod (earlier form of pro) and sum ; the d disappears before consonants, as prosumus, but prodestis. 126. Possum. In its Present System possum is a compound of pot- (for pote, able) and sum ; potui is from an obsolete potere. PRINCIPAL PARTS. possum, posse, potui, to be able. INDICATIVE MOOD. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Pres. possum, potes, potest ; possumus, potestis, possunt. Imp. poteram : poteramus. Fut. potero ; poterimus. Perf. potui ; potuimus. Plup. potueram; potueramus. Fut. P. potuero ; potuerimus. Inflections. SUBJUNCTIVE. SINGULAR. Pres. possim, possis, possit ; Imp. possem ; Perf. potuerim ; Plup. potuissem ; INFINITIVE. Pres. posse. Perf. potuisse. PLURAL. posslmus, possitis, possint. possemus. potuerimus. potuissemus. PARTICIPLE. Pres. potens (as an adjective), 127. do, Do, I give. PRINCIPAL PARTS. dSre, dedi, d&tus. Pres. Imp. Fut. Perf. Plup. Active Voice. INDICATIVE MOOD. SINGULAR. PLURAL. do, das, dat ; damus, datis, dant. dabam, etc. ; dabamus. dabo, etc. ; dabimus. dedi ; dedimus. dederam ; dederamus. Fut. P. dedero ; Pres. dem ; Imp. darem ; Perf. dederim ; Plup. dedissem ; Pres. da ; Fut. dato ; dato; INFINITIVE. Pres. dare. Perf. dedisse. Fut. datum s esse. GERUND. dandl, etc. dederimus. SUBJUNCTIVE. demus. daremus. dederimus. dedissemus. IMPERATIVE. date. datote. danto. PARTICIPLE, dans. daturus. SUPINE. datum, datu. Irregular Verbs. 97 1. The Passive is inflected regularly with the short vowel. Thus: dari, datur, dabatur, daretur, etc. 2. The archaic and poetic forms duim, duint, interduo, perduint, etc., are not from the root da-, but from du-, a collateral root of simi- lar meaning. 128. Ed5, I eat. This verb, in addition to its regular inflection, sometimes has duplicate forms in certain tenses of the Present System. PRINCIPAL PARTS. edo. edere, edi, esus. Active Voice. INDICATIVE MOOD. Pres. edo edimus edis, es editis, estis edit, est edunt SUBJUNCTIVE. Imp. ederem, essem ederemus, essemus ederes, esses ederetis, essetis ederet, esset ederent, essent IMPERATIVE. Pres. ede, es edite, este Put. edito, esto editote, estote edito, esto edunto INFINITIVE. Pres. edere, esse Passive Voice. INDICATIVE MOOD. Pres. T)d Sing, editur, estur SUBJUNCTIVE. Imp. 3d Sing, ederetur, essetur 1. Observe the long vowel of the abbreviated forms, which alone distinguishes them from the corresponding forms of esse, to be. 2. Note comedo, comedere, comedi, comesus or comestus, consume. H 9 8 Inflections. 129. fer5, Fero, / bear. PRINCIPAL PARTS. ferre, tull, Active Voice. INDICATIVE MOOD. SINGULAR. Pres. fero, fers, fert ; Imp. ferebam ; Fut. feram ; Perf. tuli ; Plup. tuleram ; Fut. P. tulero ; latus. PLURAL. ferimus, fertis, ferunt. 1 ferebamus. feremus. tulimus. tuleramus. tulerimus. Pres. feram ; Imp. ferrem ; Perf. tulerim ; Plup. tulissem ; SUBJUNCTIVE. feramus. ferre mus. tulerimus. tulissemus. Pres. fer ; Fut. ferto ; ferto ; IMPERATIVE. ferte. fertote. ferunto. INFINITIVE. Pres. ferre. Perf. tulisse. Fut. laturus esse. PARTICIPLE. Pres. ferens. Fut. laturus. GERUND. Gen. ferendl. Dat. ferendo. Ace. ferendum. Abl. ferendo. SUPINE. Ace. latum. Abl. latu. 1 It will be observed that not all the forms of feiro lack the connecting vowel. Some of them, as ferimus, ferunt, follow the regular inflection of verbs of the Third Conjugation. Irregular Verbs. 99 feror, Passive Voice, ferri, latus sum, to be borne. INDICATIVE MOOD. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Pres. feror, ferris, fertur ; ferimur, ferimin!, feruntur. Imp. fere bar ; ferebamur. Put. ferar ; feremur. Perf. latus sum ; lati sumus. Plup. latus eram ; lati eramus. Put. P. latus ero ; lati erimus. SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres. ferar ; Imp. ferrer ; Perf. latus sim ; Plup. latus essem ; Pres. ferre ; Put. fertor ; fertor ; INFINITIVE. Pres. fern. Perf. latus esse. Pitt. latum iri. feramur. ferremur. lati slmus. lati essemus. IMPERATIVE. ferimim. feruntor. PARTICIPLE. Perf. latus. Ger. ferendus. So also the Compounds -affero afferre attuli allatus bring toward aufero auferre abstulf ablatus take away ,confer6 conferre contuli collatus compare differo differre distulT dllatus put off effero efferre extuli elatus carry off Tnfero inferre intuli Hiatus bring against affero offerre obtulT oblatus present . refero referre rettuli relatus bring back NOTE. The forms sustuli and sublatus belong to tollo. TOO Inflections. 130. Volo, nolo, maid. PRINCIPAL PARTS. volo, velle, volui, to be willing. iiolo, nolle, nolui, to be unwilling. maid, malle, malui, to prefer. INDICATIVE MOOD. Pres. volo, nolo. malo, vis, non vis, mavis, vult; non vult ; mavult ; volumus, nolumus, malumus, vultis, non vultis, mavultis, volunt. nolunt. malunt. Imp. volebam. nolebam. malebam. Put. volam. nolam . malam. Perf. volui. nolui. malui. Plup. volueram. nolueram. malueram. Put. P. voluero. noluero. maluero. SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres. velim, -Is, -it, etc. nolim. Imp. vellem, -es, -et, etc. nollem. Perf. voluerim. noluerim. Plup. voluissem. noluissem. malim. mallem. maluerim. maluissem. IMPERATIVE. Pres. noli, nollte. Fut. nolito, nolltote, nolito ; nolunto. Pres. velle. Perf. voluisse. INFINITIVE. nolle, noluisse. malle. maluisse. Pres. volens. PARTICIPLE. nolens. Irregular Vcsi'S. 101 1 * * -> 131. Flo. PRINCIPAL PARTS. fio. fieri, factus sum, to become, be made. INDICATIVE MOOD. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Pres. fio, fis, fit ; flmus, fltis, flunt. Imp. fiebam ; fiebamus. Fut. flam; fiemus. Perf. factus sum ; fact! sumus. Plup. factus eram ; fact! eramus. Fut. P. factus ero ; fact! erimus. SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres. flam ; fiamus. Imp. fierem ; fieremus. Perf. factus sim ; fact! slmus. Plup. factus essem ; fact! essemus. ,,\:ERATIVE. Pres. fl ; ftte. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. Pres. fieri. Perf. factus esse. Perf. factus. Fut. factum In. Ger. faciendus. NOTE. A few isolated forms of compounds of fio occur ; as, defit, lacks ; infit, begins. 132. Eo. PRINCIPAL PARTS. eo, ire, ivi, itum (est), to go. INDICATIVE MOOD. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Pres. e5, Is, it ; Imus, Itis, eunt. Imp. Ibam ; ibamus. Fut. Ibo ; Ibimus. Perf. ivi; ivimus. Plup. Iveram ; iveramus. Fut. P. ivero ; Iverimus. IO2 Inflections. SUBJUNCTIVE. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Pres. earn ; eamus. Imp. irem ; iremus. Perf. Iverim ; iverimus. Plup. ivissem ; ivissemus. IMPERATIVE. Pres. I ; ite. Fut. ito ; itote, ito ; eunto. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. Pres. Ire. Pres. iens. Perf. ivisse. {Gen. euntis.) Put. iturus esse. Fut. iturus. GERUND. SUPINE. eundi, etc. itum, itu. i . Transitive compounds of eo adm\ f L ne full Passive inflection ; as, adeor, adiris, aditur, etc. DEFECTIVE VERBS. Defective Verbs lack certain forms. The following are the most important : 133. USED MAINLY IN THE PERFECT SYSTEM. Coepi, I have begun. Memim, I remember. Odi, I hate. INDICATIVE MOOD. Perf. coepi. memim. odi. Plup. coeperam. memineram. oderam. Fut. P. coepero. meminero. odero. SUBJUNCTIVE. Perf. coeperim. meminerim. oderim. Plup. coepissem. meminissem. odissem. IMPERATIVE. Sing, memento; Plur. mementote. Defective Verbs. 103 INFINITIVE. Perf. coepisse. meminisse. odisse. Fut. coepturus esse. < osurus esse. PARTICIPLE. Perf. coeptus, begun. osus. Fut. coepturus. osurus. 1. When coepi governs a Passive Infinitive it usually takes the fonn coeptus est ; as, amari coeptus est, he began to be loved. 2. Note that memini and odi, though Perfect in form, are Present in sense. Similarly the Pluperfect and Future Perfect have the force of the Imperfect and Future ; as, memineram, / remembered', odero, / shall hate. 134. Inquam, / say (inserted between words of a direct quotation). INDICATIVE MOOD. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Pres. inquam, inquis, inquit ; inquiunt. Fut. inquies, inquiet. Perf. ^d Sing, inquit. 135. A jo. I say. INDICATIVE MOOD. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Pres. ajo, ais, ait; ajunt. Imp. ajebam, ajebamus, ajebas, ajebatis, ajebat ; ajebant. Perf. $d Sing. ait. SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres. ^d Sing. ajat. NOTE. For aisne, do you mean? ain is common. . IO4 Inflections. 136. Fari, to speak. This is inflected regularly in the perfect tenses. In the Present System it has INDICATIVE MOOD. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Pres. fatur. Put. fabor, fabitur. Imp. fare. Inf. fan. Pres. Parity fantis, fanti, etc. Gerund, ., fandi; D. and AbL, fando. Gerundive fandus. NOTE. Forms of fari are rare. More frequent are its compounds ; as, af fatur, he addresses ; praefamur, we say in advance. 137. OTHER DEFECTIVE FORMS. 1. Queo, quire, quivi, to be able, and nequeS, nequire, nequivi, to be unable, are inflected like eo, but occur chiefly in the Present Tense, and there only in special forms. 2. Quaeso, I entreat ; quaesumus, we entreat. 3. Cedo, cette ; give me, tell me. 4. Salve, salvete, hail. Also Infinitive, salvere. 5. Have (ave), havete, hail. Also Infinitive, havere. IMPERSONAL VERBS. 138. Impersonal Verbs correspond to the English, it snows, it seems, etc. They have no personal subject, but may take an Infinitive, a Clause, or a Neuter Pronoun ; as, me pudet hoc fecisse, lit. it shames me to have done this ; hoc decet, this is fitting. Here belong I. Verbs denoting operations of the weather; as, fulget fulsit it lightens tonat tonuit it thunders Impersonal Verbs. 105 grandinat ningit pluit ninxit pluit it hails it snows it rains II. Special Verbs. paenitet paenitere paenituit it repents piget pigere piguit it grieves pudet pudere puduit it causes shame taedet taedere taeduit it disgusts miseret miserere miseruit it causes pity libet libere libuit it pleases licet licere licuit it is lawful oportet oportere oportuit it is fitting decet decere decuit it is becoming dedecet dedecere dedecuit : it is unbecoming refert referre retulit it concerns III. Verbs Impersonal only in Special Senses. constat constare constitit it is evident praestat praestare praestitit it is better juvat juvare juvit it delights apparet apparere apparuit it appears placet placere placuit (placitum est) it pleases accedit accedere accessit it is added accidit accidere accidit it happens contingit contingere contigit it happens evenit evemre evenit it turns out interest interesse interfuit it concerns IV. The Passive of Intransitive Verbs ; as, itur curritur ventum est veniendum est pugnari potest lit. it is gone i.e. lit. it is run i.e. lit. it has been come i.e lit. it must be come i.e, lit. // can be fought i.e, some one goes some one runs some one has come somebody must come somebody can fight PART III. PARTICLES. 139. Particles are the four Parts of Speech that do not admit of inflection; viz. Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunc- tions, Interjections. ADVERBS. 140. Most adverbs are in origin case-forms which have become stereotyped by usage. The common adverbial terminations have already been given above ( 76). The following TABLE OF CORRELATIVES is important: RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE. ubi, where ; where ? quo, whither ; whither ? unde, whence ; whence ? qua, where ; where ? cum, when. quandS, when f quotiens, as often as ; how often f quam, as much as ; how much f DEMONSTRATIVE. hie, here. ibi, illic, istic, there. hue, hither. eo, istuc, illuc, thither. hinc, hence. inde, istinc, illinc, thence. hac, by this way. ea, istac, iliac, by that way. nunc, now. turn, tune, then. totiens, so often. tarn, so much. 106 INDEFINITE. alicubi, usquam, us- piam, somewhere. aliquo, to some place. alicunde, from some- where. aliqua, by some way. aliquando, umquam, sometime. aliquotiSns, some number of times. Prepositions. 107 PREPOSITIONS. 141. The following Prepositions govern the Accusa- tive : ad extra prope ad versus (adversum) Infra propter ante inter secundum apud intra subter circa juxta super circiter ob supra circum penes ' trans cis per ultra citra pone versus contra post 1. Usque is often prefixed to ad, in the sense of even; as, usque ad urbem, even to the city. 2. Versus always follows its case; as, Romam versus, toward Rome. It may be combined with a preceding Preposition ; as, ad urbem versus, toward the city. 3. Like prope, the Comparatives propior, propius, and the Super- latives proximus, proxime, sometimes govern the Accusative ; as, Ubii proxime Rheiium incolunt, the Ubii dwell next to the Rhine ; propius castra hostium, nearer the camp of the enemy. 142. The following Prepositions govern the Ablative : a, ab, abs de sine absque e, ex tenus coram prae cum pro 1. A, ab, abs. Before vowels or h, ab must be used ; before con- sonants we find sometimes a, sometimes ab (the latter not before the labials b, p, f, v, m ; nor before c, g, q, or t) ; abs occurs only before te, and a is admissible even there. 2. E, ex. Before vowels or h, ex must be used; before conso- nants, we find sometimes e, sometimes ex. io8 Particles. 3. Terms regularly follows its case, as pectoribus terms, up to the breast. It sometimes governs the Genitive, as labrorum tenus, as far as the lips. 4. Cum is appended to the Pronoun of the First and Second Persons, and to the Reflexive Pronoun ; usually also to the Relative and Interrogative. Thus : mecum secum tecum quocum or cum quo nobiscum quacum or cum qua vobiscum quibuscum or cum quibus On qulcum, see 89, Footnote i. 143. Two Prepositions, in and sub, govern both the Accusative and the Ablative. With the Accusative they denote motion ; with the Ablative, rest ; as, in urbem, into the city; in urbe, in the city. i. Subter and super are also occasionally construed with the Ablative. 144. RELATION OF ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS. 1. Prepositions were originally Adverbs, and many of them still retain their adverbial meaning ; as, post, afterwards; ante, previously; contra, on the other hand, etc. 2. Conversely several words, usually adverbs, are occasionally employed as prepositions; as, clam, pridie, with the Accusative. procul, simul, palam, with the Ablative. 3. Anastrophe. A dissyllabic preposition sometimes follows a relative pronoun which it governs ; as, il, quos inter erat, those among whom he was. INTERJECTIONS. 145. Interjections are Particles expressing emotion. They may express 1 . Surprise ; as, Sn, ecce, 6. 2. Joy; as, io, euoe. 3. Sorrow and Pain ; as, heu, Sheu, vae, pro. 4. Calling ; as, heus, eho. PART IV. WORD-FORMATION. I. DERIVATIVES. 146. Derivatives are formed by appending certain ter- minations called Suffixes to stems of verbs, nouns, or adjectives. A. NOUNS. 1. Nouns derived from Verbs. 147. i. The suffix -tor (-sor), Fern, -trix, denotes the agent ; as, victor, victrix, victor; defensor, defender. NOTE. The suffix -tor is occasionally appended to noun stems ; as, gladiator, gladiator (from gladius). 2. The suffix -or (originally -6s) denotes an activity or a condi- tion; as, amor, love ; timor, fear ; dolor, pain. 3. The suffixes -tio (-sio), Gen. -orris, and -tus (-sus), Gen. -us, denote an action as in process; as, venatiS, hunting; obsessio, blockade; gemitus, sighing; cursus, running. NOTE. Rarer endings with the same force are : a) -tura, -sura ; as, sepultura, burial; mensura, measuring. b) -ium; as, g-audium, rejoicing, c} -Ido, as, cupldo, desire. 109 1 10 Word- Formation. 4. The suffixes -men, -meiitum, -crum, -trum, -bulum, -culum, denote the means or place of an action ; as, lumen (luc-s-men), light] vocabulum, word] ornamentum, ornament] documentum, proof] sepulcrum, grave. aratrum, plough ; vehiculum, carriage. When the root ends in c, the c of the suffix disappears ; as, jaculum for jac-culum (from jacio). 2. Nouns derived from Nouns. 148. I. Diminutives end in -ulus, (-ula, -ulum) -olus, (-ola, -olum), after a vowel -culus, (-cula, -culum) -ellus, (-ella, -ellum) -illus, (-ilia, -ilium) as, mdulus, little nest (nidus) ; virgula, wand (virga) ; oppidulum, little town (oppidum) ; filiolus, little son (filius) ; opusculum, little work (opus) ; tabella, tablet (tabula) ; lapillus, pebble (lapis). NOTE i. It will be observed that in gender the Diminutives follow the gender of the words from which they are derived. NOTE 2. The endings -ellus, -illus contain the primitive form of the diminu- tive suffix, viz., -lo-. Thus : ag-ellus, field, for ag-er-lus ; lapillus, pebble, for lapid-lus. 2. The suffix -ium appended to nouns denoting persons designates either a collection of such persons or their function ; as, collegium, a corporation, body of colleagues (collega) ; sacerdotium, priestly function (sacerdos). 3. The suffixes -Srium, -etum, -ile designate a place where objects are kept or are found in abundance ; as, columbarium, dove-cote (columba) ; olivgtum, olive-orchard (oliva); ovlle, sheep-fold (ovis). Nouns. Adjectives. 1 1 1 4. The suffix -atus denotes official position or honor ; as, consulatus. consulship (consul). 5. The suffix -ma appended to nouns denoting persons designates a 'vocation or the place where it is carried on ; as, doctrina, teaching (doctor, teacher) ; medicma, the art of healing (medicus, physician) ; sutrina, cobblers shop (sutor, cobbler). 6. Patronymics are Greek proper names denoting son of . . . daughter of. . . . They have the following suffixes : a) Masculines : -ides, -ades, -Ides ; as, Priamides, son of Priam ; Aeneades, son of Aeneas ; Felides, son of Peleus. b) Feminines : -eis, -is, -ias ; as, Nereis, daughter of Nereus \ - Atlantis, daughter of Atlas ; Thaumantias, daughter of Thaumas. 3. Nouns derived from Adjectives. 149. The suffixes -tas (-itas), -tudo (-itudo), -ia, -itia are used for the formation of abstract nouns denoting qualities ; as, ?^^^^; celeritas, swiftness; magnitude, greatness ; auda- cia, boldness; amicitia, friends /tip. B. ADJECTIVES. 1. Adjectives derived from Verfcs. 150. i . The suffixes -bundus and -cundus give nearly the force of a present participle ; as, tremebundus, trembling; iracundus, wrathful. 2. The suffixes -ax and -ulus denote an inclination or tendency, mostly a faulty one ; as, loquax, loquacious ; credulus, credulous. 3. The suffix -idus denotes a state ; as, calidus, hot ; timidus, timid; cupidus, eager. 4. The suffixes -ilis and -bilis denote capacity or ability, usually in a passive sense ; as, fragilis, />-#/& (i.e. capable of being broken); docilis. docile. 1 1 2 Word-Formation. 2. Adjectives derived from Nouns. a) From Common Nouns. 151. i. The suffixes -eus and -inus are appended to names of sub- stances or materials ; as, aureus, of gold $ f erreus, of iron ; faginus, of beech. 2. The suffixes -ius, -icus, -His, -alis, -aris, -arms, -nus, -anus, -Inus, -ivus, -ensis signify belonging to, connected with ; as, oratorius, oratorical ; legionarius, legionary '; bellicus, pertaining to war ; paternus, paternal ; civilis, civil; urbanus, of the city; regalis, regal; marinus, marine; consularis, consular ; aestivus, pertaining to summer ; circensis, belonging to the circus. 3. The suffixes -osus and -lentus denote fullness ; as, periculosus, full of danger, gloriosus, glorious ; dangerous ; opulentus, wealthy. 4. The suffix -tus has the force of provided with ; as, barbatus, bearded; stellatus, set with stars. b) From Proper Names. 152. i. Names of persons take the suffixes: -anus, -ianus, inus ; as, Catonianus, belonging to Cato ; Plautmus, belonging to Plautus. 2. Names of nations take the suffixes -icus, -ius ; as, Germanicus, German ; Thracius, Thracian. 3. Names of places take the suffixes -anus, -inus, -ensis, -aeus, -ius ; as, Romanus, Roman ; Atheniensis, Athenian ; Amermus, of Ameria ; Smyrnaeus, of Smyrna ; Corinthius, Corinthian. NOTE. anus and -ensis, appended to names of countries, desig- nate something stationed in the country or connected with it, but not indigenous ; as, bellum Africanum, a war (of Romans with Romans) in Africa. bellum Hispaniense, a war carried on in Spain. legiones Gallicanae, {Roman) legions stationed in Gaul. Adjectives. Verbs. 1 1 3 3. Adjectives derived from Adjectives. 153. Diminutives in -his sometimes occur ; as, parvolus, little ; misellus passer, poor little sparrow; pauperculus, needy. 4. Adjectives derived from Adverbs. 154. These end in -ernus, -ternus, -tinus, -tlnus ; as, hodiernus, of to-day (hodie) ; hesternus, of yesterday (her!) ; intestinus, internal (intus) ; diutinus, long-lasting (diu). C. VERBS. 1. Verbs derived from Verbs. 155. i. INCEPTIVES OR INCHOATIVES. These end in -sco, and are formed from Present Stems. They denote the beginning of an action] as, labasco, begin to totter (from labo) ; horresco. grow rotigh (from horreo) ; tremesco, begin to tremble (from tremo) ; obdormisco, fall asleep (from dormio). 2. FREQUENTATIVES OR INTENSIVES. These denote a repeated or energetic action. They are formed from the Participial Stem, and end in -to or -so. Those derived from verbs of the First Conjuga- tion end in -ito (not -ato, as we should expect). Examples of Fre- quentatives are jacto, toss about, brandish (from jacid, hurl) ; curso, run hither and thither (from curro, run) ; volito, flit about (from volo,y?K). a. Some double Frequentatives occur; as, cantito, sing over and over (canto) ; CUrsitO, keep running about (curso) ; ventito, keep coming. b. agito, set in motion, is formed from the Present Stem. I 1 14 Word- Formation. 3. DESIDERATTVES. These denote a desire to do something. They are formed from the Participial Stem, and end in -urio ; as, esurio, desire to eat, am hungry (edo) ; parturio, want to bring forth, am in labor (pario). 2. Verbs derived from Nouns and Adjectives ( Denominatives) . 156. Denominatives of the First Conjugation are mostly transitive, those of the Second exclusively intransitive. Those of the Third and Fourth Conjugations are partly transitive, partly intransitive. Exam- ples are a) From Nouns : fraudo, defraud (fraus) ; vestio, clothe (vestis) ; floreo, bloom (flos). b) From Adjectives : libero, free (liber) ; saevio, be fierce (saevus) . D. ADVERBS. 157. i. Adverbs derived from verbs are formed from the Participial Stem by means of the suffix -im ; as, certatim, emulously (certo) ; cursim, in haste (curro) ; statim immediately (sto) . 2. Adverbs derived from nouns and adjectives are formed : a) With the suffixes -tim (-sim), -atim ; as, gradatim, step by step ; paulatim, gradually ; viritim, man by man. b) With the suffix -tus ; as, antiquitus, of old; radicitus, from the roots. c) With the suffix -ter ; as, breviter, briefly. Compounds. 115 II. COMPOUNDS. 158. i. Compounds are formed by the union of simple words. The second member usually contains the essential meaning of the compound ; the first member expresses some modification of this. 2. Vowel changes often occur in the process of composition. Thus : - a. In the second member of compounds. (See 7. i.) b. The final vowel of the stem of the first member of the com- pound often appears as I where we should expect 8 or & ; sometimes it is dropped altogether, and in case of consonant stems I is often inserted ; as, signif er, standard-bearer ; tubicen, trumpeter ; magiianimus, high-minded; matricida, matricide. 159. EXAMPLES OF COMPOUNDS. 1. Nouns: a) Preposition + Noun ; as, de-decus, disgrace ; pro-avus, great-grandfather. b) Noun + Verb Stem ; as, agri-cola, farmer ; fratri-cida, fratricide. 2. Adjectives: a) Preposition + Adjective (or Noun) ; as, per-magnus, very great ; sub-obscurus, rather obscure ; a-mens, frantic. b) Adjective + Noun ; as, magn-animus, great-hearted; miseri-cors, compassionate. c) Noun + Verb Stem ; as, parti-ceps. sharing; morti-f er, death-dealing. 1 1 6 Word-Formation. 3. Verbs :- The second member is always a verb. The first may be a) A Noun ; as, aedi-fico, build. b) An Adjective ; as, ampli-fico, enlarge. c) An Adverb ; as, male-dico, rail at. d) Another Verb ; as, cale-facio, make warm. e) A Preposition ; as, ab-jungo, detach ; re-f ero, bring back ; dis-cerno, distinguish ; ex-spect5, await. NOTE. Here belong the so-called INSEPARABLE PREPOSITIONS : ambi- (amb-), around] dis- (dir-, di-), apart, asunder ; por- forward ; red- (re-), back; sed- (se-), apart from; ve-, without. 4. Adverbs : These are of various types ; as, an tea, before ; ilico (in loco), on the spot ; imprimis, especially ; obviam, in the way. PART V. SYNTAX. 160. Syntax treats of the use of words in sentences. CHAPTER I. Sentences. CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 161. Sentences may be classified as follows : 1 . DECLARATIVE, which state something ; as, puer s dibit, the boy is writing. 2. INTERROGATIVE, which ask a question ; as, quid puer scribit, what is the boy writing? 3. EXCLAMATORY, which are in the form of an exclamation; as, quot libros scribit, how many books he writes I 4. IMPERATIVE, which express a command or an admonition ; as, scribe, write ! FORM OF INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. 162. Questions may be either Word-Questions or Sen- tence-Questions. i. Word-Questions. These are introduced by the various interrogative pronouns and adverbs ; such as quis, qui, quails, quantus, quot, quotiens, quo, qua, etc. Thus : quis venit, who comes ? quam dm manebit, how long will he stay f 117 u8 Syntax. 2. Sentence-Questions. These are introduced a) By nonne implying the answer 'yes ' ; as, 11 61111 e vides, do you not see ? b) By num implying the answer < no 1 ; as, num. expectas, do you expect? (i.e. you dortt expect, do you T) c) By the enclitic -ne, appended to the emphatic word, and simply asking for information ; as, videsne, do you see ? A question introduced by -ne may receive a special im- plication from the context ; as, sensistine, did you not perceive ? d) Sometimes by no special word, particularly in expressions of siirprise or indignation ; as, tu in judicum conspectum venire audes, do you dare to come into the presence of the judges ? 3. RHETORICAL QUESTIONS. Questions are sometimes such merely in form, being employed to express an emphatic assertion; as, quis dubitat, who doubts? {no one doubts}. 4. DOUBLE QUESTIONS. Double Questions are intro- duced by the following particles : utrum ... an ; -ne an ; .... an. If the second member is negative, annon (less often necne) is used. Examples : utrum honestum est an turpe, 1 honestumne est an turpe, \ is it honorable or base ? honestum est an turpe, suntne di annon, are there gods or not ? a. By an ellipsis of the first member, an sometimes stands alone. Its force depends upon the context ; as, A rebus gerendis abstrahit senectus. Quibus ? An eis quae juventute geruntur et viribus? Old age (it is alleged) withdraws men from active pursuits. From what pursuits ? fs it not merely from those which are performed by the strength of youth? Simple and Compound Sentences. 119 5. ANSWERS. a. The answer YES is expressed by ita, etiam, vero, sane, or by repetition of the verb ; as, 'visne locum mutemus?' 'saneV ' Shall we change the place?" 1 'Certainly: 'estisne vos legati? ' 'sumus/ 'Are you envoys?" 1 ''Yes? b. The answer No is expressed by non, minime, minime vero, or by repeating the verb with a negative; as, 6 jam ea praeteriit ? ' < non. 1 < Has it passed? ' < No: < estne f rater intus ? ' * non est. 1 ' /s your brother within ? ' SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 163. The two essential parts of a sentence are the SUB- JECT and PREDICATE. The SUBJECT is that concerning which something is said, asked, etc. The PREDICATE is that which is said, asked, etc., concerning the SUBJECT. SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SENTENCES. 164. Sentences containing but one Subject and one Predicate are called SIMPLE SENTENCES, those containing more are called COMPOUND SENTENCES. Thus puer libros legit, the boy reads books, is a Simple Sentence ; but puer libros legit et epistulas scribit, the boy reads books and writes letters, is a Compound Sentence. The different members of a compound Sentence are called CLAUSES. 165. COORDINATE AND SUBORDINATE CLAUSES. Clauses which stand upon an equality are called COORDINATE ; a Clause dependent upon another is called SUBORDINATE. Thus in puer libros legit et epistulas scribit the two clauses are Coordinate ; but in puer libros legit quos pater scribit, the boy reads the books which his father writes, the second clause is Subordinate to the first. 1 20 Syntax. CHAPTER II. Syntax of Nouns. SUBJECT. 166. The Subject of a Finite Verb (i.e. any form of the Indicative, Subjunctive, or Imperative) is in the Nomi- native Case. 1 . The Subject may be a) A Noun or Pronoun ; as, puer scribit, the boy writes ; Me scribit, this man writes. b) An Infinitive ; as, decSrum est pro patria mori, to die for one^s country is a noble thing. c) A Clause ; as, opportune accidit quod venisti, /'/ happened opportunely that you arrived. 2. A Personal Pronoun as Subject is usually implied in the Verb, and is not separately expressed ; as, scribo, / write ; videt, he sees. a. But for the purpose of emphasis or contrast the Pronoun is expressed ; as, ego scribo et tu legis, / write, and you read. 3. The verb is sometimes omitted when it can be easily supplied from the context, especially the auxiliary sum ; as, recte ille (sc. facit), he does rightly ; cSnsul profectus (sc. est), the consul set out. PREDICATE NOUNS. 167. A PREDICATE NOUN is one connected with the Sub- ject by some form of the verb Sum or a similar verb. 168. A Predicate Noun agrees with its Subject in Case ; * as, 1 For the Predicate Genitive see 198, 3; 203, 5. Predicate Nouns. Appositives. 121 Cicero orator f uit, Cicero was an orator ; Numa creatus est rex, Numa was elected king. 1 . When possible the Predicate Noun usually agrees with its Subject in Gender also ; as, philosophia est vitae magistra, philosophy is the guide of life. 2. Besides sum the verbs most frequently accompanied by a Predi- cate Noun are a) fio, evado, existo ; maneo ; videor ; as, Croesus non semper maiisit rex, Croesus did not always remain king. b) Passive verbs of making, calling, regarding, etc. ; as, creor, appellor, habeor ; as, Romulus rex appellatus est, Romulus was called king ; habitus est deus, he was regarded as a god. APPOSITIVES. 169. i. An Appositive is a Noun explaining or defining another Noun denoting the same person or thing ; as, Cicero consul, Cicero, the Consul; urbs Roma, the city Rome. 2. An Appositive agrees with its Subject in Case ; as, opera Ciceronis oratoris, the works of Cicero, the orator; apud Herodotum, patrem historiae, in the works of Herodotus, the father of history . 3. When possible the Appositive agrees with its Subject in Gen- der also ; as, assentatio adjutrix vitiorum, flattery, the promoter of evils. 4. A Locative may take in Apposition the Ablative of urbs or oppidum, with or without a preposition ; as, Corinthi, urbe praeclara, or in urbe praeclara, at Corinth, a famous city. 5. PARTITIVE APPOSITION. A Noun denoting a whole is frequently followed by an Appositive denoting a part ; as, milites, fortissimus quisque, hostibus restiteruiit, the soldiers, all the bravest of tJiem, resisted the enemy. 122 Syntax. THE CASES. THE NOMINATIVE. 170. The Nominative is confined to its use as Subject, Appositive, or Predicate Noun, as already explained. See 166-169. THE VOCATIVE. 171. The Vocative is the Case of direct address ; as, credits mihi, judices, believe me, judges. 1 . By a species of attraction, the Nominative is occasionally used for the Vocative, especially in poetry and formal prose ; as, audl tu, populus Albanus, hear ye, Alban people! 2. Similarly the Appositive of a Vocative may, in poetry, stand in the Nominative ; as, iiate, mea magna potentia solus, O son, alone the source of my great power. THE ACCUSATIVE. 172. The Accusative is the Case of the Direct Object. 173. The Direct Object may express either of the two following relations : A. The PERSON OR THING AFFECTED by the action ; as, consulem interfecit, he slew the consul; lego librum, / read the book. B. The RESULT PRODUCED by the action ; as, librum scrips!, I wrote a book (i.e. produced one) ; templum struit, he constructs a tejnple. 174. Verbs that admit a Direct Object of either of these two types are TRANSITIVE VERBS. a. Verbs that regularly take a Direct Object are sometimes used without it. They are then said to be employed absolutely ; as, rumor est meum gnatum amare, it is rumored that my son is in love. The Accusative. 123 Accusative of the Person or Thing Affected. 175. i. This is the most frequent use of the Accu- sative ; as in parentes amamus, we love our parents ; mare aspicit, he gazes at the sea. 2. The following classes of Verbs taking an Accusative of this kind are worthy of note : a) Many Intransitive Verbs, when compounded with a Preposi- tion, become Transitive. Thus : 1 ) Compounds of circum, praeter, trans ; as, hostes circumstare, to surround the enemy ; urbem praeterire, to pass by the city ; muros transcendere, to climb over the walls. 2) Less frequently, compounds of ad, per, in, sub ; as, adire urbem, to visit the city ; peragrare Italiam, to travel through Italy ; mire magistratum. to take office ; subire periculum, to undergo danger. b) Many Verbs expressing emotions, regularly Intransitive, have also a Transitive use ; as, queror fatum, I lament my fate ; doleo ejus mortem, I grieve at his death ; rideo tuam stultitiam, I laugh at your folly. So also lugeo, maereo, mourn ; gemd, bemoan; horreo, shudder, and others. c) The impersonals decet, it becomes ; dedecet, // is unbecom- ing '; juvat, // pleases, take the Accusative of the Person Affected ; as, me decet haec dicere, it becomes me to say this. d) In poetry many Passive Verbs, in imitation of Greek usage, are employed as Middles ( 256, i ; 2), and take the Accusa- tive as Object ; as, galeam iiiduitur, he puts on his helmet ; cinctus tempora hedera, having bound his temples with ivy ; no do sinus collecta, having gathered her dress in a knot. 1 24 Syntax. Accusative of the Result Produced. 176. I. The ordinary type of this Accusative is seen in such expressions as librum scribo, / write a book ; do mum aedifico, / build a house. 2. Many Verbs usually Intransitive take a Neuter Pronoun, or Adjective used as an Accusative of Result. Thus : a) A Neuter Pronoun ; as, haec gemebat, he made these moans', illud glorior, / make this boast ; eadem peccat, he makes the same mistakes. b) A Neuter Adjective, particularly Adjectives of number or amozmt, multum, multa, omnia, pauca, etc. ; as, multa dubito, / have many doubts ; pauca studet, he has few interests ; multum valet, he has great strength ; nihil progreditur, he makes no progress. NOTE. In poetry other Adjectives are freely used in this construction ; as, minitantem vana, making vain threats ; acerba tuens, giving a fierce look ; dulce loquentem, sweetly talking. 3. The adverbial use of several Neuter Pronouns and Adjectives grows out of this Accusative ; as, multum sunt in venatione, they are much engaged in hunting. a. So also plurimum, very greatly] plerumque, generally '; aliquid, somewhat] quid, why? and some others. 4. Sometimes an Intransitive Verb takes an Accusative of Result which is of kindred etymology with the Verb. This is called a COG- NATE ACCUSATIVE, and is usually modified by an Adjective ; as, sempiternam servitutem serviat, let him serve an ever lasting slavery] vitam duram vixi, / have lived a hard life. a. Sometimes -the Cognate Accusative is not of kindred ety- mology, but merely of kindred meaning ; as, stadium currit, he runs a race ; Olympia vincit, he wins an Olympic victory. The Accusative. 125 5 . The Accusative of Result occurs also after Verbs of tasting and smelling^ as, piscis mare sapit, the fish tastes of the sea ; 61 atioiies ant I quit a tern redolent, the speeches smack of the past. Two Accusatives Direct Object and Predicate Accusative. 177. i . Many Verbs of Making, Choosing, Calling, Show- ing, and the like, take two Accusatives, one of the Person or Thing Affected, the other a Predicate Accusative ; as, - me heredem fecit, he wade me heir. Here me is Direct Object, heredem Predicate Accusative. So also eum judiccm cepere, they took him as judge ; urbem Romam vocavit, he called the city Rome; se virum praestitit, he showed himself a man. 2. The Predicate Accusative may be an Adjective as well as a Noun ; as, homines caecos reddit cupiditas, covetousness renders men blind; Apollo Socratem sapientissimum jiidicavit, Apollo adjudged Soc- rates the wisest man. a. Some Verbs, as reddo, allow only an Adjective as the Predicate Accu- sative. 3. In the Passive the Direct Object becomes the Subject, and the Predicate Accusative becomes Predicate Nominative; as, urbs Roma vocata est, the city was called Rome. a. Not all Verbs adfnit the Passive construction ; reddo and efficio, for example, never take it. Two Accusatives Person and Thing. 178. i. Some Verbs take two Accusatives, one of the Person Affected, the other of the Result Produced. Thus:- d) Verbs of requesting and demanding, as, otium divos rogat, he asks the gods for rest; me duas orationes postulas, you demand two speeches of me. 126 Syntax. So also oro, posco, reposco, exposed, flagito, though some of these prefer the Ablative with ab to the Accusative of the Person ; as, opem a te posco, / demand aid of you. b) Verbs of teaching (doceo and its compounds); as, te litteras doceo, I teach you your letters. :) Verbs of inquiring ; as, te haec rogo, / ask you this ; te sententiam rogo, I ask you your opinion. d) Several Special Verbs ; viz. moneo, admoneo, commoneo, cogo, accuse, arguo, and a few others. These admit only a Neuter Pronoun or Adjective as Accusative of the Thing ; as, te haec moneo, I give you this advice] me id accusas, you bring this accusation against me. id cogit nos natura, nature compels us (to) this. e) One Verb of concealing, celo ; as, non te celavi sermonem, / have not concealed the conver- sation from you. 2. In the Passive construction the Accusative of the Person be- comes the Subject, and the Accusative of the Thing is retained ; as, omnes artes edoctus est, he was taught all accomplishments; rogatus sum sententiam, / was asked my opinion ; aliquid admonemur, we are given some admonition. a. Only a few Verbs admit the Passive construction. Two Accusatives with Compounds. 179. i. Transitive compounds of trans may take two Accusatives, one dependent upon the Verb, the other upon the Preposition ; as, - milites flumen traducit, he leads his soldiers across the river. 2. With other compounds this construction is rare. 3. In the Passive the Accusative dependent upon the preposition is retained ; as, milites flumen traducebaiitur, the soldiers were led across the river. The Accusative. 127 Synecdochical (or Greek) Accusative. 180. i . The Synecdochical (or Greek) Accusative denotes the part to which an action or quality refers ; as, tremit artus, literally, he trembles as to his limbs, i.e. his limbs tremble ; nuda germ, lit. bare as to the knee, i.e. with knee bare ; manus revinctus, lit. tied as to the hands, i.e. with hands tied. n. Note that this construction a) Is borrowed from the Greek. b) Is chiefly confined to poetry. c) Usually refers to a part of the body. d) Is used with Adjectives as well as Verbs. Accusative of Time and Space. 181. I. Duration of Time and Extent of Space are de- noted by the Accusative ; as, quadraginta annos vixit, he lived forty years ; hie locus passus sescentos aberat, this place was six hundred paces away. arbores quinquaginta pedes altae, trees fifty feet high. abhinc tres annos, three years ago. 2. Emphasis is sometimes added by using the Preposition per ; as, per duds- annos laboravi, / toiled throughout two years. Accusative of Limit of Motion. 182. i. The Accusative of Limit of Motion is used d) With names of Towns, Small Islands, and Peninsulas ; as, Romam veni, / came to Rome ; Athenas proficlscitur, he sets out for Athens ; Delum perveni, I arrived at Delos. b) With domum, domos, riis ; as, domum revertitur, he returns home ; rus Tbo, I shall go to the country. NOTE. When domus means house (i.e. building), it takes a Prep- osition ; as, in domum veterem remigrare, to move back to an old house. 128 '<*"" ^ "Syntax. 2. Other designations of place than those above mentioned require a Preposition to denote Limit of Motion ; as, Ad Italiam venit, he came to Italy. a. The Preposition is also required when the Accusatives urbem or oppidum stand in apposition with the name of a town ; as, Cirtam in urbem, to the city Cirta ; Genavam ad oppidum, to the town Geneva. b, The name of a town denoting limit of motion may be com- bined with the name of a country or other word dependent upon a preposition as, Thurios in Italiam) pervectus, carried to Thurii in Italy ; cum Acen ad exercitum venisset, when he had come to the army at Ace. 3. To denote toward, to the vicinity of, in the vicinity of, ad is used ; as, ad Tarentum veni, / came to the vicinity of Tarentum ; ad Cannas pugna facta est, a battle was fought near Cannes. 4. In poetry the Accusative of any noun denoting a place may be used without a preposition to express the limit of motion ; as, Italiam venit, he came to Italy. 5. The goal notion seems to represent the original function of the Accusative Case. Traces of this primitive force are recognizable in the phrase infitias ire, to deny (lit. to go to a denial), and a few other similar expressions. Accusative in Exclamations. 183. The Accusative, generally modified by an Adjec- tive, is used in Exclamations ; as, me miserum ah, wretched me ! 6 fallacem spem, oh, deceptive hope ! Accusative as Subject of the Infinitive. 184. The Subject of the Infinitive is put in the Accusa- tive ; as, video hominem abire, / see that the man is going away. The Accusative. The Dative. 129 Other Uses of the Accusative. 185. Here belong 1 . Some Accusatives which were originally Appositives ; viz. id genus, of that kind; as, homines id genus, men of that kind (originally homines, id genus hominum, men, that kind of men) ; virile secus, muliebre secus, of the male sex, of the female sex; meam vicem, tuam vicem, etc., for my part, etc.; bonam partem, in large part ; maximam partem, for the most part. 2. Some phrases of doubtful origin; as, id temporis, at that time; quod si, but if; id aetatis, at that time ; cetera, in other respects ; dextrum, on the right ; laevum, on the left. THE DATIVE. 186. The Dative case in general expresses relations rhich are designated in English by the prepositions to nd for. Dative of Indirect Object. 187. The commonest use of the Dative is to denote the erson to whom something is given, said, or done. Thus : I. With transitive verbs in connection with the Accu- ative ; as, hanc pecuniam mihi dat, he gives me this money ; haec nobis dixit, he said this to us. a. Some verbs which take this construction also admit another, particularly the verbs dono and circumdo. Thus : Either Themistocli munera donavit, he presented gifts to Themistodes , or Themistoclem muneribus donavit, he presented Themis- todes with gifts ; urbi miiros circumdat, he builds walls around the city, or urbem muris circumdat, he surrounds the city with walls. K 130 Syntax. II. With many intransitive verbs ; as, nulli labor! cedit, he yields to no labor ; tibi suscenseo, I am angry with you. a. Here belong many verbs signifying favor?- help, injure, please, displease, trust, distrust, command, obey, serve, resist, indulge, spare, pardon, envy, threaten, believe, persuade, and the like ; as, Caesar popularibus favet, Caesar favors (i.e. is favorable to) the popular party ; amicis coiifido, I trust (to) my friends ; militibus igiioscit, he pardons (i.e. grants pardon to) the troops ; Orgetorix Helvetiis persuasit, Orgetorix persuaded (made it acceptable to) the Helvetians ; boms nocet qui malls parcit, he injures (does harm to) the good, who spares the bad. NOTE. It is to be borne in mind that these verbs do not take the Dative by virtue of their apparent English equivalence, but simply because they are intransi- tive, and adapted to an indirect object. Some verbs of the same apparent Eng- lish equivalence are transitive and govern the Accusative; as, juvo, laed.6, delecto. Thus: audentes deus juvat, God helps the bold; neminem laesit, he injured no one. b. Verbs of this class are used in the passive only imper- sonally ; as, tibi parcitur, yoit are spared ; mihi persuadetur, I am being persuaded ; el invidetur, he is envied. III. With many verbs compounded with the preposi- tions : ad, ante, com-, 2 in, inter, ob, post, prae, pro, sub, super, and sometimes circum. These verbs fall into two main classes, i. Many simple verbs which cannot take a Dative cf the indi- rect object become capable of doing so when ccmpounded with a preposition ; as, * afflictis succurrit, he helps the afflicted ; exercitui praef uit, he was in command of the army ; intersum consiliis, / share in the deliberations. 1 Many such verbs were originally intransitive in English also, and once gov- erned the Dative. 2 This was the original form of the preposition cum. The Dative. 131 2. Many transitive verbs which take only a direct object become capable, when compounded, of taking a Dative also as indirect object ; as, pecuniae pudorem anteponit, he puts honor before money ; inicere spem amicis, to inspire hope in one 's friends ; Labienum exercitui praefecit, he put Labienus in charge of the army. Dative of Reference. 188. i. The Dative of Reference denotes the person to whom a statement refers , of ivJiom it is true, or to whom it is of interest ; as, mini ante oculos versaris, you hover before my eyes (lit. hover before the eyes to me) ; ill! severitas amorem non deminuit, /// his case severity did not diminish love (lit. to him severity did not diminish) ; intercltidere hostibus commeatum, to cut off the supplies of the enemy. a. Note the phrase alicui interdicere aqua et igni, to interdict one from fire and water. NOTE. The Dative of Reference, unlike the Dative of Indirect Object, does not modify the verb, but rather the sentence as a whole. It is often used where, according to the English idiom, we should expect a Genitive ; so in the first and third of the above examples. 2. Special varieties of the Dative of Reference are d) Dative of the Local Standpoint. This is regularly a participle ; as, oppidum primum Thessaliae venientibus ab EpirS, the first town of Thessaly as you come from Epirus (lit. to those coming from E.). b) Ethical Dative. This name is given to those Dative con- structions of the personal pronouns in which the connection of the Dative with the rest of the sentence is of the very slightest sort ; as, tu mihi istius audaciam def endis ? tell me, do you defend that marts audacity ? quid mihi Celsus agit? what is my Celsus doing? quid sibi vult ? what does he mean ? (lit. wish for him- self?) 132 Syntax. r) Dative of Person Judging ; as, erit ille mihi semper deus, he will always be a god to me (i.e. in my opinion) ; quae ista servitus tarn claro homini, how can that be slavery to so illustrious a man (i.e. to his mind) ! d) Dative of Separation. Compounds of ab, de, ex, ad which have the general sense of taking away govern a Dative of the person, less often of the thing ; as, hon5rem detraxerunt homini, they took away the honor from the man ; Caesar regi tetrarchiam eripuit, Caesar took the tetrarchy away from the king] silici scintillam excudit, he struck a spark from the flint. Dative of Agency. 189. The Dative is used to denote agency 1. Regularly with the Gerundive ; as, haec nobis agenda sunt, these things must be done by us ; mihi eundum est, I must go (lit. it must be gone by me). ' a. To avoid ambiguity, a with the Ablative is sometimes used with the Gerundive ; as, hostibus a nobis parcendum est, the enemy must be spared by us. 2. Much less frequently with the compound tenses of the passive voice ; as, disputatio, quae mihi nuper habita est, the discussion which was recently conducted by me. 3. Rarely with the uncompounded tenses of the passive ; as, honesta boms viris quaeruntur, noble ends are sought by good. men. Dative of Possession. 190. The Dative of Possession occurs with the verb esse in expressions of the type : mihi est liber, / have a book ; mihi nomen est Marcus, I have the name Marcus. i. But with nomen est the name is more commonly attracted into the Dative ; as, mihi nomen est Marco. The Dative. 133 Dative of Purpose. 191. The Dative of Purpose designates the end toward iv J lid i an action is directed or for wJiich something exists. It is used 1 . Unaccompanied by another Dative ; as, castris locum deligere, to choose a place for a camp ; legiones praesidio relinquere, to leave the legions as a guard (lit. for a guard) ; receptui canere, to sound the signal for a retreat. 2. Much more frequently in connection with another Dative of the person : a) Especially \yith some form of ease ; as, f ortunae tuae mini curae sunt, your fortunes are a care to me (lit. for a care) ; nobis sunt odio, they are an object of hatred to us ; cui bono? to 'whom is it of advantage? b) With other verbs ; as, hos tibi muneri misit, he has sent these to you for a pres- ent ; Pausanias Atticis venit auxilio, Pausanias came to the aid of the Athenians (lit. to the Athenians for help). 3. In connection with the Gerundive; as, decemviri legibus scribuiidis, decemvirs for codifying the laws. mo gerendS bello ducem creavere, me they have made leader for carrying on the war. NOTE. This construction with the gerundive is not common till Livy. Dative -with Adjectives. 192. The use of the Dative with Adjectives corresponds very closely to its use with verbs. Thus : i . Corresponding to the Dative of Indirect Object it occurs with adjectives signifying : friendly, unfriendly, similar, dissimilar, equal, near, related to, etc. ; as, mini inimicus, hostile to me ; sunt proximi Germanis, they are next to the Germans ; noxiae poena par esto, let the penalty be equal to the damage. 134 Syntax. a. For propior and proximus, with the Accusative, see HI, 3- 2. Corresponding to the Dative of Purpose the Dative occurs with adjectives signifying : suitable, adapted, fit; as, castris idoneus locus, a place fit for a camp; apta dies sacrificio, a day suitable for a sacrifice. NOTE. Adjectives of this last class often take the Accusative with ad. Dative of Direction. 193. In the poets the Dative is occasionally used to denote the direction of motion ; as, it clamor caelo, the shout goes heavenward; cineres rivo fluent! jace, cast the ashes toward the flowing stream. i. By an extension of this construction the poets sometimes use the Dative to denote the //;//// of motion ; as, dum Latio deos inferret, while he was bringing his gods to Latium. THE GENITIVE. 194. The Genitive is used with Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs. GENITIVE WITH NOUNS. 195. With Nouns the Genitive is the case which defines the meaning of the limited noun more closely. This relation is generally indicated in English by the preposition of. There are the following varieties of the Genitive with Nouns : Genitive of Origin, Objective Genitive, Genitive of Material, Genitive of the Whole, Genitive of Possession, Appositional Genitive, Subjective Genitive, Genitive of Quality. 196. Genitive of Origin ; as, Marci filius, the son of Marcus. 197. Genitive of Material ; as, talentum auri., a talent of gold ; modius frumenti, a peck of grain. The Dative. The Genitive. 135 198. Genitive of Possession or Ownership ; as, domus Ciceronis, Cicero's house. 1 . Here belongs the Genitive with causa and gratia. The Geni- tive always precedes ; as, hominum causa, for the sake of men ; meorum amicorum gratia, for the sake of my friends. 2. Instar (lit. image) also takes the Possessive Genitive ; as, equus instar mentis, a horse as large as a mountain. 3. The Possessive Genitive is often used predicatively, especially with esse and fieri ; as, domus est regis, the house is the king's ; stulti est in errore manere, // is (the parf) of a fool to remain in error ; de bellS judicium imperatoris est, non militum, the decision con- cerning war belongs to the general, not to the soldiers. 199. Subjective Genitive. This denotes the person who makes or produces something or who has a feeling; as, dicta Platonis, the utterances of Plato ; timores liber orum, the fears of the children. 200. Objective Genitive. This denotes the object of an action or feeling; as, metus deorum, the fear of 'the gods ; amor libertatis, love of 'liberty ; consuetude bonorum hominum, intercourse with good men. i . This relation is often expressed by means of prepositions ; as, amor erga parentes, love toward one^s parents. 201. Genitive of the Whole. This designates the whole of which a part is taken. It is used i. With Nouns, Pronouns, Comparatives, Superlatives, and Ordinal Numerals ; as, magna pars hominum, a great part of mankind; duo mill a peditum, two thousand foot-soldiers ; quis mortalium, who of mortals ? major fratrum, the elder of the brothers ; gens maxima Germanorum, the largest tribe of the Germans ; primus omnium, the first of all. 1 36 Syntax. a. Yet instead of the Genitive of the Whole we often find ex or de with the Ablative, regularly so with Cardinal numbers and quidam ; as, fldelissimus de servis, the most trusty of the slaves; quidam ex amicis, certain of his friends ; unus ex militibus, one of the soldiers. b. In English we often use of where there is no relation of whole to part. In such cases the Latin is more exact, and does not use the Genitive ; as, quot VOS estis, how many of you are there ? trecenti conjuravimus, three hundred of us have conspired (i.e. we, three hundred in number). 2. The Genitive of the Whole is used also with the Nomi- native or Accusative Singular Neuter of Pronouns, or of Adjectives used substantively ; also with the Adverbs parum and satis used substantively ; as, quid consili, what purpose ? tantum cibi, so much food ; plus auctoritatis, more authority ; minus laboris, less labor ; satis pecuniae, enough money, parum industriae, too little industry. a. An Adjective of the second declension used substantively may be em- ployed as a Genitive of the Whole; as, nib.il bonl, twthing good. b. But Adjectives of the third declension agree directly with the noun they limit; as, nihil dulcius, nothing sweeter. 3. Occasionally we find the Genitive of the Whole dependent upon Adverbs of place ; as, ubi terrarum? ubi gentium ? where in the world? a. By an extension of this usage the Genitive sometimes occurs in depend- ence upon pridie and postridie, but only in the phrases pridie ejus diei, on the day before that; postridie ejus diei, on the day after that. 202. Appositional Genitive. The Genitive sometimes has the force of an appositive ; as, iiomen regis, the name of 'king '; poena mortis, the penalty of death ; ars scribendi, the art of writing. 203. Genitive of Quality. The Genitive modified by an Adjec- tive is used to denote quality. This construction presents several varieties. Thus it is used The Genitive. 137 1 . To denote some internal or permanent characteristic of a person or thing ; as, vir magnae virtutis, a man of great virtue ; ration es ejus modi, considerations of that sort. a. Only a limited number of Adjectives occur in this construction, chiefly magnus, maximus, summus, tantus, along with ejus. 2. To denote measure (breadth, length, etc.) ; as, fossa qumdecim pedum, a trench fifteen feet wide (or deep) ; exsilium decem annorum, an exile of ten years. 3. By omission of preti (price), or some kindred word, tantl, quanti, parvi, magni, minoris are used predicatively to denote indefinite value; as, nulla studia tanti sunt, no studies are of so much value ; magni opera ejus existimata est, his assistance was highly esteemed. a. Pluris (not strictly an adjective) follows the same analogy. 4. By an extension of the notion of value, quanti, tanti, pluris, and minoris are also used with verbs of buying and selling, to denote indefinite price ; as, quanti aedes emisti, at how high a price did you purchase the house f 5. Any of the above varieties of the Genitive of Quality may be used predicatively ; as, tantae molis erat Romanam condere gentem, of so great difficulty was it to found the Roman race. GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES. 204. The Genitive is used with many Adjectives to limit the extent of their application. Thus : i. With Adjectives signifying desire, knowledge, familiarity, memory, participation, power, fulness, and their opposites ; as, studiosus discendi, desirous of learning] peritus belli, skilled in war] insuetus laboris, umtsed to toil; immemor mandati tui, unmindful of your commission ; plena periculorum est vita, life is full of dangers, a. Some participles used adjectively also take the Genitive ; as, dilig-ens veritatis, fond of truth; amans patriae, devoted to ones country. 138 Syntax. 2. Sometimes with proprius and communis ; as, viri propria est fortitude, bravery is characteristic of a man. memoria est communis omnium artium, memory is common to all professions. a. proprius and communis are also construed with the Dative. 3. With similis the Genitive is the commoner construction in Cicero, when the reference is to living objects ; as, f ilius patris simillimus est, the son is exactly like his father. mei similis, like me ; vestri similis, like you. When the reference is to things, both Genitive and Dative occur ; as, mors so mil 5 (or somni) similis est, death is like sleep. 4. In the poets and later prose writers the use of the Genitive with Adjectives is extended far beyond earlier limits ; as, atrox animl,yfera? of temper; incertus cSnsilii, undecided in purpose. GENITIVE WITH VERBS. 205. The Genitive is used with the following classes of Verbs : Me mini, Reminlscor, Oblivlscor. 206. i. WHEN REFERRING TO PERSONS a. memini takes the Genitive in the significations / bear in mind (memor sum), am mindful of, or make mention of; but the Accusative in the signification, / recall ; as, vivorum memini, I am mindful of the living ; Achilles cujus supra meminimus, Achilles, of whom we made mention above ; Sullam memini, f recall Sulla. b. obliviscor always takes the Genitive ; as, Epicuri non licet oblivisci, we mustn't forget Epicurus. 2. WHEN REFERRING TO THINGS, memini, reminiscor, obli- viscor take sometimes the Genitive, sometimes the Accusative, appar- ently without difference of meaning ; as, animus praeteritorum meminit, the mind remembers the past ; meministine nomina, do you remember the names ? reminiscere veteris incommodi, remember the former disaster ; reminiscens acerbitatem, remembering the severity. The Genitive. 139 a. But neuter pronouns, and adjectives used substantively, regularly stand in the Accusative ; as, haec memim, 1 remember this ; multa remimscor, / remember many things. 3. The phrase mini (tibi, etc.} in mentem venit, following the analogy of memini, takes the Genitive ; as, civium mini in mentem venit, I remember the citizens. Admoneo, Commoneo, Commonefacio. 207. These verbs, in addition to an Accusative of the person, occasionally take a Genitive of the thing ; as, te admoneo amicitiae nostrae, I remind you of our friendship. a. But more frequently (in Cicero almost invariably) these verbs take de with the Ablative ; as, de pecunia me admones, you remind me of the money. b. A neuter pronoun or adjective used substantively regularly stands in the Accusative ; as, te hoc admoneo, I give you this warning. Verbs of Judicial Action. 208. i. Verbs of Accusing, Convicting, Acquitting take the Genitive of the charge ; as, me furti accusat, he accuses me of theft ; Verrem avaritiae coarguit, he convicts Verres of avarice ; impietatis absolutus est, he was acquitted of blasphemy. 2. Verbs of Condemning take a. The Genitive of the charge ; as, pecuniae publicae damnatus, condemned (on the charge) of embezzlement (lit. public money) ; capitis damnatus, condemned on a capital charge (lit. on a charge involving his head) . b. The Ablative of the penalty ; as, capite damnatus est, he was condemned to death; mille nummis damnatus est, he was condemned (to pay) a thousand sesterces (lit. by a thousand sesterces, Abl. of Means). 140 Syntax. 3. Note the phrases : votl darnnatus, votl reus, having attained one s prayer (lit. condemned on the score of one's vow) ; de vi, (accused, convicted, etc.} of assault ; inter sicarios, (accused, convicted, etc.} of murder. Genitive with Impersonal Verbs. 209. I. The Impersonate pudet, paenitet, miseret, taedet, piget take the Accusative of the person affected, along with the Genitive of the person or thing toward zvhom the feeling is directed ; as, pudet me tui, I am ashamed of you (lit. it shames me of you) ; paenitet me hujus facti, / repent of this act ; eum taedet vitae, he is weary of life] pauperum te miseret, you pity the poor. ^/ a. Instead of the Genitive of the thing we often find an Infinitive or Neuter Pronoun used as subject of the verb. Thus : me paenitet hoc fecisse, / repent of having done this ; me hoc pudet, / am ashamed of this. 2. Misereor and miseresco also govern the Genitive ; as, miseremini sociorum, pity the allies. Interest, Refert. 210. With interest, it concerns, three points enter into consideration ; viz. a) the person concerned ; K) the thing about which he is concerned ; c) the extent of his concern. 211. i. The person concerned is regularly denoted by the Genitive ; as, patris interest, it concerns the father. a. But instead of the Genitive of the personal pronouns, mei, tui, etc.) the Latin uses the Ablative Singular Feminine of the Possessive, viz. : mea, tua, etc. ; as, mea interest, it concerns me. NOTE. But the Latin says omnium nostram interest, // concerns us all. The Genitive. 141 2. The thing about which a person is concerned is denoted d) by a Neuter Pronoun as subject ; as, hoc rei publicae interest, this concerns the state. b) by an Infinitive; as, omnium interest valere, // concerns all to keep well. c) by an Indirect Question ; as, mea interest quando venias, / am concerned as to when you are coming. 3. The degree of concern is denoted a) by the Genitive (of Quality) : magiii, parvi, etc ; as, mea magni interest, it concerns me greatly. b} by the Adverbs, magnopere, magis, maxime, etc. ; as, civium minime interest, // concerns the citizens very little. c) by the Neuters, multum, plus, minus, etc. ; as, multum vestra interest, it concerns you much. 4. Refert follows interest in its construction, except that it rarely takes the Genitive of the person. Thus : mea refert, it concerns me ; but rarely illius refert, it concerns him. Genitive with Other Verbs. 212. i. Verbs of Plenty and Want sometimes govern the Genitive ; as, pecuniae indiges, you need money. a These verbs more commonly take the Ablative ( 214, i) ; indigeo is the only verb which has a preference for the Genitive. 2. Potior though usually followed by the Ablative, sometimes takes the Genitive, almost always so in Sallust ; and regularly in the phrase : potiri rerum, to get control of affairs. 3. In poetry some verbs take the Genitive in imitation of the Greek; as, desine querellarum, cease your complaints ; operum soluti, freed from their tasks. 142 Syntax. THE ABLATIVE. 213. The Latin Ablative unites in itself three cases which were originally distinct both in form and in meaning ; viz. The Ablative or from-case. The Instrumental or with-case. The Locative or where-case. The uses of the Latin Ablative accordingly fall into Genuine Ablative uses, Instrumental uses, and Locative uses. GENUINE ABLATIVE USES. Ablative of Separation. 214. The Ablative of Separation is construed sometimes with, sometimes without, a preposition. i. The following words regularly take the Ablative without a preposition : a) The Verbs of freeing : libero, solvo, levo ; b) The Verbs of depriving: privo, spolio, exuo, fraudo, nudo ; c) The Verbs of lacking egeo, careo, vaco ; d) The corresponding Adjectives, liber, inanis, vacuus, iiudus, and some others of similar meaning. Thus : - curls liberatus, freed from cares ; Caesar hostes armis exuit, Caesar stripped the enemy of their arms ; caret sensu communi, he lacks common sense ; auxilid eget, he needs help ; bonorum vita vacua est metu, the life of the good is free from fear. NOTE i. Yet Adjectives and libero may take the preposition ab, regu- larly so with the Ablative of persons ; as, urbem a tyranno liberarunt, they freed the city from the tyrant. NOTE 2. Indigeo usually takes the Genitive. See 212, i, a. The Ablative. 143 2. Of Verbs signifying to keep from, to remove ', to withdraw, some take the preposition, others omit it. The same Verb often admits both constructions. Examples : abstinere cibo, to abstain from food '; hostes fmibus prohibuerunt, they kept the enemy from their borders ; praedones ab insula prohibuit, he kept the pirates from the island. 3. Other Verbs of separation usually take the Ablative with a Prep- osition, particularly compounds of dis- and se- ; as, dissentio a te, / dissent from yott; secernantur a nobis, let them be separated from us. Ablative of Source. 215. The Ablative of Source is used with the participles natus and ortus (in poetry also with editus, satus, and some others), to designate parentage or station ; as, Jove natus, son of Jupiter ; summo loco natus, high-born (lit. born from a very high place) ; nobili genere ortus, born of a noble family. The Ablative. 151 b) domo, from home ; rure, from the country. c) Freely in poetry ; as, Italia decessit, he withdrew from Italy. 2. With names of towns, ab is used to mean from the vicinity of, or to denote the point whence distance is measured; as, a Gergovia discessit, he withdrew from the vicinity of Gergovia. a Roma X milia aberat, he was ten miles distant from Rome. Urbe and oppido, when standing in apposition with a town name, are accompanied by a preposition ; as, Curibus ex oppido Sabmorum, from Cures, a town of the Sabines. Ablative of Time. A. Time at which. 230. The Ablative is used to denote the time at which; as, quarta hora mortuus est, he died at the fourth hour ; anno septuagesimo consul creatus, elected consul in his seventieth year. 1. Any word denoting a period of time may stand in this con- struction, particularly annus, ver, aestas, hiems, dies, nox, hora, comitia (Election Day), ludi (the Games), etc. 2. Words not denoting time require the preposition in, unless accompanied by a modifier. Thus : in pace, in peace-, in bello, in war-, but secundS bello Punico, in the second Punic War. 3. Expressions like in eo tempore, in summa senectute take the preposition because they denote situation rather than time. B. Time within which. 231. Time within which is denoted by the Ablative either with or without a preposition ; as, Stella Saturni triginta annis cursum conficit, the planet Saturn completes its orbit within thirty years ; ter in anno, thrice in the course of the year. i. Occasionally the Ablative denotes duration of time ; as, biennio prosperas res habuit , for two years he had a prosperous administration. 152 Syntax, THE LOCATIVE. 232. The Locative case occurs only in the following words : 1 . Regularly in the Singular of names of towns and small islands of the first and second declensions, to denote the place in which ; as, Romae, at Rome ; Corinthi, at Corinth ; Rhodi, at Rhodes. 2. In the following special forms : domi, at home ; humi, on the ground ; belli, in war ; militiae, in war ; vesperl, at evening; her!, yesterday. 3. Note the phrase pendere aiiimi. lit. to be in suspense in one's mind. 4. Consonant Stems occasionally form a Locative in -I ; as, Lacedaemoni, at Sparta ; Carthagini, at Carthage ; Tiburi, at J^ibur. CHAPTER III. Syntax of Adjectives. 233. i. The word with which an Adjective agrees is called its Subject. 2. Attributive and Predicate Adjectives. An Attribu- tive Adjective is one that limits its subject directly ; as, vir sapiens, a wise man ; A Predicate Adjective is one that limits its subject through the medium of a verb (usually esse) ; as, vir est sapiens, the man is wise ; vir videbatur sapiens, the man seemed wise ; vir judicatus est sapiens, the man was judged wise. 3. Participles and Adjective Pronouns have the construction of Adjectives. Agreement of Adjectives. 153 AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES. 234. Agreement with One Noun. When an Adjective limits one noun it agrees with it in Gender, Number, and Case. 1 . Two Adjectives in the Singular may limit a noun in the Plural ; as, prima et vicesima legioues, the first and twentieth legions. 2. A Predicate Adjective may stand in the Neuter when its Subject is Masculine or Feminine and denotes a thing ; as, mors est miserum, death is a wretched thing. 235. Agreement with Two or More Nouns. A. AGREEMENT AS TO NUMBER. 1. When the Adjective is Attributive, it regularly agrees in number with the nearest noun ; as, pater tuus et mater, your father and mother; eadem alacritas et studium, the same eagerness and zeal. 2. When the Adjective is Predicative, it is regularly Plural ; as, pax et concordia sunt pulchrae, peace and concord are glorious. B. AGREEMENT AS TO GENDER. 1. When the Adjective is Attributive, it regularly agrees in gender with the nearest noun ; as, res operae multae ac laboris, a matter of much effort and labor. 2. When the Adjective is Predicative a) If the nouns are of the same gender, the Adjective agrees with them in gender; as, pater et filius capti sunt, father and son were captured. Yet with feminine abstract nouns, the Adjective is more frequently Neuter ; as, stultitia et timiditas fugienda sunt,/0//j/ and cowardice must be shunned. 1 54 Syntax. b) If the nouns are of different gender ; then, a) In case they denote persons, the Adjective is Mascu- line ; as, pater et mater mortui sunt, the father and mother have died. ft) In case they denote things, the Adjective is Neu- ter ; as, hondres et victoriae fortuita sunt, honors and victories are accidental. y) In case they include both persons and things, the Adjective is, oa) Sometimes Masculine ; as, domus, uxor, liberi invent! sunt, home, wife, and children are secured. /3/3) Sometimes Neuter ; as, parentes, Iiber5s, fratres villa habere, to hold parents, children, brothers, cheap. yy) Sometimes it agrees with the nearest noun ; as, populi provinciaeque liberatae suut, nations and prov- inces were liberated. c) Construction according to Sense. Sometimes an Ad- jective does not agree with a noun according to strict gram- matical form, but according to sense ; as, pars bestiis abject! sunt, part (of the men) were thrown, to beasts. ADJECTIVES USED SUBSTANTIVELY. 236. i. PLURAL ADJECTIVES USED SUBSTANTIVELY. Adjectives are quite freely used as Substantives in the Plural. The Masculine denotes persons; the Neuter denotes things ; as, docti, scholars ; parva, small things ; mail, the wicked; magna, great things ; Graeci, the Greeks ; utilia, useful things ; nostri, our men. Adjectives used Substantively. 155 2. Neuter Plural Adjectives thus used are confined mainly to the Nominative and Accusative cases. Such forms as magiiorum, om- nium ; magnis, omnibus, would ordinarily lead to ambiguity ; yet where there is no ambiguity, they sometimes occur ; as, parva componere magnis, to compare small things with great. Otherwise the Latin says : magnarum rerum, magnis rebus, etc. 237. SINGULAR ADJECTIVES USED SUBSTANTIVELY. Ad- jectives are less freely used as Substantives in the Sin- gular than in the Plural. 1 . Masculine Adjectives occur only occasionally in this use ; as, probus invidet nemini, the honest man envies nobody. a. Usually vir, homo, or some similar word is employed ; as, homo doctus, a scholar ; vir Rdmanus, a Roman. b. But when limited by a pronoun any adjective may be so used ; as, hie doctus, this scholar; doctus quidam, a certain scholar. 2. Neuters are likewise infrequent; as, verum, truth ; ftotoaarL, just ice ; honestum, virtue. a. This substantive use of Neuter Singulars is commonest in the con- struction of the Genitive of the Whole, and after Prepositions ; as, aliquid veri, something true ; nihil novi, nothing new ; in medio, m the midst. 238. From Adjectives which, like the above, occasionally admit the substantive use, must be carefully distinguished certain others which have become nouns ; as, adversarius, opponent ; hiberna, winter quarters ; aequalis, contemporary ; propinquus, relative ; amicus, friend ; socius, partner ; cognatus, kinsman ; sod alls, comrade ; vicinus, neighbor; etc. 156 Syntax. ADJECTIVES WITH THE FORCE OF ADVERBS. 239. The Latin often uses an Adjective where the Eng- lish idiom employs an Adverb or an adverbial phrase ; as, senatus frequens convenit, the senate assembled in great numbers ; fuit assiduus mecum, he was constantly with me. COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES. 240. i. The Comparative often corresponds to the English Positive with * rather J * somewhat] etc. ; as, senectus est loquacior, old age is rather talkative. 2. So the Superlative often corresponds to the Positive with 'very'; as, vir f ortissimus, a very brave man . 3. Strengthening Words. Vel and quam are often used with the Superlative as strengthening particles, vel with the force of ' very] . and quam with the force of ' as possible ' ; as, vel maximus, the very greatest ; quam maximae copiae, as great forces as possible. 4. Phrases of the type ' more rich than brave ' regularly take the Comparative in both members ; as, exercitus erat ditior quam fortior, the army was more rich than brave. OTHER PECULIARITIES. 241. i . Certain Adjectives may be used to denote a part of an object, chiefly primus, extremus, summus, medius, infimus, imus ; as, summus mons, the top of the mountain ; extrema hieme, in the last part of the winter. i. Prior, primus, ultimus, and postremus are frequently equiva- lent to a relative clause ; as, primus earn vldi, / was the first who saw her ; ultimus decessit, he was the last who ^withdrew. 3. When multus and another adjective both limit the same noun, et is generally used ; as, multae et magnae cogitationes, many (and) great thoughts. Personal Pronouns. Possessive Pronouns. 157 CHAPTER IV. Syntax of Pronouns. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 242. i. The Personal Pronouns as subjects of verbs are, as a rule, not expressed except for the purpose of emphasis, contrast, or clearness. Thus ordinarily : video, I see] axnat, he loves. But ego te video, et tu me vides, / see you, and you see me 2. The Genitives mei, tui, nostri, vestri are used only as Objective Genitives ; nostrum and vestrum as Genitives of the Whole. Thus : memor tui, mindful of you ; desiderium vestri, longing 'for you ; nemo vestrum, no one of you. a. But nostrum and vestrum are regularly used in place of the Pos- sessive in the phrases omnium^nostr^m, omnium vestrum; as, fortuna omnium nostrum, the fortune of us all. 3. When two Verbs govern the same object, the Latin does not use a pronoun with the second, as is the rule in English. Thus : virtus amicitias conciliat et conservat, virtue establishes friend- ships and maintains them (not eas conservat). POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 243. i. The Possessive Pronouns, as a rule, are not employed except for the purpose of clearness. Thus : patrem amo, / love my father , de filii morte flebas, /#// wept for the death of your son. But de morte filii mei flebas, you wept for the death of my son. a. When expressed merely for the sake of clearness, the pos- sessive usually stands after its noun ; but in order to indi- cate emphasis or contrast, it precedes ; as, sua manu liberos occidit, with his own hand he slew his children ; mea quidem sententia, in my opinion at least. 158 Syntax. 2. Sometimes the Possessive Pronouns are used with the force of an Objective Genitive ; as, metus vester, fear of you ; dSsiderium tuum, longing for you. 3. For special emphasis, the Latin employs ipsius or ipsdrum, in apposition with the Genitive idea implied in the Possessive; as, mea ipsius opera, by my own help ; nostra ipsorum opera, by our own help ; a. So sometimes other Genitives; as, mea unius opera, by the assistance of me alone. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS. 244. i. The Reflexive Pronoun se and the Possessive Reflexive suus have a double use: 1. They may refer to the subject of the clause (either principal or subordinate) in which they stand, < Direct Reflexives ' ; as, se amant, they love themselves ; suos amicSs adjuvat, he helps his own friends] eum oravi, ut se servaret, / besought him to save himself. II. They may stand in a subordinate clause and refer to the sub- ject of the principal clause, * Indirect Reflexives ' ; as, me oravit ut se defenderem, he besought me to defend him (lit. thai f defend himself) , me oraveruiit, ut fortunarum suarum defeiisionem susciperem, they besought me to undertake the defense of their fortunes. a. The Indirect Reflexive is mainly restricted to those clauses which express the thought, not of the author, but of the sub- ject of the principal clause. 2. The Genitive sui is regularly employed, like mei and tuT, as an Objective Genitive, e.g. oblitus sui, forgetful of himself] but it occa- sionally occurs particularly in post- Augustan writers in place of the Possessive suus ; as, fruitur fama sui, he enjoys his own fame. 3. Se and suus are sometimes used in the sense, one's self, one's own, where the reference is not to any particular person ; as, se amare, to love one's self', suum genium propitiare, to propitiate one's own genius. Reciprocal Pronouns. Demonstrative Pronouns. 1 59 4. Suus sometimes occurs in the meaning his own, their own, etc., referring not to the subject but to an oblique case ; as, Hannibalem sui cives e civitate ejgcerunt, his own fellow-citizens drove out Hannibal. a. This usage is particularly frequent in combination with quisque; as, suus quemque error vexat, his own error troubles each. 5. The Reflexives for the first and second persons are supplied by the oblique cases of ego and tu ( 85) ; as, vos def enditis, you defend yourselves. RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS. 245. i. The Latin has no special reciprocal pronoun (^ each other**}, but expresses the reciprocal notion by the phrases : inter n5s, inter vos, inter se ; as, Belgae obsides inter se dederunt, the Belgae gave each other host- ages (lit. among themselves) ; amamus inter nos, we love each other ; Galli inter se cohortati sunt, the Gauls exhorted each other. a. Note that the Object is not expressed in sentences of this type. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. Hie, Ille, Iste. 246. i. Where hie and ille are used in contrast, hie usually refers to the latter of two objects, and ille to the former. 2. Hie and ille are often used in the sense of 'the following" 1 ; as, Themistocles his verbis epistulam misit, Themistocles sent a letter (couched) in the following words ; illud intellego, omnium ora in me conversa esse, / understand this, that the faces of all are turned toward me. 3. Ille often means the famous ; as, Solon ille, the famous Solon. 4. Iste frequently involves contempt ; as, iste homo, that fellow ! 5. The above pronouns, along with is, are usually attracted to the gender of a predicate noun ; as, hie est honor, meminisse officium suum, this is an honor, to be mindful of one's duty. 160 Syntax. Is. 247. i. Is often serves as the antecedent of the relative qui. Thus : - Maximum, eum qui Tarentum recepit, dilexi, I loved Maximus, the man who retook Tarentum. a. Closely akin to this usage is is in the sense of such ( = tails) ; as, non sum is qui terrear, / am not such a person as to be frightened. b. Note the phrase id quod, where id stands in apposition with an entire clause ; as, non suspicabatur (id quod nuiic sentiet) satis multos testes nobis reliquos esse, he did not suspect (a thing which he will now perceive) that we had witnesses enough left. Yet quod alone, without preceding id, sometimes occurs in this use. 2. Is also in all cases serves as the personal pronoun of the third person, < hej ' she] ' it," 1 ' they] ' them.'' 3. When the English uses 'that ofj 'those of to avoid repetition of the noun, the Latin omits the pronoun ; as, in exercitu Sullae et postea in CrassT fuerat, he had been in the army of Sulla and afterward in that of Crassus ; nullae me fabulae delectant nisi Plauti, no plays delight me except those of Plautus. 4. Note the phrases et is, et ea, etc., in the sense : and that too ; as, vincula, et ea sempiterna, imprisonment, and that too permanently. Idem. 248. i. Idem in apposition with the subject or object often has the force of also, likewise ; as, quod idem mini contigit, which likewise happened to me (lit. which, the same thing)'; bonus vir, quern eundem sapientem appellamus, a good man, whom we call also wise. 2. For idem atque (ac), the same as, see 341, i, c. Demonstrative Pronouns. Relative Pronouns. 161 Ipse. 249. i. Ipse, literally self, acquires its special force from the con- text ; as, eo ipso die, on that very day ; ad ipsam ripam, close to the bank ; ipso terrore, by mere fright ; valvae se ipsae aperuerunt, the doors opened of their own accord] ipse aderat, he was present in person. 2. The reflexive pronouns are often emphasized by the addition of ipse, but ipse in such cases, instead of standing in apposition with the reflexive, more commonly agrees with the subject ; as, secum ipsi loquuntur, they talk with themselves ; se ipse continere non potest, he cannot contain himself. 3. Ipse is also used as an Indirect Reflexive for the purpose of marking a contrast or avoiding an ambiguity ; as, Persae pertimuerunt ne Alcibiades ab ipsis descisceret et cum suis in gratiam rediret, the Persians feared that Alcibiades would break with them and become reconciled with his countrymen. ea molestissime ferre debent homines quae ipsorum culpa con- tracta sunt, men ought to chafe most over those things which have been brought about by their own fault (as opposed to the fault of others). RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 250. Agreement, i. The Relative Pronoun agrees with its antecedent in Gender and Number, but its case is determined by its construction in the clause in which it stands ; as, mulier quam videbamus, the woman whom we saw ; bona quibus fruimur, the blessings which we enjoy. 2. Where the antecedent is compound, the same principles for number and gender prevail as in case of predicate adjectives under similar conditions (see 235, B, 2). Thus : pater et filius, qui capti sunt, the father and son who were captured ; stultitia et timiditas quae fugienda sunt, folly and cowardice which must be shunned ; honores et victoriae quae sunt fortuita, honors and victories which are accidental. M 1 62 Syntax. 3. The Relative regularly agrees with a predicate noun (either Nominative or Accusative) instead of its antecedent ; as, career, quae lautumiae vocantur, the prison, which is called Lau- tumiae ; Celtae, quae est tertia pars, the Celts, who are the third part. 4. Sometimes the Relative takes its gender and number from the meaning of its antecedent ; as, pars qui bestiis object! sunt, a part (of the men) who were thrown to beasts. 5. Occasionally the Relative is attracted into the case of its ante- cedent ; as, natus eo patre quo dixi, born of the father that I said. 251. Antecedent, i. The antecedent of the Relative is sometimes omitted ; as, qui naturam sequitur sapiens est, he who follows Nature is wise. 2. The antecedent may be implied in a possessive pronoun (or rarely an adjective) ; as, nostra qui remansimus caedes, the slaughter of us who remained; servili tumultu, qu5s usus ac disciplma sublevarunt, at the up- rising of the slaves, whom experience and discipline assisted (servili = servorum). 3. Sometimes the antecedent is repeated with the Relative; as, erant itinera duo, quibus itineribus, there were two routes, by which (routes}. 4. Incorporation of Antecedent in Relative Clause. The antecedent is often incorporated in the relative clause. Thus : a) When the relative clause stands first ; as, quam quisque novit artem in hac se exerceat, let each one practice the branch which he knows. b) When the antecedent is an appositive ; as, non longe a Tolosatium finibus absunt, quae civitas est in provincia, they are not far from the borders of the Tolosates, a state which is in our province. c) When the logical antecedent is a superlative ; as, ThemistoclSs de servis suis, quern habuit fidelissimum misit, Themistocles sent the most trusty slave he had. Relative Pronouns. Indefinite Pronouns. 163 d) In expressions of the type qua es prudentia ; quae tua est prudentia, such is your prudence (lit. of which prudence you are; which is your prudence) . 5. The Relative is never omitted in Latin as it is in English. Thus the boy I saw must be puer quern vidi. 6. The Relative is used freely in Latin, particularly at the beginning of a sentence, where in English we employ a demonstrative ; as, quo f actum est, by this it happened ; quae cum ita sint, since this is so ; quibus rebus cognitis, when these things became known. 7. The Relative introducing a subordinate clause may belong grammatically to a clause which is subordinate to the one it intro- duces ; as, numquam digue satis laudari philosophia poterit, cui qui pareat, omne tempus aetatis sine molestia possit degere, philosophy can never be praised enough, since he who obeys her can pass all his life without annoyance (lit. he who obeys which, etc.). Here cui introduces the subordinate clause possit and connects it with philosophia ; but cui is governed by pareat, which is subordi- nate to possit. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 252. i . Quis, any one, is the weakest of the Indefinites, and stands usually in combination with si, nisi, ne, nurn ; as, si quis putat, if any one thinks. 2. Aliquis (adj. aliqui) is more definite than quis, and corre- sponds usually to the English some one, somebody, some ; as, nunc aliquis dicat mihi, now let somebody tell me ; utinam modo agatur aliquid, oh that something may be done. 3. Quidam, a certain one, is still more definite than aliquis ; as, homo quidam, a certain man (i.e. one whom I have in mind). a. Quidam (with or without quasi, as if) is sometimes used in the sense : a sort of, kind of; as, quaedam cognatio, a sort of relationship ; mors est quasi quaedam migratio, death is a kind of transfer \ as it were. 1 64 Syntax. 4. Quisquam, any one, any one whoever (more general than quis), and its corresponding adjective ullus, any, occur mostly in negative and conditional sentences, in interrogative sentences implying a nega- tive, and in clauses of comparison ; as, justitia numquam nocet ouiqnam,///^//^ never harms anybody, si quisquam, Cato sapiens f uit, if anybody was ever wise, Cato was ; potestne quisquam sine perturbatione auimi irasci, can anybody be angry without excitement f si ullo modo fieri potest, if it can be done in any way, taetrior hie tyrannus fuit quam quisquam superior um, he was a viler tyrant than any of his predecessors. 5. Quisque, each one, is used especially under the following circum- stances : a) In connection with suus. See 244, 4, a. b} In connection with a Relative or Interrogative Pronoun ; as, quod cuique obtigit, id teiieat, what falls to each, that let him hold. c) In connection with superlatives ; as, optimus quisque, all the best (lit. each best one). d) With ordinal numerals ; as, quinto quoque anno, every four years (lit. each fifth year). 6. Nemo, no one, stands regularly with adjectives used substan- tively ; as, nemo mortalis, no mortal', nemo Romanus. no Roman. , PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 253. i. Alius, another, and alter, the other, are often used correl- atively ; as, aliud loquitur, aliud sentit, he says one thing, he thinks another ; alii resistunt, alii fugiunt, some resist, others flee; alter exercitum perdidit, alter vendidit, one ruined the army, the other sold it; alter! se in montem receperunt, alter! ad impedimenta se contu- lerunt, the one party retreated to the mountain, the others betook themselves to the Agreement of Verb with Subject. 165 2. Where the English says one does one thing, another another, the Latin uses a more condensed form of statement ; as, alius aliud amat, one likes one thing, another another ; aliud aliis placet, one thing pleases some, another others. a. So sometimes with adverbs ; as, alii alio fugfiunt, somefiee in one direction, others in another. 3. The Latin also expresses the notion ^ each other" by means of alius repeated ; as, Galli alius alium cohortati sunt, the Gauls encouraged each other. 4. Ceterl means the rest, all the others ; as, ceteris praestare, to be superior to all the others. 5. Reliqui means the others in the sense of the rest^ those remain- ing, hence is the regular word with numerals ; as, reliqui sex, the six others. 6. Ngscio quis forms a compound indefinite pronoun with the force of some one or other ; as, causidicus nescid quis, some pettifogger or other ; misit nescid quern, he sent some one or other ; nescio quo pacto, somehow or other. CHAPTER V. Syntax of Verbs. AGREEMENT. With One Subject. 254. I. Agreement in Number and Person. A Finite Verb agrees with its subject in Number and Person ; as, vos videtis, you see ; pater filios instituit, the father trains his sons. 2. Agreement in Gender. In the compound forms of the verb the participle regularly agrees with its subject in gender ; as, seditio repressa est, the mutiny was checked. 1 66 Syntax. 3. But when a predicate noun is of different gender or number from its subject, the verb usually agrees with its nearest substantive ; as, Tarquinii materna patria erat, Tarquinii was his native country on his mother's side ; non omnis error stultitia est dicenda, not every error is to be called folly, a. Less frequently the verb agrees with an appositive ; as, Corioli, oppidum Volscorum, captum est, Corioli, a town of the Volsci, was captured. 4. Construction according to Sense. Sometimes the verb agrees with its subject according to sense instead of strict gram- matical form. Thus : a) In Number; as, multitude hominum convenerant, a crowd of men had gathered. b) In Gender; as, duo milia crucibus adfixi sunt, two thousand (men) were crucified. With Two or More Subjects. 255. I. Agreement in Number. With two or more sub- jects the verb is regularly plural ; as, pater et films mortui sunt, the father and son died. i. But sometimes the verb agrees with the nearest subject ; z//>., a) When the verb precedes both subjects or stands between them ; as, mortuus est pater et filius ; pater mortuus est et filius. b) When the subjects are connected by aut; aut . . . aut; vel . . . vel ; neque . . . neque ; as, neque pater neque filius mortuus est, neither father nor son died. 3. When the different subjects are felt together as constituting a whole, the singular is used ; as, temeritas ignoratioque vitiosa est, rashness and ignorance are bad. a. This is regularly the case in senatus populusque Romanus. Voices. Tenses. 167 4. Agreement in Person. With subjects of different persons the verb always takes the first person rather than the second, and the second rather than the third; as, si tu et Tullia valetis, ego et Cicero valemus, if you and Tullia are well, Cicero and I are well. 5. Agreement in Gender. With subjects of different genders the participle in the compound tenses follows the same principles as laid down for predicate adjectives. See 235, B, 2. VOICES. 256. i . The Passive Voice sometimes retains traces of its original middle or reflexive meaning ; as, ego non patiar eum defend!, / shall not allow him to defend himself. 2. In imitation of Greek usage many perfect passive participles are used by the poets as indirect middles, i.e. the subject is viewed as act- ing not upon himself, but as doing something in his own interest ; as, vglatus tempora, having veiled his temples. a. Occasionally finite forms of the verb are thus used; as, tunica inducitur artus, he covers his limbs with a tunic. 3. Intransitive Verbs may be used impersonally in the passive ; as, curritur, people run (lit. // is run) ; ventum est, he (they, etc.) came (lit. // was come). TENSES. TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE. 257. i. The Latin tenses express two distinct no- tions : a) The period of time to which the action belongs : Present, Past, or Future. V) The kind of action : Undefined, Going on, or Completed. The Latin with its six tenses is able to express each of the three kinds of action for each of the three periods of time (making practically nine 1 68 Syntax. tenses). It does this by employing certain tenses in more than one way, as may be seen by the following table : PERIOD OF TIME. PRESENT. PAST. FUTURE. UNDEFINED. GOING ON. COMPLETED. I Present : Historical Perfect : Future : scribo, I write. scripsl, / wrote. scribam, / shall write. Present : scribo, / am Imperfect : scribebam, / Future : scribam, I shall writing. was writing. be writing. Present Perfect : scrips!, / have Pluperfect : scripseram, / Future Perfect : scripsero, / written. had written. shall have writ- ten. 2. It will be seen that the Present may express Undefined action or action Going on ; so also the Future. The Perfect likewise has a double use, according as it denotes action Completed in present time (Present Perfect) or Undefined action belonging to past time (Historical Perfect). Principal and Historical Tenses. 258. Tenses which denote Present or Future time are called Principal Tenses ; those which denote Past time are called Historical. The Principal Tenses of the Indicative are : Present, Future, Present Perfect, Future Perfect. The Historical Tenses are : Imperfect, Historical Per- fect, Pluperfect. Present Indicative. 259. Besides the two uses indicated in the table, the Present Indicative presents the following peculiarities : i. It is used to denote, a general truth, i.e. something true not merely in the present but at all times (' Gnomic Present 1 ) ; as, virtus conciliat amicitias et conservat, virtue establishes ties of friendship and maintains them (i.e. always does so). Tenses. 169 2. It is used of an attempted action ('Conative Present') ; as, dum vitant vitia, in contraria currunt, while they try to avoid (v it ant) vices ) they rush into opposite ones. 3. In lively narration the Present is often used of a past action (< Historical Present'); as, Caesar Aeduis obsides imperat, Caesar demanded hostages of the Aedui (lit. demands). 4. In combination with jam, jam diu, jam pridem, and similar words, the Present is frequently used of an action originating in the past and continuing in the present ; as, jam diu cupio te visere, I have long been desiring to visit you (i.e. I desire and have long desired) . Imperfect Indicative. 260. i. The Imperfect primarily denotes action going on in past time ; as, librum legebam, I was reading a book. a. This force makes the Imperfect especially adapted to serve as the tense of description (as opposed to mere narration) . i 2. From the notion of action going on, there easily develops the notion of repeated or customary action ; as, legates interrogabat, he kept asking the envoys ; puer C. Duilium videbam, as a boy I often used to see Gaius Duilius. 3. Like the Present, the Imperfect often denotes an attempted action (< Conative Imperfect ') ; as, hostes nostros iiitra munitiones progredi prohibebant, the enemy . tried to prevent (prohibebant) our men from advancing within the fortifications. 4. The Imperfect, with jam, jam diu, jam dudum, etc., is some- times used of a past action which had been continuing for some time; as, domicilium Romae multos jam annos habebat, he had had his residence at Rome for many years (i.e. he had it at this time and had long had it) . 1 70 Syntax. Future Indicative. 261. i. The two regular uses of the Future have been given above in the Table (p. 168). 2,. The Latin is much more exact in the use of the Future than is the English. We say: ^ If he comes, I shall be gladj where we really mean: * If he shall come," 1 etc. In such cases the Latin rarely admits the Present, but generally employs the Future ; viz. si veniet, laetus ero. Perfect Indicative. 262. A. PRESENT PERFECT. Several Present Perfects denote the state resulting from a completed act, and so seem equivalent to the Present; as, _ . \ I know (lit. / have become acquainted with) ; consuevi, I am wont (lit. I have become accustomed). B. HISTORICAL PERFECT. The Historical Perfect is primarily the tense of narration (as opposed to the Imperfect, the tense of descrip- tion) ; as, Regulus in senatum venit, mandata exposuit. reddi captives negavit esse utile, Regulus came into the Senate, set forth his commission, said it was useless for captives to be returned. i. Occasionally the Historical Perfect is used of a general truth (' Gnomic Perfect'). Pluperfect Indicative. 263. The Latin Pluperfect, like the English Past Per- fect, denotes an act completed in the past; as, Caesar Rhenum transire decreverat, sed naves deerant, Caesar had decided to cross the Rhine, but had no boats. Future Perfect Indicative. 264. The Future Perfect denotes an action completed in future time. Thus : scribam epistulam, cum redieris, / will write the letter when you have returned (lit. when you shall have returned) . a. The Latin is much more exact in the use of the Future Per- fect than the English, which commonly employs the Present Perfect instead of the Future Perfect. Sequence of Tenses. 171 Epistolary Tenses. 265. In letters the writer often uses tenses which are not appro- priate at the time of writing, but which will be so at the time when his letter is received ; he thus employs the Imperfect and the Perfect for the Present, and the Pluperfect for the Present Perfect ; as, nihil habebam quod scriberem, neque enim novi quidquam audieram et ad tuas omiies epistulas jam rescripseram, / have nothing to write, for I have heard no news and have already answered all your letters. TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 266. A. In Independent Sentences. See 272-280. B. In Dependent Sentences. In dependent sentences the tenses of the subjunctive usually conform to the so-called Sequence of Tenses. 267. i. In the Subjunctive the Present and Perfect are Principal tenses, the Imperfect and Pluperfect, Historical. 2. By the Sequence of Tenses Principal tenses are fol- lowed by Principal, Historical by Historical. Thus: PRINCIPAL SEQUENCE, video quid facias, I see what you are doing. videbo quid facias, / shall see what you are doing. videro quid facias, / shall have seen what you are doing. vide5 quid feceris, / see what you have done. videbo quid feceris, I shall see what you have done. videro quid feceris, I shall have seen what you have done. HISTORICAL SEQUENCE, videbam quid faceres, I saw what you were doing. vidi quid faceres, I saw what you were doing. videram quid faceres, / had seen what you were doing. videbam quid fecisses, I saw what you had done. vidi quid fecisses, / saw what you had done. videram quid fecisses, I had seen what you had done. 3. The Present and Imperfect Subjunctive denote incomplete action, the Perfect and Pluperfect completed action, exactly as in the Indicative. 172 Syntax. Peculiarities of Sequence. 268. i. The Perfect Indicative is usually an historical tense (even when translated in English as a Present Perfect), and so is followed by the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive ; as, demonstravi quare ad causam accederem, / have shown why I took the case (lit. I showed why, etc.). 2. A dependent Perfect Infinitive is treated as an historical tense wherever, if resolved into an equivalent Indicative, it would be his- torical ; as, videor ostendisse quales del essent, I seem to have shown of what nature the gods are (ostendisse here corresponds to an Indic- ative, osteiidi, I showed). 3. The Historical Present is sometimes regarded as a principal tense, sometimes as historical. Thus : Sulla suos hortatur ut forti ammo sint, Sulla exhorts his soldiers to be stout-hearted; Gallos hortatur ut arma caperent, he exhorted the Gauls to take arms. 4. Conditional sentences of the < contrary-to-fact 1 type are not affected by the principles for the Sequence of Tenses ; as, honestum tale est ut vel si ignorarent id homines sua tamen pulchritudine laudabile esset, virtue is such a thing that even if men were ignorant of it, it would still be worthy of praise for its own loveliness. 5. In conditional sentences of the 'contrary-to-fact 1 type the Imper- fect Subjunctive is usually treated as an Historical tense ; as, si solos e5s diceres miseros, quibus morieiidum esset, neminem tu quidem eorum qui viverent exciperes, if you called only those wretched who must die, you would except no one of those who live. 6. In clauses of Result and some others, the Perfect Subjunctive is sometimes used as an historical tense. Thus: rex tantum motus est, ut Tissaphernem hostem judicarit, the king was so much moved that he adjudged Tissaphernes an enemy. This construction is rare in Cicero, but frequent in Nepos and sub- sequent historians. The Perfect Subjunctive in this use represents a Sequence of Tenses. 173 result simply as a fact 'without reference to the continuance of the act, and therefore corresponds to an Historical Perfect Indicative of direct statement. Thus, judicarit in the above example corresponds to a judicavit, he adjudged. To denote a result as something continuous, all writers use the Imperfect Subjunctive after historical tenses. 7. Sometimes perspicuity demands that the ordinary principles of Sequence be abandoned altogether. Thus : a) We may have the Present or Perfect Subjunctive after an historical tense ; as, Verres Siciliam ita perdidit ut ea restitui non possit, Verres so mined Sicily that it cannot be restored (Direct statement ; non potest restitui) ; ardebat Hortensius dicendi cupiditate sic. ut in nullo flagrantius studium viderim, Hortensius burned so with eagerness to speak that I have seen in no one a greater desire (Direct statement : in nullo vidi, / have seen in no one) . NOTE. This usage is different from that cited under 6. Here, by neglect of Sequence, the Perfect is used as a principal tense ; there the Perfect was used as an historical tense. b) We may have a principal tense followed by the Perfect Sub- junctive used historically ; as, nescio quid causae fuerit cur nullas ad me litteras dares, / do not know what reason there was why you did not send me a letter. Here fuerit is historical, as is shown by the following Imperfect Subjunctive. Method of expressing Future Time in the Subjunctive. 269. The Future and Future Perfect which are lacking to the Latin Subjunctive are supplied in subordinate clauses as follows: i . d) The Future is supplied by the Present after principal tenses, by the Imperfect after historical tenses. b) The Future Perfect is supplied by the Perfect after principal tenses, by the Pluperfect after historical tenses. This is especially frequent when the context clearly shows, by the presence of a future tense in the main clause, that the reference is to future time. Thus : 174 Syntax. Galli pollicentur se facturos, quae Caesar imperet, the Gauls promise they will do what Caesar shall order ; Galli pollicebaiitur se facturos, quae Caesar imperaret, the Gauls promised they would do what Caesar should order ; Galli pollicentur se facturos quae Caesar imperaverit, the Gauls promise they will do what Caesar shall have ordered ; Galli pollicebantur se facturos quae Caesar imperavisset, the Gauls promised they would do what Caesar should have ordered. 2. Even where the context does not contain a Future tense in the main clause, Future time is often expressed in the subordinate clauses by the Present and Imperfect Subjunctive. Thus : timeo ne veniat, / am afraid he will come ; Caesar exspectabat quid consilii hostes caperent, Caesar was waiting to see what plan the enemy would adopt. 3. Where greater definitehess is necessary the periphrastic forms in -urus sim and -urus essem are employed, especially in clauses of Result, Indirect Questions, and after non dubito quin; as, non dubito quin pater venturus sit, / do not doubt that my father will come ; non dubitabam qum pater venturus esset, / did not doubt that my father would come. 4. Where the verb has no Future Active Participle or where it stands in the passive voice, its Future character may be indicated by the use of the particles mox, brevi, statim, etc., in connection with the Present and Imperfect Subjunctive ; as, non dubito qum te mox hujus rei paeniteat, / do not doubt that you will soon repent of this thing; 11611 dubitabam quin haec res brevi conficeretur, / did not doubt that this thing would soon be finished. TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE. 270. i. The tenses of the Infinitive denote time not absolutely, but with reference to the verb on which they depend. Thus : a) The Present Infinitive represents an act as contemporaneous with the time of the verb on which it depends ; as, videtur honores adsequT, he seems to be gaining honors ; videbatur honores adsequi, he seemed to be gaining honors. Tenses of the Infinitive. 175 b) The Perfect Infinitive represents an act as prior to the time of the verb on which it depends ; as, videtur honores adsecutus esse, he seems to have gained honors ; visus est honores adsecutus esse, he seemed to have gamed honors. c) The Future Infinitive represents an act as subsequent to that of the verb on which it depends ; as, videtur honores adsecuturus esse, he seems about to gain honors ; visus est honores adsecuturus esse, he seemed about to gain honors. 2. Where the English says ' ought to have done] ' might have done? etc., the Latin uses debui, oportuit, potui, with the Present Infini- tive ; as, debuit dicere, he ought to have said (lit. owed it to say) ; oportuit venire, he ought to have come ; potuit videre, he might have seen. a. Oportuit sometimes takes the Perfect Infinitive instead of the Pres- ent; as, hoc jam pridem factum esse oportuit, this ought long ago to have, been done. 3. PERIPHRASTIC FUTURE INFINITIVE. Verbs that have no Par- ticipial Stem express the Future Infinitive Active and Passive by fore ut or futurum esse ut, with the Subjunctive ; as, spero fore ut te paeniteat levitatis, I hope you will repent of your fickleness (lit. hope it will happen that you repent) ; spero futurum esse ut hostes arceantur, / hope that the enemy will be kept off. a. The Periphrastic Future Infinitive is often used, especially in the Passive, even in case of verbs which have the Participial Stem ; as, spero fore ut hostes vincantur, / hope the enemy will be con- quered. 4. Passives and Deponents sometimes form a Future Perfect Infini- tive with fore ; as, spero epistulam scriptam fore, / hope the letter will have been written ; puto me omnia adeptum fore, / think that I shall have gained everything. 1 76 Syntax. THE MOODS. MOODS IN INDEPENDENT SENTENCES. The Indicative in Independent Sentences. 271. The Indicative is used for the statement of facts, the supposition of facts, or inquiry after facts. i . Note the following idiomatic uses : a) With possum ; as, possum multa dicere, / might say much ; poteram multa dicere, I might have said much ( 270, 2). b) In such expressions as longum est, aequum est, melius est, difficile est, utilius est, and some others ; as, longum est ea dicere, it would be tedious to tell that ; difficile est oxnnia persequi, it would be difficult to enu- merate everything. The Subjunctive in Independent Sentences. 272. The Subjunctive is used in Independent Sentences to express something 1 . As -willed Volitive Subjunctive ; 2. As desired Optative Subjunctiv^ ; 3. Conceived of as possible Potential Subjunctive. VOLITIVE SUBJUNCTIVE. 273. The Volitive Subjunctive represents the action as ivilled. It always implies authority on the part of the speaker, and has the following varieties : A. HORTATORY SUBJUNCTIVE. 274. The Hortatory Subjunctive expresses an exhor- tation. This use is confined to the first person plural, of the Present. The negative is ng. Thus : eamus, let us go ; amemus patriam, let us love our country ; nS desperemus, let us not despair. The Volitive Subjunctive. 177 B. JUSSIVE SUBJUNCTIVE. 275. The Jussive Subjunctive expresses a command. The Jussive stands regularly in the Present Tense, and is used 1 . Most frequently in the third singular and third plural ; as, die at, let him tell ; die ant, let them tell] impii ne placare audeant decs, let not the wicked dare to appease the gods. 2. Less frequently in the second person; as, isto bono utare, use that advantage ; modeste vivas, live temperately. C. PROHIBITIVE SUBJUNCTIVE. 276. The Subjunctive is used in the second person sin- gular and plural, with ne, to express a prohibition. As regards the use of tenses, the Perfect seems to be used where there is special excitement or emotion, otherwise the Present; as, ne repugnetis, do not resist ! tu vero istam ne reliqueris, DON'T YOU LEAVE HER! a. Neither of these constructions is frequent in classical prose. b. The distinction sometimes drawn between the Present and the Perfect in this construction, restricting the former to general prohibitions, and the latter to those addressed to a definite second person, will not hold. c. A commoner method of expressing a prohibition is by the use of noli (nolite) with a following infinitive, or by cave ne with the Subjunctive ; as, n51i hoc facere, don't do this (lit. be unwilling to do)! nolite mentiri, do not lie! cave ne haec facias, do not do this (lit. take care lest you do) . D. DELIBERATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE. 377. The Deliberative Subjunctive is used in questions and exclamations implying doubt or indignation. The 1 78 Syntax. Present is used referring to present time, the Imperfect referring to past. The negative is non. Thus : quid faciam, what shall I do f ego redeam, shall I go back? quid facer em, what was I to do ? hunc ego 11611 diligam, shall I not cherish this man f a. These Deliberative Questions are usually purely Rhetorical in char- acter, and do not expect an answer. E. CONCESSIVE SUBJUNCTIVE. 278. The Subjunctive is used to indicate something as granted or conceded for the sake of argument. The Present is used for present time, the Perfect regularly for past. The negative is ne. Thus : sit hoc verum, granting that this is true (lit. let this be true) ; ne sit summum malum dolor, malum certe est, granting that pain is not the greatest evil, yet it is certainly an evil ; fuerit malus civis aliis, tibi quando esse coepit, granting that he was a bad citizen to others, when did he begin to be so toward you f OPTATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE. 279. The Optative Subjunctive occurs in expressions of wishing. The negative is regularly ne. The use of tenses is as follows : 1 . The Present Tense, often accompanied by utinam, is used where the wish is conceived of as possible. di istaec prohibeaiit, may the gods prevent that ! falsus utinam vates sim, oh that I may be a false prophet! ne veniaiit, may they not come ! 2. The Imperfect expresses, in the form of a wish, the regret that something is not so now ; the Pluperfect that something was not so in the past. The Imperfect and Pluperfect are always accompanied by utinam ; as, utinam istud ex ammo diceres, would that you were saying that in earnest, (i.e. I regret that you are not saying it in earnest) ; Pelides utinam vitasset Apollinis arcus, would that Achilles had escaped the bow of Apollo ; utinam ne natus essem, would that I had not been born. The Potential Subjunctive. 179 POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE. 280. The Potential Subjunctive expresses a possibility. The negative is non. The following uses are to be noted : 1. The Potential Subjunctive may designate a mere objective possi- bility (English auxiliary may). The tense is usually the Present, but the Perfect (with the force of the Present) sometimes occurs. The subject is generally an indefinite pronoun. Thus : die at aliquis, some one may say ; dixerit aliquis, some one may say ; quaerat quispiam, some one may ask ; dicas, jw* (one) may say ( 356, 3). a. This construction is by no means frequent, and is confined mainly to a few phrases like those given as examples. 2. The Potential Subjunctive may represent something as contingent upon a condition expressed or understood (English auxiliary should, would). Both Present and Perfect occur, and without appreciable difference of meaning. Thus : f 61 tun am citius reperias quam retineas, one would more quickly find Fortune than keep it (i.e. if one should make the trial) ; vix veri simile videatur, it would seem hardly likely ; paene dicam, I should almost say (i.e. if I were to express an opinion) ; crediderim, / should believe. a. Here belongs the use of velim, malim, nolim, as more cautious forms of statement for volo, malo, nolo. Thus : velim mihi ignSscas, / wish you would forgive me ; nolim putes me jocari, / don't want you to think Pm joking. b. When the condition is expressed, we get one of the regular types of Conditional Sentences (see 303) ; -as, dies deficiat, si coiier enumerare causas, time would fail if I should attempt to enumerate the reasons. 3. In the Imperfect the Potential occurs only in the second per- son singular (with indefinite force ; 356, 3) of a few verbs, chiefly the following : crederes, one might have believed ; videres, cerneres, one might have seen, perceived ; put ares, one might have thought. i8o Syntax. The Imperative. 281. The Imperative is used in commands, admonitions, and entreaties (negative ne); as, egredere ex urbe, depart from the city ; mihi ignosce, pardon me ; Tja\&, farewell. i. The Present is the tense of the Imperative most commonly used, but the Future is employed a) Where there is a distinct reference to future time, especially in the apodosis of conditional sentences ; as, rem vobis proponam ; vos earn penditote, I will lay the matter before you ; do you (then) consider it ; si bene disputabit, tribuito litteris Graecis, if he shall speak well, attribute it to Greek literature. b) In laws, treaties, wills, maxims, etc. ; as, consules summum jus habeiito, the consuls shall have supreme power ; hominem mortuom in urbe ne sepelito, no one shall bury a dead body in the city ; amicitia regi Antiocho cum populo Romano his legi- bus et condicionibus esto, let there be peace between Antiochus and the Roman people on the following terms and conditions. quartae esto partis Marcus heres, let Marcus be heir to a fourth (of the property} ; ignoscito saepe alter!, numquam ti\>i, forgive your neigh- bor often, yourself never. 7.. Except with the Future Imperative the negative is not used in classical prose. Prohibitions are regularly expressed in other ways. See 276, c. 3. Questions in the Indicative introduced by qum (why not?) are often equivalent to an Imperative or to the Hortatory Subjunctive; as, qum abis, go away ! (lit. why dot? t you go away T) quin vocem continetis, keep still I (lit. why don't you stop your voices ?) qum equos cdiiscendimus, let us mount our horses (lit. why do we not mount our horses f) Clauses of Purpose. 181 MOODS IN DEPENDENT CLAUSES. Clauses of Purpose. 282. i. Clauses of Purpose are introduced most com- monly by ut (uti), quo (that, in order that), ne (in order that not, lest), and stand in the Subjunctive ; as, edimus, ut vivamus, we eat that we may live. adjuta me quo hoc fiat facilius, help me, in order that this may be done more easily. portas clausit, ne quam oppidan! injuriam acciperent, he closed the gates, lest the townspeople should receive any injury. a. Quo, as a rule, is employed only when the purpose clause contains a comparative or a comparative idea. Occasional exceptions occur ; as, haec faciunt quo Chremetem absterreant, they are doing this in order to frighten Chr ernes. b. Ut ne is sometimes found, as more emphatic than ne. Thus : - ut ne quid neglegenter agamus, in order that we may not do anything carelessly. c. Ut non (for ne) is used where the negation belongs to some single word, instead of to the purpose clause as a whole. Thus : - ut non ejectus ad alienos, sed invitatus ad tuos vide- are, that you may seem not driven out among strangers, but invited to your own friends. d. To say ' and that not ' or * or that not] the Latin regularly uses neve (neu) ; as, ut earum rerum vis minueretur, neu ponti nocerent, that the violence of these things might be lessened, and that they might not harm the bridge ; profugit, ne caperetur neve interficeretur, he fled, that he might not be captured or killed. e. But neque (for neve) is sometimes used in the second clause when ut stands in the first, and, after the Augustan era, even when the first clause is introduced by ne. 1 82 Syntax. 2. A Relative Pronoun (qui) or Adverb (ubi, unde, qu5) is fre- quently used to introduce a Purpose Clause ; as, Helvetii legates mittunt, qui dicereiit, the Helvetii sent envoys to say (lit. who shoiild say) ; haec habui, de senectute quae dicerem, / had these things to say about old age ; non habebat quo fugeret, he had no place to which to flee (lit. whither he might flee). a. Qui in such clauses is equivalent to ut is, ut ego, etc. ; ubi to ut ibi ; unde to ut inde ; quo to ut eo. 3. Relative clauses of purpose follow dignus, indignus, and ido- neus ; as, idoneus fuit nemo quern imitarere, there was no one suitable for you to imitate (cf. nemo fuit quern imitarere, there was no one to imitate) ; dignus est qui aliquando imperet, he is worthy to rule sometime. 4. Purpose clauses often depend upon something to be supplied from the context instead of upon the principal verb of their own sen- tences ; as, ut haec omnia omittam, abiimus, to pass over all this (/ will say that) we departed. Clauses of Characteristic. 283. i. A relative clause used to express an essential quality or characteristic of an antecedent not otherwise de- fined is called a Clause of Characteristic, and stands in the Subjunctive ; as, multa stint, quae mentem acuant, they are many things which sharpen the wits. Clauses of Characteristic are opposed to those relative clauses which are used merely to state or assume some fact about an antecedent already defined, and which therefore take the Indicative; as, Cato, senex jucundus, qui Sapiens appellatus est, Cato, a delight- ful old man, who was called ''The Wise? The Clause of Characteristic implies 'a man of the sort that does some- thing" 1 ; the Indicative relative clause implies t a man who actually does something? Clauses of Characteristic. 183 2. Clauses of Characteristic are used especially after such expressions as, est qui ; sunt qui ; nemo est qui ; nullus est qui ; unus est qui ; solus est qui ; quis est qui ; is qui ; etc. Thus : sunt qui dicant, there are (some) who say ; nemo est qui putet, there is nobody who thinks ; sapientia est una quae maestitiam pellat, philosophy is the only thing that drives away sorrow ; quae civitas est quae non everti possit, what state is there that cannot be overthrown ? non is sum qui improbos laudem, / am not the sort of man that praises the wicked. a. Sometimes (very rarely in Cicero and Caesar) the clause of characteris- tic is used after comparatives ; as, non longius hostes aberant quam quo telurn adigi posset, the enemy were not too far off for a dart to reach them (lit. further off than [a point] to which a dart could be cast). 3. The Clause of Characteristic often conveys an accessory notion of cause {since) or opposition (although). Thus : a) Cause. The relative is then frequently accompanied by ut, quippe, utpote ; as, 6 fortunate adulescEns, qui tuae virtutis Homerum praecoiiem inveneris, O fortunate man, since you have found a Homer as the herald of your valor ; ut qui optimo jure earn provinciam obtinuerit, since he held that province by excellent right. U) Opposition : egomet qui sero Graecas litteras attigissem, tamen complures dies Athenis commoratus sum, /, al- though I had taken up Greek literature late in life, nevertheless tarried several days at Athens. 4. Clauses of Characteristic may also be introduced by qum = qui (quae, quod) non ; as, nemo est qum saepe audierit, there is no one who has not often Jieard ; 3mo fuit militum quin vulneraretur, there was no one of the soldiers wJio was not wounded. 5 . Under Clauses of Characteristic belong also phrases of the type : quod sciam, so far as I know ; quod audierim, so far as I have heard. 1 84 Syntax. Clauses of Result. 284. i. Clauses of Result are usually introduced by ut (that, so that), negative ut non (so that not\ and take the Subjunctive. The main clause often contains tantus, tails, tot, is ( = tails), tarn, or some similar word. Thus : quis tarn demens est ut sua voluntate maereat, who is so senseless as to mourn of his own volition ? Sicilian! ita vastavit ut restitui in antiquum statum n5n possit, he has so ravaged Sicily that it cannot be restored to its former condition ; mo iis altissimus impeiidebat, ut facile perpauci prohibere pos- sent, a very high mountain overhung, so that a very few could easily stop them. 2. A Result Clause is often introduced by a Relative Pronoun or Adverb, qui ( = ut is), quo ( = ut eo), etc. ; as, nemo est tarn seiiex qui se aiiiium non putet posse vivere, nobody is so old as not to think he will live a year ; habetis eum consulem qui parere vestris decretis non dubitet, you have a consul such as does not hesitate to obey your decrees. a. These relative clauses of result are a development of the Clause of Characteristic, and sometimes it is difficult to distinguish the two con- structions. It is best to class the relative clause as one of Characteristic, unless the result idea is clear and unmistakable. 3. Result clauses may also be introduced by quin = ut non ; as, nihil tarn difficile est quin quaerendo investigari possit, nothing is so difficult that it cannot be discovered by searching. nemo est tarn fortis quin rei novitate perturbetur, no one is so steadfast as not to be thrown into confusion by a strange occurrence. Note phrases of the type : fieri non potest quin scribam, ] 7 ^^ avoid writing. facere non possum quin scribam, J 4. Note the use of quam ut to denote result after comparatives ; as, urbs erat mumtior quam ut primo impetu cap! posset, the city was too strongly fortified to be taken at the first attack (lit. more strongly fortified than [so] that it could be taken, etc.} . Causal Clauses. 185 Causal Clauses. 285. Causal clauses are introduced chiefly by the fol- lowing particles : 1. Quod, quia, quoniam. 2. Cum. 3. Quando. 286. The use of moods is as follows : i. Quod, quia, quoniam take the Indicative when the reason is that of the writer or speaker ; they take the Sub- junctive when the reason is viewed as that of another. Thus:- Parthos timeo quod diffido copiis nostris, I fear the Parthians, because I distrust ottr troops. Themistocles, quia non tutus erat, Corcyram demigravit, The- mistocles, since he was not safe, moved to Corey ra. neque me vixisse paenitet, quoniam beiie vixi, / do not regret having lived, since / have lived well. Socrates accusatus est quod corrumperet juventutem, Socrates was arraigned on the ground that he was corrupting the young. (Here the reason is not that of the writer but of the accuser. Hence the Subjunctive.) Aedui Caesar! gratias egerunt, quod se periculo liberavisset, the Aedui thanked Caesar because he had delivered them from danger. (The reason of the Aedui.) quoniam Miltiades dicere n5n posset, verba pro eo fecit Ti- sagoras, since Miltiades could not speak, Tisagoras spoke for him. (The reason of Tisagoras.) noctu ambulabat Themistocles, quod somnum capere non pos- set, Themistocles used to walk at night because (as he said) he couldn't sleep. a. Verbs of thinking and saying often stand in the Subjunc- tive in causal clauses as though the act of thinking or say- ing, and not the contents of the thought or language, con- stituted the reason. Thus : Bellovaci suum numerum non compleverunt, quod se suo nomine cum Romania bellum gestures dice- rent, the Bellovaci did not furnish their complement, be- 1 86 Syntax. cause they said they were going to wage war with the Romans on their own account. b. Non quod, non quo (by attraction for non eo quod), non quia, not that, not because; and non quod non, noil quo non, non quin, not that . . . not; not because . . . not; not but what, are usually employed merely to introduce a hypothetical reason, and hence take the Subjunctive ; as, id fed, non quod vos hanc defensionem desiderare arbitrager, sed ut omnes intellegerent, this I did, not because I thought you needed this defense, but that all might perceive ; Crasso commendationem non sum pollicitus, non quin earn valituram apud te arbitrarer, sed egere mihi commendatione non videbatur, I did not promise a recommendation to Crassus, not that I did not think it would have weight with you, but because he did not seem to me to need recommendation. c. But clauses introduced by non quod, non quia take the Indicative if they state a fact, even though that fact is denied to be the reason for something ; as, hoc ita sentio, non quia sum ipse augur, sed quia sic existimare nos est necesse, this I think, not because I am myself an augur (which I really am), but because it is necessary for us to think so. 2. Cum causal regularly takes the Subjunctive; as, quae cum ita sint, since this is so ; cum sis mortalis, quae mortalia sunt, cura, since you are mortal, care for what is mortal. a. Note the phrase cum praesertim (praesertim cum), especially since; as, Aeduos accusat, praesertim cum eorum precibus ad- ductus bellum susceperit, he blamed the Aedui, especially since he had itndertaken the war at their entreaties. 3. Quando (less frequent than the other causal particles) governs the Indicative ; as, id omitto, quando vobis ita placet, / pass over that, since you so wish. Clauses with Postquam, Ubi, etc. 187 Temporal Clauses introduced by Postquam, Ut, Ubi, Simul ac, etc. ' 287. I. Postquam (posteaquam), after; ut, ubi, when; cum primum, simul, simul ac (simul atque), as soon as, when used to refer to a single occurrence regularly take the Per- fect Indicative ; as, Epammondas postquam audivit vicisse Boeotios, ' Satis ' inquit < vixi, 7 Epaminondas, after he heard that the Boeotians had con- quered, said, ' I have lived enough.' 1 ( id ut audivit, Corcyram demigravit, when he heard this, he moved to Corcyra ; Caesar cum primum potuit, ad exercitum contendit, Caesar, as soon as he could, hurried to the army ; ubi dS Caesaris adventu certiores fact! sunt, legates ad eum mittunt, when they were informed of Caesaris arrival, they sent envoys to him. a. The Historical Present may take the place of the Perfect in this con- struction. 2. To denote the repeated occurrence of an act, ut, ubi, simul atque, as often as, when following an historical tense, take the Plu- perfect Indicative ; as, ut quisque Verris animum offenderat, in lautumias statim coni- ciebatur, whenever anybody had offended Verres^s feelings, he was forthwith put in the stone-quarry ; hostes. ubi aliquds egredientes conspexerant, adoriebantur, whenever the enemy had seen any men disembarking, they attacked them. a. In Livy and succeeding historians the Imperfect and Pluperfect Sub- junctive are used to denote this repeated occurrence of an act (' Indefi- nite Frequency ') ; as, id ubi dixisset, hastam mittebat, whenever he had said that, he hurled a spear. 3. Occasionally the above conjunctions are followed by the Pluper- fect Indicative of a single occurrence. This is regularly the case with postquam in expressions denoting a definite interval of time (days, months, years, etc.), such as post tertium annum quam, tribue post annls quam. Thus : 1 88 Syntax. paucis post diebus quam Luca discesserat, ad Sardiniam venit, a few days after he had departed from Luca he came to Sar- dinia ; postquam occupatae Syracusae erant, profectus est Cartha- ginem, after Syracuse had been seized, he set out for Carthage. 4. The Imperfect Indicative also sometimes occurs to denote a continued state; as, postquam RSmam adventabant, senatus cSnsultus est, after they were on the march towards Rome, the Senate was consulted ; postquam struct! utrimque stabant, after they had been drawn up on both sides and were in posit ion. 5. Rarely postquam, posteaquam, following the analogy of cum, take the Subjunctive, but only in the historical tenses; as, posteaquam sumptuosa fieri funera coepissent, leg-e sublata sunt, after funerals had begun to be elaborate, they were done away with by law. Cum-Clauses. A. Cum REFERRING TO THE PAST. 288. i. Cum, when referring to the past, takes A. The Indicative (Imperfect, Historical Perfect, or Pluperfect) to denote the point of time at which something occurs. B. The Subjunctive (Imperfect or Pluperfect) to denote the situation or circumstances under which something occurs. .Examples : INDICATIVE. an turn eras consul, cum in Palatio mea domus ardebat, or were you consul athe_iime when my hottse burned up on the Palatine ? credo turn cum Sicilia florebat opibus et copiis magna artificia fuisse in ea msula, / believe that ajLJhejtime when Sicily was powerful in riches and resources there were great crafts in that island; eo tempore paruit cum parere iiecesse erat, he obeyed at the time when it was necessary to obey ; illo die, cum est lata lex de me, on that day when the law concern- ing me was passed. Cum-C/auses. 189 SUBJUNCTIVE. Lysander cum vellet Lycurgi leges commutare, prohibitus est, when Lysander desired to change the laws of Lycurgus, he was prevented] Pythagoras cum in geometria quiddam novi invenisset, Musis bovem immolasse dicitur, when Pythagoras had discovered something new in geometry, he is said to have sacrificed an ox to the Muses. a. Note that the Indicative is much less frequent in such clauses than the Subjunctive, and is regularly confined to those cases where the main clause has turn, eo die, eo anno, eo tern- pore or some similar correlative of the cum. Sometimes it depends entirely upon the point of view of the writer whether he shall employ the Indicative or Subjunctive. 2. When the logical order of the clauses is inverted, we find cum with the Perfect Indicative or Historical Present, in the sense of when, when suddenly. The main clause in such cases often has jam, vix, aegre, nondum ; as, jam Galli ex oppido fugere apparabant, cum matres familiae repente procurrerunt, the Gauls were already preparing to flee, when suddenly the matrons rushed forth (logically, the ma- trons rushed forth as the Gauls were preparing to flee) ; Treviri Labienum adoriri parabant, cum duas legiones venisse cognoscunt, the Treviri were preparing to attack, when (sud- denly} they learned that two legions had arrived. 3. To denote a recurring action in the past cum is followed by the Indicative, particularly of the Pluperfect ; as, cum ad aliquod oppidum venerat, eadem lectica ad cubiculum deferebatur, whenever he had arrived at some town, he was (always) carried in the same litter to his room ; cum equitatus noster se in agros ejecerat, essedarios ex silvis emittebat, whenever our cavalry had advanced into the fields, he would send his charioteers out from the woods. a. Sometimes the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive is thus used ; as, saepe cum aliquem videret minus bene vestitum, suum amiculum ded.it, often, -whenever he saw some one more poorly clothed, he gave him his own mantle ; cum procucurrissent, Numidae effugiebant, as often as they had advanced, the Numidians ran away. This construction is frequent in Livy and subsequent historians. igo Syntax. B. Cum REFERRING TO THE PRESENT OR FUTURE. 289. When cum refers to the Present or Future it regu- larly takes the Indicative ; as, - turn tua res agitur, paries cum proximus ardet, your own interests are at stake when your neighbors house is burning; cum videbis, turn scies, when you see, then you will know. a. The Indicative of the Present or Future may denote also a recurring action; as, stabilitas amicitiae confirmari potest, cum homines cu- pidinibus imperabunt, firm friendship can be established whenever men shall control their desires. C. OTHER USES OF Cum. 290. i. Cum Explicative. Cum, with the Indicative, is some- times used to indicate the identity of one act with another ; as, cum tacent, clamant, their silence is a shout (lit. when they are silent, they shout). 2. Cum . . . turn. When cum . . . turn mean both . . . and, the cum-clause is in the Indicative; but when cum has the force of while, though, it may take the Subjunctive ; as, cum te semper dilexerim, turn tuis factis incensus sum, while 1 have always loved you, at the same time I am incensed at your conduct. Clauses introduced by Antequam and Priusquam. A. WITH THE INDICATIVE. 291. Antequam and priusquam (often written ante . . . quam, prius . . . quam) take the Indicative to denote an actual fact. i. Sometimes the Present or Future Perfect ; as, prius respondes quam rogo, you answer before f ask ; iiihil contra disputabS priusquam dixerit, / will say nothing in opposition, before he speaks. i. Sometimes the Perfect, especially after negative clauses ; as, non prius jugulandi finis fuit. quam Sulla omiies suds divitiis explevit, there was no end of murder until Sulla satisfied all his henchmen with wealth. Clauses with Dum, Donee, etc. 191 B. WITH THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 292. Antequam and priusquam take the Subjunctive to denote an act as anticipated. i. Thus the Subjunctive may denote a) An act in preparation for which the main act takes place ; as, priusquam dimicarent, foedus ictum est, i.e. in anticipa- tion of the fight, a treaty was struck. By an extension of this usage, the Subjunctive is sometimes used of general truths, where the anticipatory notion has faded out ; as, tempestas minatur antequam surg-at, the tempest threatens before it rises. b) An act anticipated and forestalled ; as, priusquam telum adici posset, omnis acies terga vertit, before a spear could be hurled, the whole army fled. c) An act anticipated and deprecated ; as, aiiimum omittunt priusquam loco demigrent, they die rather than quit their post. 2.. After historical tenses the Imperfect Subjunctive is used, espe- cially by post- Augustan writers, where the notion of anticipation has practically vanished ; as, sol antequam se abderet fugientem vidit Antonium, the sun before it set saw Antony fleeing. Clauses introduced by Dum, Donee, Quoad. 293. I. Dum, ivhilc, regularly takes the Indicative of the Historical Present ; as, Alexander, dum inter primores pugnat, sagitta ictus est, Alex- ander, while he was fighting in the van, was struck by an arrow, dum haec geruntur, in fines Venellorum pervenit, while these things were being done, he arrived in the territory of the Venelli. II. Dum, donee, and quoad, as long as, take the Indica- tive ; as, dum anima est, spes est, as long as there is life, there is hope ; Lacedaemoniorum gens fortis fuit, dum Lycurgi leges vigebant, the race of the Lacedaemonians was powerfiiL as long as the laws of Lycurgus were in force ; Cato. quoad vixit, virtutum laude crevit, Cato, as long as he lived, increased in the fame of his virtues. 1 92 Syntax. III. Dum, donee, and quoad, until, take: 1. The Indicative, to denote an actual event ; as, donee rediit, f uit silentium, there was silence till he came ; ferrum in corpore retinuit, quoad reiiuntiatum est Boeotios vicisse, he kept the iron in his body until word was brought tJiat the Boeotians had conquered. a. In Livy and subsequent historians dum and donee in this sense often take the Subjunctive instead of the Indicative; as, trepidationis aliquantum edebant, donee timor quietem fecisset, they showed some trepidation, until fear produced quiet. 2. The Subjunctive, to denote anticipation or expec- tancy; as, exspectavit Caesar dum naves convenient, Caesar waited for the ships to assemble ; dum hostes veniant, morabor, I shall wait for the enemy to come. Substantive Clauses. 294. A Substantive Clause is one which as a whole serves as the Subject or Object of a verb, or denotes some other case relation. A. Substantive Clauses developed from the Volitive. 295. These are generally used as object-clauses, and occur with the following classes of verbs : i. With verbs signifying to admonish, request, command, urge, per- suade, induce^ etc. (conjunctions ut, ne) ; as, postulo ut fiat, / demand that it be done (dependent form of the Jussive fiat, let it be done!) ; orat, ne abeas, he begs that you will not go away ; milites cohortatus est ut hostium impetum sustinerent, he ex- horted his soldiers to withstand the attack of the enemy ; Helvetiis persuasit ut exirent, he persuaded the Helvetii to march forth, a. Jubeo, command, order, regularly takes the Infinitive. i Especially: moneo, admoneo ; rog-o, oro, peto, postulo, precor, flagito ; mandS, impero, praecipio ; suadeo, hortor, cohortor; per- suadeo, impello. Substantive Clauses. 193 2. With verbs signifying to grant, concede ', permit ', allow ^ etc. (con- junction ut) ; as, huic concede ut ea praetereat, I allow him to pass that by (depend- ent form of the Jussive ea praetereat, let him pass that by!) ; consul! permissum est ut duas legiones scriberet, the consul was permitted to enroll two legions. 3. With verbs of hindering, preventing? etc. (conjunctions ne, quominus, quin) ; as, ne lustrum perficeret, mors prohibuit, death prevented him from finishing the lustrum (dependent form after past tense of ne lustrum perficiat, let him not finish, etc.) ; prohibuit quominus in uiium coirent, he prevented them from com- ing together ; nee, quin erumperet, prohiberi poterat, nor could he be prevented from rushing forth. a. Quin is used only when the verb of hindering is accompanied by a negative, or stands in a question implying a negative ; it is not neces- sarily used even then. Clauses introduced by quominus and quin are probably devel- oped from Purpose Clauses. 4. With verbs of deciding, resolving? etc. (conjunctions ut, ne) ; as, constitueram ut pridie Idus Aquini manerem, / had decided to remain at Aquinum on the \ith-, decrevit senatus ut Opimius videret, the Senate decreed that Opi- mius should see to it ; convenit ut unis castris miscerentur, // was agreed that they should be united in one camp. 5. With verbs of striving,* etc. (conjunctions ut, ne) ; as, laborabat ut reliquas civitates adjungeret, he was striving to join the remaining states to him ; contendit ne ea enuntiarentur, he strove that those things should not be reported. a. Conor, try, always takes the Infinitive. NOTE. Verbs of all the above classes also admit the Infinitive, especially in poetry. 1 Especially: permitto, concedo, non patior. 2 Especially: prohibeo, impedio, deterred. 3 Especially: constituo, decernS, censeo, placuit, convenit, pa- ciscor. 4 Especially: laboro, do operam, id ago, contends, impetro. o 194 Syntax. 6. With a few other expressions, such as necesse est, reliquum eat, sequitur, licet, oportet ; as , reliquum est ut doceam, // remains for me to show ; licet redeas, you may return ; oportet loquamur, we must speak. On licet and oportet without ut, see paragraph 8. 7. Here also belong phrases of the type : nulla causa est cur, quare, quin ; non est cur, etc.; nihil est cur, etc. ; as, nulla causa est cur timeam, there is no reason why I should fear (originally Deliberative : why should I fear? There^s no reason); non est quare timeam, there is no reason why I should fear ; nihil est qum die am, there is no reason why I should not say. 8. Many of the above classes of verbs at times take the simple Sub- junctive without ut. In such cases we must not recognize any omis- sion of ut, but simply an earlier form of expression which existed before -the ut-clause arose. This is regularly the case with necesse est ? licet, and oportet ; see 6. Other examples are : eos hoc moneo desinant, / warn them to stop ; huic imperat adeat civitates, he orders him to visit the states. B. Substantive Clauses developed from the Optative. 296. Here belong clauses : 1. With verbs of wishing, desiring, especially cupio, opto, volo, maid (conjunctions ut, ne); as, opto ut in hoc judicio nemo improbus reperiatur, / hope that in this court no bad man may be found (here ut reperiatur repre- sents a simple optative of direct statement, viz. reperiatur, may no bad man be found!) ; cupio ne veniat, / desire that he may not come. a. The simple Subjunctive (without ut) sometimes occurs with verbs of this class. (See 296, 8.) Examples are : vellem scriberes, / could wish you wene writing ; vellem scripsisset, / could wish he had written. 2. With verbs Si fearing (time 6, metuo, vere or). Here ne means that, lest, and ut means that not ; as, timeo ne veniat, I fear that he will come (originally : may he not cornel Pm afraid [he will~\) ; timed ut veniat, I fear tfyat he will not come (originally : may he come ! Pm afraid [he wortt~\ ) . Substantive Clauses. 195 a. Ne non sometimes occurs instead of ut, especially where the verb of fearing has a negative, or where the writer desires to emphasize some particular word in the dependent clause ; as, non vereor ne hoc non flat, / am not afraid that this will not happen ; vereor ne exercitum flrmum habere non possit, I fear that he is unable (non possit) to have a strong army. C. Substantive Clauses of Result. 297. Substantive Clauses of Result (introduced by ut, ut non) are a development of pure Result clauses, and occur with the following classes of words : i . As object clauses after verbs of doing, accomplishing (especially facio, efficio, conficio). Thus : gravitas morbi facit ut medicma egeamus, the severity of disease makes us need medicine. 2.. As the subject of several impersonal verbs, particularly fit, effici- tur, accidit, evenit, contingit, accedit, fieri potest, fore, sequitur, relinquitur. Thus : ex quo efficitur, ut voluptas non sit summum bonum, /> sl * 8c Crgd5S > t6 err5re ; [ dixi, si hoc crederes, te errare. si hoc credes, errabis, j dlc6 > sl h6c Crgd5s > t 1 dixi, si hoc crederes, te erraturum esse. f dlco, si hoc crediderTs, te erraturum si hoc credideris, errabis, ' ^_ ess _ e [_ Ldixi, si hoc credidisses, te erraturum I esse. si hoc credSbas, erravisti, { dlc6 ' sl u h5c <^deres, te erravisse; [ dixi, si hoc crederes, te erravisse. a. Note that a Future Perfect Indicative of the Direct Discourse regularly appears in the Indirect as a Perfect Subjunctive after a principal tense, and as a Pluperfect Subjunctive after an his- torical tense. 2io Syntax. Conditional Sentences of the Second Type. 320. A. THE APODOSIS. The Present Subjunctive of the Direct Discourse regularly becomes the Future Infini- tive of the Indirect. B. THE PROTASIS. The Protasis takes those tenses of the Subjunctive demanded by the sequence of tenses. Examples : si hoc credas, erres, I dlc5 > sl h5c crgdts > t *rraturum esse ; [ dixl, si hoc crederes, te erraturum esse. Conditional Sentences of the Third Type. 321. A. THE APODOSIS. i. The Imperfect Subjunctive of the Direct Discourse becomes : d) In the Active Voice the Future Infinitive. b) In the Passive Voice it takes the form futurum esse (fore) lit, with the Imperfect Subjunctive. 2. The Pluperfect Subjunctive of the Direct Discourse becomes : d) In the Active Voice the Infinitive in -urus fuisse. b) In the Passive Voice it takes the form futurum fuisse ut with the Imperfect Subjunctive. B. THE PROTASIS. The protasis in Conditional Sen- tences of this type always remains unchanged. Examples : si hoc crederes, errares, dico (dixl), si hoc crederes, te erra- turum esse ; si hoc credidisses, erravisses, dico (dixl), si hoc credidisses, te erraturum fuisse ; si hoc dixisses, punitus esses, dico (dixi ), si hoc dixisses futu- rum fuisse ut punireris. 322. When an apodosis of a conditional sentence of the Third Type referring to the past is at the same time a Result clause, or a Indirect Discourse. 2 1 1 quin-clause (after non dubito, etc.), it stands in the Perfect Sub- junctive in the form -urus f uerim ; as, ita territi sunt, ut arma tradituri fuerint, 1 nisi Caesar subit5 advenisset, they were so frightened that they would have given up their arms, had not Caesar suddenly arrived] non dubitS quin, si hoc dixisses, erraturus fueris, 1 / do not doubt that, if you had said this, you would have made a mistake. a. This peculiarity is confined to the Active Voice. In the Passive, such sentences, when they become dependent, remain unchanged ; as, non dubito quin, si hoc dixisses, vituperatus esses, 7 do not doubt that, if you had said this, you would have been blamed. b. When an Indirect Question becomes an apodosis in a con- ditional sentence of the Third Type, either -urus fuerim or -urus f uissem may be used ; as, . quaere, num, si hoc dixisses, erraturus fueris (or fuisses). c. Potui, when it becomes a dependent apodosis in sentences of this Type, usually changes to the Perfect Subjunctive ; as. concursu totius civitatis defensi sunt, ut frigidissimos quoque 6rat5res popull studia excitare potuerint, they were defended before a gathering of all the citizens, so that the interest of the people would have been enough to excite even the most apathetic orators. IMPLIED INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 323. The Subjunctive is often used in subordinate clauses whose Indirect character is merely implied by the context; as, demonstrabantur mini praeterea, quae Socrates de immortali- tate animorum disseruisset, there were explained to me be- sides, the arguments which Socrates had set forth concerning the immortality of the soul (i.e. the arguments which, it was said, Socrates had set forth) ; Paetus omnes libros quos pater suus reliquisset mini donavit, Paetus gave me all the books which (as he said) his father had left. i Tradituri fuerint and erraturus fueris are to be regarded as repre- senting traditiiri fuerunt and erraturus fuisti of Direct Discourse. (See 3 every man must use his own judgment. 2) After euro, provide for ; d5, tradS, give over ; relin- quo, leave ; concede, hand over ; suscipio, undertake, and some other verbs, to denote purpose ; as, Caesar pontem in Arare faciendum curavit, Caesar pro- vided for the construction of a bridge over the Arar ; imperator urbem militibus diripiendam concessit, the general handed over the city to the soldiers to plunder. 8. For the Gerundive as the equivalent of the Gerund, see 339, i. THE GERUND. 338. As a verbal noun the Gerund admits noun con- structions as follows : i. Genitive. The Genitive of the Gerund is used a) With nouns, as Objective or Appositional Genitive (see 200, 202) ; as, cupiditas dominandi, desire of ruling ; ars scribendi, the art of writing. b) With Adjectives ; as, cupidus audiendi, desirous of hearing. c) With causa, gratia ; as, discendi causa, for the sake of learning. i Noun and Adjective Forms of the Verb. 221 2. Dative. The Dative of the Gerund is used a) With Adjectives ; as, aqua utilis est bibendo, water is useful for drinking. b) With Verbs (rarely); as, adf ui scribendo, / was present at the writing. 3. Accusative. The Accusative of the Gerund is used only with Prepositions, chiefly ad and in ; as, homo ad agendum natus est, man is born for action. 4. Ablative. The Ablative of the Gerund is used a) Without a Preposition, as an Ablative of Means, Cause, etc'. (see 218,219); as, mens discendo alitur et cogitando, the mind is nourished by learning and reflection. Themistocles maritimos praedones consectando mare tutum reddidit, Themistocles made the sea safe by fol- lowing up the pirates. b) After the prepositions a, de, ex, in ; as, summa voluptas ex discendo capitur, the keenest pleas- ure is derived frotn learning '; multa de bene beateque vivendo a Platone disputata sunt, there was much discussion by Plato on the subject of living well and happily. 5. As a rule, only the Genitive of the Gerund and the Ablative (without a preposition) admit a Direct Object. Gerundive Construction instead of the Gerund. 339. i. Instead of the Genitive or Ablative of the Gerund with a Direct Object, another construction may be, and very often is, used. This consists in putting the Direct Object in the case of the Gerund (Gen. or Abl.) and using the Gerundive in agreement with it. This is called the Gerundive Construction. Thus : GERUND CONSTRUCTION. GERUNDIVE CONSTRUCTION. cupidus urbem videndi, desirous} of seeing the city ; \ PW" *to videndae ; dSlector 61 Stores legendo. / am ) . charmedwithreadingtheorators. ] dglector oratoribus legendis. 222 Syntax. 2. The Gerundive Construction must be used to avoid a Direct Object with the Dative of the Gerund, or with a case dependent upon a Preposition ; as, locus castris muniendis aptus, a place adapted to fortifying a camp-, ad pacem peteiidam venerunt, they came to ask peace ; multum temporis consume in legendis poetis, / spend much time in reading the poets. 3. In order to avoid ambiguity (see 236, 2), the Gerundive Con- struction must not be employed in case of Neuter Adjectives used substantively. Thus regularly philosophi cupidi sunt verjim investigandi, philosophers are eager for discovering truth (rarely veri investlgandi) ; studium plura cognoscendi, a desire of knowing more (not plurium cognoscendorum) . 4. From the nature of the case only Transitive Verbs can be used in the Gerundive Construction ; but utor, fruor, fungor, potior (orig- inally transitive) regularly admit it ; as, hostes in spem potiuiidorum castrorum venerant, the enemy had conceived the hope of gaming possession of the camp. 5. The Genitives mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestri, when used in the Gerundive Construction, are regularly employed without reference to Gender or Number, since they were originally Neuter Singular Adjec- tives used substantively. Thus : mulier sui servandi causa aufugit, the woman fled for the sake of saving herself; legati in castra venerunt sui purgandi causa, the envoys came into camp for the purpose of clearing themselves ; So nostri servandi causa, for the sake of saving ourselves . 6. Occasionally the Genitive of the Gerundive Construction is used to denote purpose ; as, si arborum trunci sive naves deiciendi operis essent a barbaris missae, if trunks of trees or boats should be sent down by the barbarians for the purpose of destroying the structure. 7. The Dative of the Gerundive Construction occurs in some ex- pressions which have the character of formulas ; as, decemviri legibus scribundis, decemvirs for codifying the laws ; quindecimviri sacris faciundis, quindecemvirs for performing the sacrifices. Coordinate Conjunctions. 223 THE SUPINE. 340. i. The Supine in -um is used after Verbs of motion to express purpose; as, legati ad Caesarem gratulatum convenerunt, envoys came to Cae- sar to congratulate him. a. The Supine in -um may take an Object ; as, pacem petitum oratores Romam mittunt, they send en- voys to Rome to ask for peace. b. Note the phrase : do (colloco) filiam nuptum, / give my daughter in mar- % riage. 2. The Supine in -u is used as an Ablative of Specification with facilis, difficilis, incredibilis, jucundus, optimus, etc. ; also with fas est, nef as est, opus est ; as, haec res est facilis cognitu, this thing is easy to learn ; hoc est optimum factu, this is best to do. a. Only a few Supines in -u are in common use, chiefly auditu, cognitu, dictu, factu, visu. b. The Supine in -u never takes an Object. CHAPTER VI. Particles. COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. 341. Copulative Conjunctions. These join one word, phrase, or clause to another. i. d) et simply connects. b) -que joins more closely than et, and is used especially where the two members have an internal connection with each other; as, parentes llberique, parents and children ; cum homines aestu febrique jactantur, when people are tossed about with heat and fever. 224 Syntax. c) atque (ac) usually emphasizes the second of the two things connected, and also, and indeed, and in fact. After words of likeness and difference atque (ac) has the force of as, than. Thus : ego idem sentio ac tu, I think the same as you ; baud aliter ac, not otherwise than . d) neque (nee) means and not, neither, nor. 2. a) -que is an enclitic, and is appended always to the second of two words connected. Where it connects phrases or clauses it is appended to the first word of the second clause ; but when the first word of the second clause is a Preposition, -que is regularly appended to the next following word ; as, ob eamque rem, and on account of that thing. b) atque is used before vowels and consonants ; ac never before vowels, and seldom before c, g, qu. c) et non is used for neque when the emphasis of the negative rests upon a special word ; as, vetus et non ignobilis orator, an old and not ignoble orator. d) For and nowhere, and never, and none, the Latin regularly said nee usquam, nee umquam, nee ullus, etc. 3. Correlatives. Copulative Conjunctions are frequently used correlatively ; as, et . . . et, both . . . and ; neque (nee) . . . neque (nee), neither . . . nor; cum . . . turn, while . . . at the same time ; turn . . . turn, not only . . . but also. Less frequently : et . . . neque ; neque . . . et. a. Note that the Latin, with its tendency to emphasize antithetical relations, often uses correlatives, especially et . . . et, et . . . neque, where the English employs but a single connective. 4. In enumerations a) The different members of a series may follow one another without connectives (Asyndeton ; see 346). Thus : ex cupiditatibus odia, discidia, discordiae, seditiones, bella nascuntur,/>YW/ covetoits desires spring up hatred, dissensions, discord, sedition, wars. Coordinate Conjunctions. 225 b) The different members may severally be connected by et ( Polysyndeton). Thus : horae cedunt et dies et menses et anni, hours and days and years and months pass away. c) The connective may be omitted between the former members, while the last two are connected by -que (rarely et) ; as, Caesar in Carnutes, Andes Turonesque legiones dedu- cit, Caesar leads his legions into the territory of the Carnutes, Andes, and Turones. 342. Disjunctive Conjunctions indicate an alternative. 1. a) aut must be used when the alternatives are mutually ex- clusive ; as, cita mors venit aut victoria laeta, (either) swift death or glad victory comes. b) vel, -ve (enclitic) imply a choice between the alterna- tives ; as, qui aether vel caelum nominatur, which is called aether or heaven. 2. Correlatives. Disjunctive Conjunctions are often used correla- tively ; as, aut . . . aut, either . . .or; vel . . . vel, either . . .or; sive . . . sive, if or if. 343. Adversative Conjunctions. These denote oppo- sition. i. a) sed, but) merely denotes opposition. b) verum, but, is stronger than sed, but is less frequently used. c) autem, but on the other hand, however, marks a transition. It is always post-positive. DEFINITION. A post-positive word is one that cannot begin a sen- tence, but is placed after one or more words. d) at, but, is used especially in disputation, to introduce an opposing argument. e) atqui means but yet. /) tamen, yet, usually stands after the emphatic word, but not always. g) vero. however, indeed, in truth, is always post-positive. Q 226 Syntax. 2. Note the correlative expressions : non solum (non modo) . . . sed etiam, not only . . . but also ; non modo non . . . sed ne . . . quidem, not only not, but not even; as, non modo tibi non irascor, sed ne reprehendo quidem factum tuum, / not only am not angry with yoit, but I do not even blame your action. a. But when the sentence has but one verb, and this stands with the second member, non modo may be used for non modo non; as, adsentatio non modo amico sed ne Hbero quidem dig-na est, flattery is not only (not) worthy of a friend, but not even of a free man. 344. Illative Conjunctions. These represent the state- ment which they introduce as following from or as in con- formity with what has preceded. 1 . d) itaque = and so, accordingly. b) ergo = therefore, accordingly. c) igitur (regularly post-positive J ) = therefore, accordingly. 2. Igitur is never combined with et, atque, -que, or neque. 345. Causal Conjunctions. These denote cause, or give an explanation. They are nam, namque, enim (post-positive), etenim, for. 346. Asyndeton. The conjunction is sometimes omitted be- tween coordinate members, particularly in lively or impassioned narration. Thus : d) A Copulative Conjunction is omitted ; as, avaritia infmita, insatiabilis est, avarice is boundless (and) insatiable; Cn. Pompejo, M. Crasso consulibus, in the consulship of Gnaeus Pompey (and) Marcus Crass us. The conjunction is regularly omitted between the names of consuls. b) An Adversative Conjunction may be omitted ; as, rationes defuerunt, ubertas orationis non defuit, argu- ments were lacking, (but) abundance of words was not. 1 Except in Sallust and Silver Latin. Adverbs. Word-Order. 227 ADVERBS. 347. i. The following particles, sometimes classed as Conjunctions, are more properly Adverbs : etiam, also, even. quoque (always post-positive), also. quidem (always post-positive) lays stress upon the preceding word. It is sometimes equivalent to the English indeed, in fact, but more frequently cannot be rendered, except by vocal emphasis. ne . . . quidem means not even ; the emphatic word or phrase always stands between ; as, ne ille quidem, not even he. tamen and vero, in addition to their use as Conjunctions, are often employed as Adverbs. 2. Negatives. Two Negatives are regularly equivalent to an affirmative as in English, as noil nulli, some; but when non, nemo, nihil, numquam, etc., are accompanied by neque . . . neque, non . . . n5n, non modo, or ne . . . quidem, the latter particles simply take up the negation and emphasize it ; as, habeo hie neminem neque amicum neque cognatum, I have here no one, neither friend nor relative. non enim praetereundum est ne id quidem, for not even that must be passed by. a. Haud in Cicero and Caesar occurs almost exclusively as a modifier of Adjectives and Adverbs, and in the phrase haud scio an. Later writers use it freely with verbs. CHAPTER VII. Word-Order and Sentence- Structure. A. WORD -ORDER. 348. In the normal arrangement of the Latin sentence the Subject stands at the beginning of the sentence, the Predicate at the end ; as, Darius classem quingentarum navium comparavit, Darius got ready a fleet of five hundred ships. 228 Syntax. 349. But for the sake of emphasis the normal arrange- ment is often abandoned, and the emphatic word is put at the beginning, less, frequently at the end of the sen- tence ; as, magnus in hoc bello Themistocles fuit, GREAT was Themistocles in this war ; aliud iter habemus nullum, other course we have NONE. SPECIAL PRINCIPLES. 350. i. Nouns. A Genitive or other oblique case regularly fol- lows the word upon which it depends. Thus : a) Depending upon a Noun : tribuiius plebis, tribune of the plebs ; filius regis, son of the king; vir magni animi, a man of noble spirit. Yet always senatus coiisultum, plebis scitum. b) Depending upon an Adjective : ignarus rerum, ignorant of affairs ; digni amicitia, worthy of friendship ; plus aequo, more than (what is) fair. 2. Appositives. An Appositive regularly follows its Subject; as, Fhilippus, rex Macedonum, Philip, king of the Macedonians ; adsentatio, vitiorum adjutrlx^tf/y^r/, promoter of evils. Yet flumen Rheiius, the River Rhine] and always in good prose urbs Roma, the city Rome. 3. The Vocative usually follows one or more words; as, Audi, Caesar, hear, Caesar ! 4. Adjectives. No general law can be laid down for the posi- tion of Adjectives. On the whole they precede the noun oftener than they follow it. a. Adjectives of quantity (including numerals) regularly pre- cede their noun ; as, omnes homines, all men ; septingentae naves, seven hundred vessels. Word-Order. 229 b. Note the force of position in the following : media urbs, the middle of the city ; urbs media, the middle city ; extremum bellum, the end of the war ; bellum extremum, the last war. Romanus and Latinus regularly follow; as, senatus populusque Romanus, the Roman Senate and People ; ludi Romani, the Roman games ; feriae Latmae, the Latin holidays. d. When a Noun is modified both by an Adjective and by a Geni- tive, a favorite order is: Adjective, Genitive, Noun; as, summa omnium rerum abundantia, the greatest abun- dance of all things. Pronouns. a. The Demonstrative, Relative, and Interrogative Pronouns regularly precede the Noun ; as, hie homo, this man ; ille homo, that mart ; erant duo itinera, quibus itineribus, etc., there were two routes, by which, etc. qui homo ? what sort of a man ? b. But ille in the sense of * that well known," 1 i that famous] usually stands after its Noun ; as, testula ilia, that well-known custom of ostracism ; Medea ilia, that famous Medea. c. Possessive and Indefinite Pronouns usually follow their Noun ; as, pater meus, my father ; homo quidam, a certain man ; mulier aliqua, some woman. But for purposes of contrast the Possessive often precedes its Noun ; as, meus pater, MY father (i.e. as opposed to yours, his, etc.}. d. Where two or more Pronouns occur in the same sentence, the Latin is fond of putting them in close proximity ; as, nisi forte ego vobis cessare videor, iinless perchance I seem to you to be doing nothing. 230 Syntax. 6. Adverbs and Adverbial phrases regularly precede the word they modify ; as, valde diligens, extremely diligent ; saepe dixi, I have often said; te jam diu hortamur, we have long been urging you ; paulo post, a little after. 7. Prepositions regularly precede the words they govern. a. But limiting words often intervene between the Preposition and its case ; as, de communi hominum memoria, concerning the common memory of men ; ad beate vivendum,y^r living happily . b. When a noun is modified by an Adjective, the Adjective is often placed before the preposition ; as, magiid in dolore, in great grief '; summa cum laude, with the highest credit ; qua de causa, for which cause ; naiic ob rem, on account of this thing. c. For Anastrophe, by which a Preposition is put after its case, see 144, 3, 8. Conjunctions. Autem, enim, and igitur regularly stand in the second place in the sentence, but when combined with est or sunt they often stand third ; as, ita est enim, for so it is. 9. Words or Phrases referring to the preceding sentence or to some part of it, regularly stand first ; as, id ut audlvit, Corcyram demigravit, when he heard that (referring to the contents of the preceding sentence), he moved to Corcyra ; eo cum Caesar venisset, timentes coiifirmat, when Caesar had come thither (i.e. to the place just mentioned), he encouraged the timid. 10. The Latin has a fondness for putting side by side words which are etymologically related ; as, ut ad senem senex de senectute, sic hoc librd ad amicum amicissimus de amicitia scrips!, as T, an old man, wrote to an old man, on old age, so in this book, as a fond friend, 1 have written to a friend concerning friendship. Word-Order. 23 1 1 1 . Special rhetorical devices for indicating emphasis are the following : a) Hype'rbaton, which consists in the separation of words that regularly stand together ; as, Septimus mini Originum liber est in maiiibus, the seventh book of my ' Origines ' is under way ; recepto Caesar 6ric5 proficiscitur, having recovered Oricus, Caesar set out. b) Anaphora, which consists in the repetition of the same word or the same word-order in successive phrases ; as, sed pleni o nines sunt libri, pleiiae sapientium voces, plena exemplorum vetustas, but all books are full of it, the voices of sages are fttll of it, antiquity is full of examples of it. c) Chiasmus, 1 which consists in changing the relative order of words in two antithetical phrases ; as, multos defend!, laesi neminem, many have I defended, I have injured no one ; horribilem ilium diem aliis, nobis faustum, that day dreadful to others, for us fortunate. d) S^nchysis, or the interlocked arrangement. This is mostly confined to poetry, yet occurs in rhetorical prose, especially that of the Imperial Period ; as, simulatam Pompejanarum gratiam partium, pretended interest in the Pompeian party. 12. Metrical Close. At the end of a sentence certain cadences were avoided ; others were much employed. Thus : a) Cadences avoided. w w ^ ; as, esse videtur (close of hexameter). w w w ; as, esse potest (close of pentameter) . b) Cadences frequently employed. w ; as, auxerant. \u \u ; as, comprobavit. www \j ; as, esse videatur. w w ; as, rogatu tuo. i So named from a fancied analogy to the strokes of the Greek letter X (chi) . Thus: multos laesi defend! neminem 232 Syntax. B. SENTENCE-STRUCTURE. 351. i. Unity of Subject. In complex sentences the Latin regularly holds to unity of Subject in the different members ; as, Caesar primum suo, delude omnium ex coiispectu remotis equis, ut aequato periculo spem fugae tolleret, cohor- tatus suos proelium commisit, Caesar having first removed his own horse from sight, then the horses of all, in order, by making the danger equal, to take away hope of flight, encouraged his men and joined battle. 2. A word serving as the common Subject or Object of the main clause and a subordinate one, stands before both ; as, Aedui cum se defendere non posseiit, legates ad Caesarem mittunt, since the Aedui could not defend themselves, they sent envoys to Caesar', ille etsl flagrabat bellandi cupiditate, tamen paci serviendum putavit, although he was burning with a desire to fight, yet he thought he ought to aim at peace. a. The same is true also 1) When the Subject of the main clause is Object (Direct or Indirect) of a subordinate clause ; as, Caesar, cum hoc ei nuntiatum esset, maturat ab urbe proficisci, when this had been reported to Caesar he hastened to set out from the city. 2) When the Subject of a subordinate clause is at the same time the Object (Direct or Indirect) of the main clause ; as, L. Manlio, cum dictator fuisset, M. Fomponius tri- bunus plebis diem dixit, M. Pomponius, tribune of the people, instituted proceedings against Lucius Man- lius though he had been dictator. 3. Of subordinate clauses, temporal, conditional, and adversative clauses more commonly precede the main clause ; indirect questions and clauses of purpose or result more commonly follow ; as, postquam haec dixit, profectus est, after he said this , he set out ; si quis ita agat, imprudens sit, if any one should act so, he would be devoid of foresight ; accidit ut una iiocte omiies Hermae deicerentur, // happened that in a single night all the Hermae were thrown down. Sentence-Structure. Hints on Style. 233 4. Sometimes in Latin the main verb is placed within the sub- ordinate clause ; as, si quid eat in me ingeni, quod sentid quam sit exiguum, if there is any talent in me, and I know how little it is. 5. The Latin Period. The term Period, when strictly used, designates a compound sentence in which the subordinate clauses are inserted within the main clause ; as, Caesar etsi intellegebat qua de causa ea dicerentur, tamen, ne aestatem in Treveris consumere cogeretur, Indutiomarum ad se venire jussit, though Caesar perceived why this was said, yet, lest he should be forced to spend the summer among the Treveri, he ordered Indutiomarus to come to him. In the Periodic structure the thought is suspended until the end of the sentence is reached. Many Roman writers were extremely fond of this sentence-structure, and it was well adapted to the inflectional character of their language ; in English we generally avoid it. 6. When there are several subordinate clauses in one Period, the Latin so arranges them as to avoid a succession of verbs. Thus : At hostes cum misissent, qui, quae in castris gererentur, cog- noscerent, ubi se deceptos intellexerunt, omnibus copiis subsecuti ad flumeii contendunt, but the enemy when they had sent men to learn what was going on in camp, after dis- covering that they had been outwitted, followed with all their forces and hurried to the river. CHAPTER VIII. Hints on Latin Style. 352. In this chapter brief consideration is given to a few features of Latin diction which belong rather to style than to formal grammar. NOUNS. 353. i. Where a distinct reference to several persons or things is involved, the Latin is frequently much more exact in the use of the Plural than is the English ; as, 234 Syntax. domos eunt, they go home (i.e. to their homes) ; German! corpora curant, the Germans care for the body ; animds militum recreat, he renews the courage of the soldiers ; dies noctesque timere, to be in a state of fear day and night. 2. In case of Neuter Pronouns and Adjectives used substantively, the Latin often employs the Plural where the English uses the Singu- lar; as, omnia sunt perdita, everything is lost ; quae cum ita sint, since this is so ; haec omnibus pervulgata sunt, this is very well known to all. 3. The Latin is usually more concrete than the English, and espe- cially less bold in the personification of abstract qualities. Thus : a puero, a pueris, from boyhood; Sulla dictatore, in Sulla's dictatorship ; me duce, under my leadership ; Roman! cum Carthaginiensibus pacem fecerunt = Rome made peace with Carthage ; liber doctrinae plenus = a learned book ; prudentia Themistoclis Graecia servata est = Themistocles' 1 s fore- sight saved Greece. 4. The Nouns of Agency in -tor and -sor (see 147, i) denote a permanent or characteristic activity ; as, accusatores (professional} accusers; oratores, pleaders ; cantores, singers ; Arminius, Germaniae liberator, Arminius, liberator of Germany. a. To denote single instances of an action, other expressions are commonly employed ; as, Numa, qui Romulo successit, Numa, successor of Romulus ; qui mea legunt, my readers ; qui me audiunt, my auditors. 5. The Latin avoids the use of prepositional phrases as modifiers of a Noun. In English we say: 'The war against Carthage"* ; < a journey through Gaul ' ; < cities on the sea ' ; * the book in my hands ' ; ' the Jight at Salamis" 1 ; etc. The Latin in such cases usually employs another mode of expression. Thus : a) A Genitive ; as, dolor injuriarum, resentment at injuries. Hints on Style, 235 b) An Adjective ; as, urbes maritimae, cities on the sea ; pugna Salammia, the fight at Salamis. c) A Participle ; as, pugna ad Cannas facta, the battle at Cannae. d) A Relative clause ; as, liber qui in me is manibus est, the book in my hands. NOTE. Yet within certain limits the Latin does employ Prepo- sitional phrases as Noun modifiers. This is particularly frequent when the governing noun is derived from a verb. The following are typical examples : transitus in Britanniam, the passage to Britain ; excessus e vita, departure from life ; odium erga Romanes, hatred of the Romans ; liber de senectute, the book on old age ; amor in patriam, love for one^s country. ADJECTIVES. 354. I. Special Latin Equivalents for English Adjec- tives are a ) A Genitive ; as, virtutes aiiimi = moral virtues ; dolores corporis = bodily ills. b) An Abstract Noun ; as, no vitas rei = the strange circumstance ; asperitas viarum = rough roads. c) Hendiadys (see 374, 4); as, ratio et ordo = systematic order ; ardor et impetus = eager onset. d) Sometimes an Adverb ; as, o nines circa populi, all the surrounding tribes ; suos semper hostes, their perpetual foes . 2. Often a Latin Noun is equivalent to an English Noun modified by an Adjective ; as, doctrina, theoretical knowledge ; prudentia, practical knowledge ; oppidum, walled town ; libellus, little book 236 Syntax. 3. Adjectives are not used in immediate agreement with proper names ; but an Adjective may limit vir, homo, ille, or some other word used as an Appositive of a proper name ; as, Socrates, homo sapiens = the wise Socrates ; Scipio, vir f ortissimus = the doughty Scipio ; Syracusae, urbs praeclarissima = famous Syracuse. 4. An Adjective may be equivalent to a Possessive Genitive ; as, pastor regius, the shepherd of the king; tumultus servilis, the uprising of the slaves. PRONOUNS. 355. In Compound Sentences the Relative Pronoun has a fondness for connecting itself with the subordinate clause rather than the main one ; as, a quo cum quaereretur, quid maxime expediret, respondit, when it was asked of him what was best, he replied. (Less commonly, qui, cum ab eo quaereretur, respondit.) 2. Uterque, ambo. Uterque means each of two] ambo means both; as, uterque f rater abiit, each of the two brothers departed (i.e. sepa- rately) ; ambo fratres abierunt, i.e. the two brothers departed together. a. The Plural of uterque occurs 1) With Nouns used only in the Plural (see 56) ; as, in utrisque castris, in each camp. 2) Where there is a distinct reference to two groups of persons or things ; as, utrique duces clari fuerunt, the generals on each side (sev- eral in number) were famous. VERBS. 356. i. In case of Defective and Deponent Verbs a Passive is supplied : a) By the corresponding verbal Nouns in combination with esse, etc. ; as, in odio sumus, we are hated ; in invidia sum, I am envied ; Hints on Style. . 237 admiration! est, he is admired', oblivione obruitur, he is forgotten (lit. is overwhelmed by oblivion) ; in usu esse, to be used. b) By the Passive of Verbs of related meaning. Thus : agitari as Passive of persequi ; temptari as Passive of adoriri. 2. The lack of the Perfect Active Participle in Latin is supplied a) Sometimes by the Perfect Passive Participle of the Depo- nent ; as, adhortatus, having exhorted '; veritus, having feared. b) By the Ablative Absolute ; as, hostium agris vastatis Caesar exercitum reduxit, hav- ing ravaged the country of the enemy, Caesar led back his army. c) By subordinate clauses ; as, eo cum advenisset, castra posuit, having arrived there, he pitched a camp ; hostes qui in urbem irruperant, the enemy having burst into the city. 3. The Latin agrees with English in the stylistic employment of the Second Person Singular in an indefinite sense (= 'one''). Cf. the English < You can drive a horse to water, but you can't make him drink? In Latin, however, this use is confined to certain varieties of the Subjunctive, especially the Potential ( 280), Jussive ( 277), De- liberative ( 275), and the Subjunctive in conditional sentences of the sort included under 302, 2, and 303. Examples : videres, you could see ; utare viribus use your strength ; quid hoc homine facias, what are you to do with this man f meiis quoque et animus, nisi tamquam lumini oleum instilles exstinguuntur senectute, the intellect and mind too are ex- tinguished by old age, unless, so to speak, you keep pouring oil into the lamp ; tanto amore possessiones suas amplexi tenebant, ut ab eis membra divelli citius posse diceres, they clung to their possessions with such an affectionate embrace, that you would have said their limbs could sooner be torn from their bodies. 238 , Syntax. PECULIARITIES IN THE USE OF THE ACCUSATIVE. 357. i. To denote i so many years, etc., afterwards or before^ the Latin employs not merely the Ablative of Degree of Difference with post and ante (see 223), but has other forms of expression. Thus : post qumque annos, five years afterward; paucds ante dies, a few days before; ante quadriennium, four years before ; post diem quartum quam ab urbe discessimus,y#2/r days after ive left the city ; ante tertium annum quam decesserat, three years before he had died. 2. The Latin seldom combines both Subject and Object with the same Infinitive ; as, . Romanos Hannibalem vicisse constat. Such a sentence would be ambiguous, and might mean either that the Romans had conquered Hannibal, or that Hannibal had conquered the Romans. Perspicuity was gained by the use of the Passive Infini- tive ; as, Romanos ab Hannibale victos esse constat, it is well established that the Romans were defeated by Hannibal. PECULIARITIES IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OF THE DATIVE. 358. i. The English for does not always correspond to a Dative notion in Latin, but is often the equivalent of pro with the Ablative, viz. in the senses a) In defense of; as, pro patria mori, to die for one^s country. b) Instead of , in behalf of ; as, unus pr5 omnibus dixit, one spoke for all. haec pro lege dicta sunt, these things were said in behalf of the law. c) In proportion to ; as, pro multitudine hominum, in proportion to the popula- tion. Hints on Style. 239 2. Similarly, English to when it indicates motion is rendered in Latin by ad. a. Note, however, that the Latin may say either scribere ad aliquem, or scribere alicui, according as the idea of motion is or is not predominant. So in several similar expressions. 3. In the poets, verbs of mingling with, contending with, sometimes take the Dative. This construction is a Grecism. Thus : se miscet viris, he mingles with the men ; contendis Homero, you contend with Homer. PECULIARITIES IN THE USE OP THE GENITIVE. 359. i. The Possessive Genitive gives emphasis to the possessor, the Dative of Possessor emphasizes the fact of possession ; as, hortus patris est, the garden is my father's ; mini hortus est, /possess a garden. 2. The Latin can say either stulti or stultum est dicere, it is foolish to say; but Adjectives of one ending permit only the Gen- itive ; as, sapientis est haec secum reputare, it is the part of a wise man to consider this. PART VI. PROSODY. 360. Prosody treats of metres and versification. 361. Latin Verse. Latin Poetry was essentially different in character from English. In our own language poetry is based upon accent, and poetical form consists essentially in a certain succession of accented and unaccented syllables. Latin poetry, on the other hand, was based not upon accent, but upon quantity, so that with the Romans poeti- cal form consisted in a certain succession of long and short syllables, i.e. of long and short intervals of time. This fundamental difference in the character of English and Latin poetry is a natural result of the difference in character of the two languages. English is a strongly accented language in which quantity is relatively subordi- nate. Latin, on the other hand, was a quantitative lan- guage, in which accent was relatively subordinate. QUANTITY OF VOWELS AND SYLLABLES. GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 362. The general principles for the quantity of vowels and syllables have been given above in 5. The following peculiarities are to be noted here : * I. A vowel is usually short when followed by another vowel ( 5. A. 2), but the following exceptions occur: 240 Quantity of Vowels and Syllables. 241 a) In the Genitive termination -ms (except alterius); as, illius, totius. Yet the i may be short in poetry ; as, illius, totius. b) In the Genitive and Dative Singular of the Fifth Declension ; as, diei, aciei. But fide% rei, spei ( 52, i). c) In flo, excepting fit and forms where i is followed by er. Thus : fiebam, fiat, fiunt ; but fieri, fierem. d) In a few other words, especially words derived from the Greek ; as, dius, Aeneas, Dareus, heroes, etc. 2. A diphthong is usually long ( 5. B. 2), but the preposition prae in composition is often shortened before a vowel ; as, pra^acutus. 3. A syllable containing a short vowel followed by two consonants ( 5. B. 2) is long, even when one of the consonants is in the follow- ing word; as, terret populum. Occasionally the syllable is long when both consonants are in the following word ; as, pro segete s pic as. 4. A vowel before j is regularly long, but is short in compounds of jugurn ; as, bijugis, quadrijugis. 5. Compounds of jacio, though written inicit, adicit, etc., have the first syllable long, as though written inj-, adj-. The actual pro- nunciation of such words is not clear. Reicio has e. Quantity of Final Syllables. A. Final Syllables ending in a Vowel. 363. i. Final a is mostly short, but is long in the following situations : a) In the Ablative Singular of the First Declension ; as, porta. b) In the Imperative ; as, lauda. c) In indeclinable words (except itS, quiS) ; as, triginta, con- tra, postea, interea, etc. 2. Final e is usually short, but is long a) In the Ablative Singular of the Fifth Declension ; as, die, re ; hence hodie, quare. Here belongs also fame (59.2.*). b} In the Imperative of the Second Conjugation ; as, mone, habe, etc. ; yet occasionally cavS, valS. c) In Adverbs derived from Adjectives of the Second Declen- sion, along with fere and ferme. Bene, male, temere, saepe have e. d) In e, de, me, te, se, ne (not* lest}, ne (verily). 242 Prosody. 3. Final i is usually long, but is short in nisi and quasi. Mihi, tibi, sibi, ibi, ubi, have regularly I, but sometimes I; yet always ibidem, ibique, ubique. 4. Final o is regularly long, but is short a) In eg5, du6, mod6 (only), cit6. b) Rarely in the First Person Singular of the Verb, and in Nominatives of the Third Declension; as, am6, Ie6. c) In a few compounds beginning with the Preposition pro ; as, prfifundere, prdficisci, prfcfugere. 5 . Final u is always long. B. Final Syllables ending in a Consonant. 364. i. Final syllables ending in any other consonant than s are short. The following words, however, have a long vowel : sal, sol, Lar, par, ver, fur, die, due, lac, en, non, quin, sin, sic, cur, hie * (this) . Also adverbs in c ; as, hie, hue, istic, illuc, etc. 2. Final syllables in -as are long; as, terras, amas. 3. Final syllables in -es are regularly long, but are short a) In the Nominative and Vocative Singular of dental stems ( 33) f tne Third Declension which have a short penult in the Genitive; as, seges (segetis), obses (obsidis), miles, dive's. But a few have -es ; viz. pes, aries, abies, paries. b) In Ss (thou art), penes. 4. Final -os is usually long, but short in 8s (ossis), comp6s, imp6s. 5 . Final -is is usually short, but is long a) In Plurals; as, portis, hortis, nobis, vobis, nubis (Ace.). b) In the Nominative Singular of Nouns of the Third Declen- sion with long vowel in the Penult of the Genitive ; as, Samnis (-itis). c) In the Second Person Singular Present Indicative Active of the Fourth Conjugation; as, audis. d) In vis, force ; is, thou goest ; fis ; sis ; veils ; noils ; vis, thou wilt ; (mavis, quamvis, quivis, etc.) . 6. Final -us is usually short, but is long a) In the Genitive Singular and in the Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative Plural of the Fourth Declension ; as, fructus. 1 Rarely We. Verse- Structure. 243 fr) In the Nominative and Vocative Singular of those nouns of the Third Declension in which the u belongs to the stem ; as, palus (-udis), servitus (-utis), tellus (-uris). 365. Greek Nouns retain in Latin their original quantity; as, Aenea, epitome, Delos, Pallas, Simols, Salamis, Didus, Paridi, aer, aether, crater, heroas. Yet Greek nouns in -cop regularly shorten the vowel ; as, rhet6r, Hectdr. VERSE-STRUCTURE. GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 366. i. The metrical unit in versification is a short syllable, tech- nically called a mora (w). A long syllable ( ) is regarded as equiva- lent to two morae. 2. A Foot is a group of syllables. The following are the most important kinds of feet : FEET OF THREE MORAE. FEET OF FOUR MORAE. w Trochee. w w Dactyl. w Iambus. w w Anapaest. 3. A Verse is a succession of feet. 4. The different kinds of verses are named Trochaic, Iambic, Dac- tylic, Anapaestic, according to the foot which forms the basis of their structure. 5. Ictus. In every foot the long syllable naturally receives the greater prominence. This prominence is called ictus. 1 It is denoted thus: _/_ w w ; ^-\j* 6. Thesis and Arsis. The syllable which receives the ictus is called the thesis ; the rest of the foot is called the arsis. 7. Elision. Final syllables ending in a vowel, a diphthong, or -m are regularly elided before a word beginning with a vowel or h. In reading, we ordinarily omit the elided syllable entirely. Probably the ancients slurred the words together in some way. This may be indi- cated as follows : corpore in uno ; multum ille^et ; monstrunThor- rendum ; causae irarum. a. Omission of elision is called hiatus. It occurs especially before and after monosyllabic Interjections ; as, O et praesidium. 1 Ictus was not accent, neither stress accent nor musical accent, but was simply the quantitative prominence inherent in a long syllable. 244 Prosody. 8. The ending of a word within a foot is called a caesura (cutting). Every verse usually has one prominent caesura. The ending of a word and foot together within the verse is called a diaeresis. 9. Verses are distinguished as Catalectic or Acatalectic. A Cata- lectic verse is one in which the last foot is not complete, but lacks one or more syllables ; an Acatalectic verse has its last foot complete. 10. At the end of a verse a slight pause occurred. Hence the final syllable may be either long or short (syllaba anceps), and may ter- minate in a vowel or m, even though the next verse begins with a vowel. 1 1 . Iambic, Trochaic, and Anapaestic verses are further designated as dimeter, trimeter, tetrameter, according to the number of dipodies (pairs of feet) which they contain. Dactylic verses are measured by single feet, and are designated as tetrameter, pentameter, hexameter, accordingly. SPECIAL PECULIARITIES. 367. i. Synizesis (Synaeresis) . Two successive vowels in the interior of a word are often united into a long syllable ; as, aureis, deinde, anteire, deesse. 2. Diastole. A syllable usually short is sometimes long; as, videt, audit. 3. Systole. A syllable usually long is sometimes short; as, stete'runt. a. Diastole and Systole are not mere arbitrary processes. They usually represent an earlier pronunciation which had passed out of vogue in the ordinary speech. 4. After a consonant, i and u sometimes become j and v. The preceding syllable then becomes long; as, abjete for abiete ; genva for genua. 5. Sometimes v becomes u ; as, silua for silva ; dissoluo for dissolve. 6. Sometimes a verse has an extra syllable. Such a verse is called an Hypermeter. The extra syllable ends in a vowel or -m, and is united with the initial vowel or h of the next verse by Synapheia. Thus : ignari hominumque locorumque^ erramus. Verse- Structu re. 245 7. Tmesis (cutting). Compound words are occasionally separated into their elements ; as, quo me cunque rapit tempestas, for quocunque, etc. 8. Syncope. A short vowel is sometimes dropped between two consonants ; as, repostus for repositus. THE DACTYLIC HEXAMETER. 368. i. The Dactylic Hexameter, or Heroic Verse, consists theoretically of six dactyls. But in all the feet except the fifth a spondee ( __ ) may take the place of the dactyl. The sixth foot may be either a spondee or a trochee, since the final syllable of a verse may be either long or short (syllaba anceps). The following represents the scheme of the verse : 2. Sometimes we find a spondee in the fifth foot. Such verses are called Spondaic. A dactyl usually stands in the fourth place, and the fifth and sixth feet are generally made up of a quadrisyllable ; as, armajbumquelaurdl circunfspicit Orioiia car a deum suboles, magnum Jo vis in ere men turn. 3. Caesura. a) The favorite position of the caesura in the Dactylic Hexam- eter is after the thesis of the third foot ; as, arma virumque cano || Trojae qui primus ab oris. b) Less frequently the caesura occurs after the thesis of the fourth foot, usually accompanied by another in the second foot ; as, Inde toro || pater Aeneas || sic orsus ab alto est. c) Sometimes the caesura occurs between the two short syl- lables of the third foot ; as, 6 pass! graviora || dabit deus his quoque finem. This caesura is called Feminine as opposed to the caesura after a long syllable, which is called Masculine (as under b and c). 246 Prosody. d) A pause sometimes occurs at the end of the fourth foot. This is called the Bucolic Diaeresis, as it was borrowed by the Romans from the Bucolic poetry of the Greeks. Thus : solstitium pecori defendite ; || jam venit aestas. DACTYLIC PENTAMETER. 369. i. The Dactylic Pentameter consists of two parts, each of which contains two dactyls, followed by a long syllable. Spondees may take the place of the dactyls in the first part, but not in the second. The long syllable at the close of the first half of the verse always ends a word. The scheme is the following : Z^. Ow _/_ OC/ _^_ II -^Lwwjlv^w^ 2. The Pentameter is never used alone, but only in connection with the Hexameter. The two arranged alternately form the so-called Ele- giac Distich. Thus : Vergilium vidi tantum, nee amara Tibullo Tempus amicitiae fata dedere meae. IAMBIC MEASURES. 370. i. The most important Iambic verse is the Iambic Trimeter ( 366, n) called also Senarius. This is an acata- lectic verse. It consists of six Iambi. Its pure form is : \J \J \J \J \J W Beatus ille qui procul negotiis. The Caesura usually occurs in the third foot; less fre- quently in the fourth. 2. In place of the Iambus, a Tribrach (w w w) may stand in any foot but the last. In the odd feet (first, third, and fifth) may stand a Spondee, Dactyl, or Anapaest, though the last two are less frequent. Sometimes a Proceleusmatic (w w w w) occurs. 3. In the Latin comic writers, Plautus and Terence, great free- dom is permitted, and the various equivalents of the Iambus, viz. the Dactyl, Anapaest, Spondee, Tribrach, Proceleusmatic, are freely admitted in any foot except the last. SUPPLEMENTS TO THE GRAMMAR. I. JULIAN CALENDAR. 371. i . The names of the Roman months are : Januarius, Februa- rius, Martins. Aprilis, Maius, Junius. Julius (Quintilis 1 prior to 46 B.C.), Augustus (Sextilis 1 prior to 46 B.C.), September, Oct5- ber, November, December. These words are properly Adjectives in agreement with mensis understood. 2. Dates were reckoned from three points in the month : a) The Calends, the first of the month. b) The Nones, usually the fifth of the month, but the seventh in March, May, July, and October. c) The Ides, usually the thirteenth of the month, but the fif- teenth in March, May, July, and October. 3. From these points dates were reckoned backward ; consequently all days after the Ides^ of any month were reckoned- as so many days before the Calends of the month next following. 4. The day before the Calends, Nones, or Ides of any month is designated as pridie Kalendas, Nonas, Idus. The second day be- fore was designated as die tertio ante Kalendas, Nonas, etc. Simi- larly the third day before was designated as die quarto, and so on. These designations, of course, are arithmetically inaccurate, but the Romans reckoned both ends of the series. 5. In indicating dates, the name of the month is added in the form of an Adjective agreeing with Kalendas, Nona's, Idus. Various forms of expression occur, of which that given under d) is most common : a) die qumto ante Idus Martias ; ) qumto ante Idus Martias ; c) qumto (V) Idus Martias^ d) ante diem quintum (V) Idus Martias. 1 Originally the Roman year began with March. This explains the names Quintilis, Sextjlis, September, etc., fifth month, sixth month, etc, 247 248 Supplements to the Grammar. 6. These designations may be treated as nouns and combined with the prepositions in, ad, ex ; as, ad ante diem IV Kalendas Octobres, up to the -2&th of September. ex ante diem quintum Idus Octobres, from the nth of October. 7. In leap year the 25th was reckoned as the extra day in February. The 24th was designated as ante diem VI Kalendas Martias, and the 25th as ante diem bis VI Kal. Mart. 372. CALENDAR. Days of the Month. March, May, July, October. January, August, December. April, June, Sep- tember, November. February. I KALENDlS. KALENDIS. KALENDIS. KALENDIS. 2 VI. Nonas. IV. Nonas. IV. Nonas. IV. Nonas. 3 V. III. III. III. 4 IV. Pridie Nonas. Pridie Nonas. Pridie Nonas. 5 III. NONIS. NONlS. NONIS. 6 Pridie Nonas. VIII. Idus. VIII. Idus. VIII. Idus. 7 NONlS. VII. VII. VII. 8 VIII. Idus. VI. VI. VI. ; - - 9 VII. V V. V. 10 VI. IV. IV. " v IV. ii V. III. I If. III. 12 IV. Pridie Idus. Pridie Idus. Pridie Idus. 13 III. IDIBUS. IDIBUS. IDIBUS. 14 Pridie Idus. XIX. Kalend. XVIII. Kalend: XVI. Kalend. IS IDIBUS. XVIII. XVII. " XV. 16 XVII. Kalend. XVII. XVI. XIV. 17 XVI. XVI. XV. XIII. 18 XV. XV. XIV. XII. 19 XIV. XIV. XIII. XI. 20 XIII. XIII. XII. X. 21 XII. XII. XI. IX. 22 XI. XI. X. VIII. 23 X. X. IX. VII. 2 4 IX. IX. VIII. VI. 25 26 VIII. VII. VIII. VII. VII. VI. V. (VI.) " IV. (V.) " 2 7 VI. VI. V. III. (IV.) " 28 V. V. IV. Prid.Kal.(III.Kal.) 2 9 IV. IV. III. (Prid. Kal.) 30 31 III. Pridie Kalend. III. Pridie Kalend. Pridie Kalend. (Enclosed forms are for leap-year.) Figures of Syntax. 249 II. ABBREVIATIONS OF PROPER NAMES. 373. A. = Aulus. Mam. = Mamercus. App. = Appius. N. = Numerius. C. = Gaius. P. = Fublius. Cn. = Gnaeus. Q. = Qumtus. D. = Decimus. Sex. = Sextus. K. = Kaeso. Ser. = Servius. L. = Lucius. Sp. = Spurius. M. = Marcus. T. = Titus. M'.= Manius. Ti. = Tiberius. III. FIGURES OF SYNTAX AND RHETORIC. A. Figures of Syntax. 374. i . Ellipsis is the omission of one or more words ; as, sed enim audierat, but (she was afraid), for she had heard, etc. 2. Brachylogy is a brief or condensed form of expression; as, ut ager sine cultura fructuosus esse non potest, sic sine doc- trina animus, as a field cannot be productive without cultiva- tion, so the mind (cannot be productive) without learning. Special varieties of Brachylogy are a) Zeugma, in which one verb is made to stand for two ; as, * ^ninis aut blandimentis corrupta, = (terrified) by threats or corrupted by flattery. b) Compendiary Comparison, by which a modifier of an object is mentioned instead of the object itself; as, dissimilis erat Chares eorum et fact is et moribus, lit. Chares was different from their conduct and character, i.e. Chares's conduct and character were different, etc. 3. Pleonasm is an unnecessary fullness of expression ; as, prius praedicam, lit. I will first say in advance. 4. Hendiadys (ev 8ta Svotv, one through two) is the use of two nouns joined by a conjunction, in the sense of a noun modified by a Genitive or an Adjective ; as, f ebris et aestus, the heat of fever ; celeritate cursuque, by swift running. 250 Figures of Syntax and Rhetoric. 5. Prol^psis, or Anticipation, is the introduction of an epithet in advance of the action which makes it appropriate : as, submersas obrue puppes, lit. overwhelm their submerged ships, i.e. overwhelm and sink their ships. a. The name Prolepsis is also applied to the introduction of a noun or pronoun as object of the main clause where we should expect it to stand as subject of a subordinate clause. Thus : nosti Marcellum quam tardus sit, you know how slow Marcellus is (lit. you know Marcellus, how slow he is). Both varieties of Prolepsis are chiefly confined to poetry. 6. Anacoliithon is a lack of grammatical consistency in the con- struction of the sentence ; as, turn Anci filii . . . impensius els indignitas crescere, then the sons of Ancus . . . their indignation increased all the more. 7. H^steron Frdteron consists in the inversion of the logical order of two words or phrases ; as, moriamur et in media arm a ruamus = let us rush into the midst of arms and die. B. Figures of Rhetoric. 375. i. Litotes is the use of two negatives for an emphatic affirmative ; as, ^ baud parum laboris, no little toil (i.e. much toil) ; non ignore, I am not ignorant (i.e. I am well aware). 2. Oxymdron is the combination of contradictory concep- tions ; as, sapiens insania, wise folly. 3. Alliteration is the employment of a succession of words presenting frequent repetition of the same letter (mostly initial) ; as, sensim sine sensu aetas senescit. 4. Onomatopoeia is the suiting of sound to sense ; as, quadrupedante putrem sonitu quatit ungula campum, 'And shake with horny hoofs the solid ground? INDEX TO THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE MOST IMPORTANT VERBS. NOTE. Compounds are not given unless they present some special irregularity. Th< references are to sections. A. ascendo, 122, I, 4. COlO, 122, I, 5. aspicio, 122, III. comminiscor, 122, V. abdo, 122, 1,2. assentior, 123, VII. comperio, 123, V. abicio, 122, III. assuefacio, 122, III. compleo, 121, I. abnuo, 122, II. assuefio, 122, III. concutio, 122, III. aboleo, 121, I. audio, 123, I. condo, 122, I, 2. absterged, 121, III. aufero, 129. confero, 129. absum, 125. augeo, 121, III. confiteor, 121, VII. accendo, 122, I, 4. aveo, 121, II, a, N. 2. congruo, 122, II. accidit, 138, III. consenesco, 122, IV, 2. accio, 121, I, N. consero, 122, I, 5. accipio, 122, III. C. consero, 122, I, 6 (plant). acquire, 122, I, 6. cado, 122, I, 2. consido, 122, I, 4. acu5, 122, II. caedo, 122, I, 2. consisto, 122, I, 2. addo, 122, I, 2. calefacio, 122, III. conspicio, 122, III. adhaeresco, 122, IV, 2. caleflo, 122, III. constat, 138, III. adipiscor, 122, V. caleo, 121, II, a. constituo, 122, II. adolesco, 122, IV, i. calesco, 122, IV, 2. consuesco, 122, IV, i. adsum, 125. cano, 122, I, 2. consulo, 122, I, 5. advenio, 123, IV. capesso, 122, I, 6. contineo, 121, II, b. affero, 129. capio, 122, III. contingit, 138, III. afficio, 122, III. careo, 121, II, a. coquo, 122, I, i, a. affligo, 122, I, i, a. carpo, 122, I, i, a. crepo, 1 20, II. agnosco, 122, IV, i. caveo, 121, V. cresc5, 122, IV, i. ago, 122, I, 3. cedo, 122, I, i, b. cubo, 120, II. algeo, 121, III. censeo, 121, II, b. cupio, 122, III. alo, 122, I, 5. cerno, 122, I, 6. curro, 122, I, 2. amicio, 123, III. cieo, 121, I. amo, 120, I. cingo, 122, I, i, a. D. amplector, 122, V. circumsisto, 122, I, 2. ango, 122, I, 7. claudo, 122, I, i, b. debeo, 121, II, a. aperio, 123, II. claudo, 122, I, 7. decerno, 122, I, 6. appeto, 122, I, 6. coemo, 122, I, 3. decet, 138, II. arceo, 121, II, a. coepT, 133. dedecet, 138, II. arcesso, 122, I, 6. coerceo, 121, II, a. dedo, 122, I, 2. ardeo, 121, III. cognosce, 122, IV, i. defendo, 122, I, 4. aresco, 122, IV, 2. cogo, 122, I, 3. deleo, 121, I. arguo, 122, II. COlllgO, 122, I, 3. deligo, 122, I, 3. 2CI 252 Index to the Principal Parts The references are to sections. demo, 122, I, 3. ferveo, 121, VI. ingemisco, 122, IV, 2. desero, 122, I, 5. figo, 122, I, i t b. msum, 125. desino, 122, I, 6. findo, 122, I, 2, N. intellego, 122, I, 3. desum, 125. fingo, 122, I, i, a. interficio, 122, III. dico, 122, I, I, a. flo, 131. intersum, 125. differo, 129. flecto, 122, I, 1,6. invado, p. 87, footnote. diligo, 122, I, 3. fleo, 121, I. invenio, 123, IV. dlmico, 120, II. floreo, 121, 11, a, N. i. Irascor, 122, V. dirimo, 122, I, 3. fluo, 122, II. dlripio, 122, III. floresco, 122, IV, 2. diruo, 122, II. fodio, 122, III. J. discerno, 122, I, 6. foveo, 121, V. jaceo, 121, II, a. disco, 122, IV, i. frango, 122, I, 3. jacio, 122, III. dissero, 122, I, 5. fremo, 122, I, 5. jubeo, 121, III. distinguo, p. 87, footnote. frico, 120, II. jungo, 122, I, i, a. divide, 122, I, i, b. frigeo, 121, II, a, N. 2. juvo, 120, III. do, 127. fruor, 122, V. doceo, 121, II, b. fugio, 122, III. doleo, 121, II, a. fulcio, 123, III. L. domo, 120, II. fulgeo, 121, III. duco, 122, I, i, a. fulget, 138, I. labor, 122, V. fundo, 122, I, 3. lacesso, 122, I, 6. fungor, 122, V. laedo, 122, I, i, b. E. furo, 122, I, 7. lambo, 122, I, 7. edo, 122, I, 2. largior, 123, VII. edo, 122, I, 3. lateo, 121, II, a, N. i. effero, 129. G. lavo, 120, III. effugio, 122, III. egeo, 121, II, a, N. i. elicio, 122, III. emineo, 121, II, a, N. i. emo, 122, I, 3. gemo, 122, I, 5. gero, 122, I, i, a. glgno, 122, I, 5. gradior, 122, V. lego, 122, I, 3. libet, 138, II. liceor, 121, VII. licet, 138, II. loquor, 122, V. luceo, 121, III. eo, 132. esurio, 123, VI. H. ludo, 122, I, i, b. evado, p. 87, footnote. habeo, 121, II, a. lugeo, 121, III. evanesce, 122, IV, 3. haereo, 121, III. 1UO, 122, II. excolo, 122, I, 5. haurio, 123, III. excudo, 122, I, 4. horreo, 121, II, a, N. i. M. exerceo, 121, II, a. experior, 123, VII. T maereo, 121, II, a, N. 2. expleo, 121, I, N. i. malo, 130. explico, 120, II. ignosco, 122, IV, i. maneo, 121, III. exstinguo, p. 87, footnote. illicio, 122, III. maturesco, 122, IV, 3. extimesco, 122, IV, 2. imbuo, 122, II. medeor, 121, VII. immineo, 121, II, a, N. 2. meminl, 133. impleo, 121, I, N. mereo, 121, II, a. . implico, 120, II. mereor, 121, VII. facio, 122, III. incipio, 122, III. mergo, 122, I, I, b. fallo, 122, I, 2. incolo, 122, I, 5. metior, 123, VII. fateor, 121, VII. incumbo, 122, I, 5. metuo, 122, II. faveo, 121, V. indulged, 121, III. mico, 120, II. ferio, 123, VI. induo, 122, II. minuo, 122, II. fero, 129. Infero, 129. misceo, 121, II, b. of the Most Important Verbs. The references are to sections. 253 miseret, 138, II. patefacio, 122, III. R. misereor, 121, VII. patefio, 122, III. rado, 122, I, i, b. mitto, 122, I, i, b. pateo, 121, II, a, N. i. rapio, 122, III. molo, 122, I, 5. patior, 122, V. reddo, 122, I, 2. moneo, 121, II, a. paveo, 121, V. redimo, 122, I, 3. mordeo, 121, IV. pellicio, 122, III. refercio, 123, III. morior, 122, V. pello, 122, 1, 2. refero, 129. moveo, 121, V. pendeo, 121, IV. refert, 138, II. pendo, 122, I, 2. rego, 122, I, i, a. N. perago, 122, I, 3. percello, 122, I, 2, N. relinquo, 122, I, 3. reminlscor, 122, V. nanciscor, 122. V. nascor, 122, V. necto, 122, I, i, b. neglego, 122, I, 3. ningit, 138, I. niteo, 121, II, a, N. i. nitor, 122, V. percrebresc5, 122, IV, 3. perdo, 122, I, 2. perficio, 122, III. perfringo, 122, I, 3. perfruor, 122, V. perlego, 122, I, 3. permulceo, 121, III. reor, 121, VII. reperio, 123 V. repo, 122, i, i, a. resisto, 122, I, 2. respuo, 122, II. restinguo, p. 87, footnote, retineo, 121, II, b. noceo, 121, II, a. nolo, 130. perpetior, 122, V. pervado, p. 87, footnote. rideo, 121, III. rodo, 122, I, i, b. nosco, 122, IV, i. peto, 122, I, 6. rubeo, 121, II, a, N. i. nubo, 122, I, i, a. piget, 138, II. rumpo, 122, I, 3. pingo, 122, I, i, a. ruo, 122, II. placeo, 121, II, a. O. plaudo, 122, I, i, b. pluit, 138, I. S. obduresco, 122, IV, 3. polleo, 121, II, a, N. 2. saepio, 123, III. oblino, 122, I, 6. polliceor, 121, VII. salio, 123, II. obliviscor, 122, V. polluo, 122, II. sancio, 123, III. obmutesco, 122, IV, 3. pono, 122, I, 6. sapio, 122, III. obruo, 122, II. pOSCO, 122, IV, I. sarcio, 123, III. obsolesco, 122, IV, i. pOSSldO, 122, I, 4. scindo, 122, I, 2, N. obsum, 125. possum, 126. SC1SCO, 122, IV, 2. obtineo, 121, II, b. p6tO, I2O, I. scribo, 122, I, i, a. odi, 133. praebeo, 121, II, a. sculpo, 122, I, i, a. offero, 129. praestat, 138, III. seco, 120, II. oleo, 121, II, a, N. i. praesum, 125. sedeo, 121, V. operio, 123, II. prandeo, 121, VI. sentio, 123, III. oportet, 138, II. prehendo, 122, I, 4. sepelio, 123, I. opperior, 123, VII. premo, 122, I, i, b. sequor, 122, V. ordior, 123, VII. prodo, 122, I, 2. sero, 122, I, 6. orior, 123, VII. promo, 122, I, 3. serpo, 122, I, i, a. prosum, 125. sileo, 121, II, a, N. i. prosterno, 122, I, 6. sino, 122, I, 6. . pudet, 138, II. solvo, 122, I, 4. paenitet, 138, II. pungo, 122, I, 2. sono, 120, II. palleo, 121, II, a, N. i. spargo, 122, I, i, b. pando, 122, 1, 4. o sperno, 122, I, 6. parco, 122, I, 2. V- splendeo, 121, II, a, N. i. pareo, 121, II, a. quaero, 122, I, 6. spondeo, 121, IV. pario, 122, III. quatio, 122, III. statuo, 122, II. pasco, 122, IV, i. queror, 122, V. sterno, 122, I, 6. pascor, 122, IV, i. quiesco, 122, IV. i. -stinguo, 122, I, i, a. 254 Index to the Most Important Verbs. The references are to sections. strepo, 122, I, 5. exo, 122, I, 5. V. strideo, 121, VI. timeo, 121, II, a, N. i. vado, 122, I, i, 0. stringo, 122, I, i, a. ingo, 122, I, i, a. valeo, 121, II, a. struo, 122, II. tollo, 122, I, 2, N. veho, 122, I, i, a. studeo, 121, II, a, N. i. tonat, 138, I. vello, 122, I, 4. suadeo, 121, III. tondeo, 121, IV. venio, 123, IV. subigo, 122, I, 3. tono, 120, II. vereor, 121, VII. subsum, 125. torpeo, 121, II, a, N. i. vergo, 122, I, 7. sum, 100. torqueo, 121, III. verro, 122, I, 4. sumo, 122, I, 3. torreo, 121, II, b. verto, 122, I, 4. SUO, 122, II. trado, 122, I, 2. vescor, 122, V. supersum, 125. traho, 122, I, i, a. veto, 120, II. sustineo, 121, II, b. tremo, 122, I, 5. video, 121, V. tribuo, 122, II. vigeo, 121, II, a, N. I. trudo, 122, I,*i, b. vincio, 123, III. T. tueor, 121, VII. vinco, 122, I, 3. taceo, 121, II, a. tundo, 122, I, 2. vireo, 121, II, a t N. i. taedet, 138, II. V1SO, 122, I, 4. tango, 122, I, 2. U. VIVO, 122, I, I, Cl. tego, 122, I, i, a. volo, 130. temno, 122, I, i, a. ulciscor, 122, V. VOlvO, 122, I, 4. tendo, 122, I, 2. unguo, 122, I, i, a. vomo, 122, I, 5. teneo, 121, II, b. urgeo, 121, III. voveo, 121, V. tero, 122, I, 6. uro, 122, I, i, a. terreo, 121, II, a. utor, 122, V. GENERAL INDEX. The references are to sections and paragraphs. a, ab, abs, use, 142, i. a to denote agency, 216. to denote separation, 214. with town names, 229, 2. Ablative case, 17. formation of sing, of adjs. of 3d decl., 67, a ; 70, 1-5. genuine abl. uses, 214 f. absolute, 227. of agent, 216. of accompaniment, 222. of attendant circumstance, 221. of cause, 219. of comparison, 217. of degree of difference, 223. of manner, 220. of means, 218. of place where, 228. of place whence, 229. of price, 225. of quality, 224. N of separation, 214. of source, 215. of specification, 226. of time at which, 230. of time during which, 231, i. of time within which, 231. of way by which, 218, 9. with /acid, fid, 218, 6. with verbs of filling, 218, 8. with adjs. of plenty, 218, 8. Absolute time, of participles, 336, 4. use of verbs, 174, a. Abstract nouns, 12, 2, b}. -abus, 21, 2. e). ac, 341, 2, b} ; as, than, 341, i, c). ac si, 307, i. Acatalectic verses, 366, 9. Accent, 6. Accusative case, 17 ; 172 f. of duration of time, 181. of result produced, 173, B \ 176. of extent of space, 181. of limit of motion, 182. of person or thing affected, 173, A ; 175; in exclamations, 183. as subj. of inf., 184. with adv. force, 176, 3. with compounds, 175, 2. with passive used as middle, 175, 2,d}. cognate ace., 176, 4. Greek ace., 180. synecdochical ace., 180. two aces., direct obj. and pred. ace., 177; person affected and result pro- duced, 178 ; with compounds of trans, 179. retained in pass., 178, 2. deer, 68. -ades, 148, 6, a. adg; = a gg; 9, 2- Adjectives, 62 f. of ist and 2d decl., 63 ff. of 3d decl., 67 ff. comparison of adjs. in -er, 71, 3 ; in -His, 71, 4 ; comparative lacking, 73, 3 ; defective comparison, 73 ; not admit- ting comparison, 75 ; comparison by magis and maxime, 74. syntax, 233 ff. agreement, 234 f. used substantively, 236 f. denoting part of an object, 241, i. with force of adverbs, 239. force of comparatiye_and superl., 240, i. General Index. The references are to sections and paragraphs. Adjectives, equiv. to rel. clause, 241, 2. as pred. ace., 177, 2. position of adj., 350, 4. adl- = all-, 9, 2. admoneo, const., 207. adr- arr-, 9, 2. ads- = ass-, 9, 2. adulescens, 9, 2. adultus, 114, 2. Adverbs, formation and comparison, 76 f. ; 140. in -iter from adjs. in -us, 77, 4. in -d, 77, 2. as preps., 144, 2. derivation of, 157. special meanings, 347. position, 350, 6. Adversative clauses, 309. conjunctions, 343. -aeus, 152, 3. aevom, 24. ain, 135, N. ajo, 135- alacer, comp., 73, 4. aliqua, 91, 2. aliqui, 91 ; 91, 2. aliquis, 91 ; 252, 2. -5/z.r, 151, 2. alms, 66 ; used correlatively, 253, i. /?'#.? ac, 341, i, ). Alliteration, 375, 3. Alphabet, i. alter, 66; used correlatively, 253, i. alteruter, 92, 2. amandus sum, 115. amaturus sum, 115. fl#z 25, 3. Final consonant omitted, 8, 3. Finite verb, 95. fid, 131. fid, with abl., 218, 6. First conj., 101. General Index. The references are to sections and paragraphs. 259 First decl., 20 f. Foot, in verse, 366, 2. fore, page 57, footnote. fore ut, 270, 3. forem, fores, etc., page 57, footnote 2. for is, 228, i, c. fors, forte, 57, 2, a. fortior, 69. fortis, 69. Fourth conjugation, 107. Fourth declension, 48 ; dat. in -, 49, 2 ; gen. in -I, 49, i ; dat. abl. plu. in -ubus, 49,3- Frequentatives, 155, 2. fr'etus, 218, 3. /r7, 72. fruor, with abl., 218, i; in gerundive const., 339, 4. Fricatives, 2, 7. fungor, 218, i. Future tense, 261. time in the subjv., 269. perfect, 264. futurum esse ut, with subjv., 270, 3. G. Gender, 13-15; in 2d decl., 26; in 3d decl., 43 f. ; in 4th decl., 50; in 5th decl., 53 ; determined by endings, 14 ; by signification, 15 A. Genitive, 17; in -I for -it, 25, i; 2; of 5th decl. in -el, 52, i ; in -e, 52, 3 ; in -*, 52, 2; of ist decl. in -al, 21, 2, b) ; gen. plu. -um for -arum, 21, 2, d) ; -u m for -drum, 25, 6 ; gen. plu. lacking, 57. 7 \ syntax of, 194 f. of indefinite price, 203, 4. of indefinite value, 203, 3. of material, 197. of origin, 196. of possession, 198. of quality, 203. of the whole, 201. appositional, 202. objective, 200. subjective, 199. with adjs., 204. with verbs, 205 f. ; of plenty and want, 212 ; with impers. verbs, 209. position of gen., 350, i, Gerund, 338. Gerundive, 337, 7. Gerundive const, 339, 1-6 ; gen. denoting purpose, 339, 6. gnarus, not compared, 75, 2. gratia, with gen., 198, i. Greek nouns, ist decl., 22 ; 2d decl., 27 ; 3d decl., 47. gu=gv, 3,3. Guttural mutes, 2, 4. stems, 32. H. haded, with perf. pass, partic., 337, 6. Hadria, 21, i. haud, use, 347, 2, a. have, 137, 5. Hendiadys, 374, 4. herl, 232, 2. Heteroclites, 59. Heterogeneous nouns, 60. hie, 87 ; ' the following,' 246, 2 ; ' the lat- ter,' 246, i. Historical tenses, 258. Hortatory subjv., 274. hoscine, 87, footnote 2. hujusce, 87, footnote 2. huml, 232, 2. Hyperbaton, 350, II, a). Hypermeter, 367, 6. Hysteron proteron, 374, 7. I. i, becomes/, 367, 4. z-stems, 37; 39; not always ending in -is, 38, 2. z-stem, vis, 41. -ia, 149. Iambus, 366, 2. Iambic measures, 370. trimeter, 370. -ianus, 152, I. -ias, 148, 6, b}. -Ibam, in imperf., 116, 4, b). -ibo, in future, 116, 4, b}. Ictus, 366, 5. -icus, 151, 2; 152, 2. id aetatis, 185, 2. id genus, 185, i. id temporis, 185, 2. id quod, 247, i, b. Idem, 87 ; 248. Idem ac, 248, 2, 260 General Index. The references are to sections and paragraphs. Ides, 371, 2, ). -ides, 148, 6, a). -Ides, 148, 6, a). -idd, 147,3, ). idoneus, with rel. clause of purpose, 282, 3. -Idas, 150, 3. -ier, inf. ending, 116, 4, a. igitur, 344, i, *). -*/*?, 148, 3. -z/zj, 151, 2. -*7f, 150, 4. Illative conjunctions, 344. tile, 87; 'the following,' 246, 2; 'the former, 1 246, i ; ' the well-known,' 246, 3 ; position, 350, 5, b. illuc, 87, footnote 3. -illus (a, um), 148, I. Imperative, 281. as protasis of a conditional sent., 305. 2. sent, in indir. disc., 316. Imperfect tense, 260. subjv. in conditional sent, referring to the past, 304,^2. Impersonal verbs, 138. impetus, defective, 57, 4. Implied indir. disc., 323. imus, ' bottom of,' 241, i. in, prep., 143. -Ina, 148, 5. Inceptives, 155, i. Inchoatives, 155, i. Indeclinable adjs., 70, 6. nouns, 58. Indefinite pronouns, 91 ; 252. Indicative, 271. in apodosis of conditional sent, of 3d type, 304, 3 and b) . indigeo, const., 214, i, N. 2. indignus, with rel. clause of purpose, 282, 3. Indirect discourse, 313 f. ; subordinate clauses in ind., 314, 3. questions, 300 ; in conditional sen- tences of 3d type, 322, b. ^ reflexives, 244/2. inferum, 73, 2. Infinitive, 326 ff. fut. perf. inf., 270, 4. without subj. ace., 326-328. with subj. ace., 329-331. with adjs., 333. denoting purpose, 326, N, Infinitive in exclamations, 334. historical inf., 335. -im, -is in subjv., 116, 4, d. infitias, 182, 5. Inflection, n. Inflections, n ff. injussu, 219, 2. inl- = ill, 9, 2. inquam, 134. Inseparable prepositions, 159, 3, N. instar, with gen., 198, 2. Instrumental uses of abl., 218 ff. Intensive pron., 88. Intensives (verbs), 155, 2. interest, const., 210 ; 211. interior, 73, i. Interjections, 145. Interrogative pronouns, 90. sentences, 162; in indir. disc., 315. -inus, 151, 2; 152, i; 152, 3. -id, verbs of 3d conj., 109. jpse, 88 ; 249 ; as indir. reflexive, 249, 3. ipsius and ipsorum, with possessive pro- nouns, 243, 3. Irregular verbs, 124 f. ^ is, 87 ; 247 ; as personal pron., 247, 2. -is, 148, 6, b}. istaec, 87, footnote 3. iste, 87 ; 246, 4. isfic, 6, 4. istuc, 6, 4 ; 87, footnote 3. itaque, 344, i, a). itdque, 6, 6. -itia, 149. z'fer, 42, I. -turn, 147, 3, ) ; 148, 2. -MM, 151, 2; 152, 2; 152, 3; -*#j for -ius, 362, i, #). -IVUS, 151, 2. J- /, I, 2. /#//V&, 25, i ; position of, 350, 3. Voices, 95 ; 256 ; middle voice, 256, i. Voiced sounds, 2, 3, a. Voiced consonants, 2, 3, a). Volitive subjunctive, 272. volnus, 9, i. void, 130; with inf., 331, IV and a; with subjv., 296, i, a. voltus, 9, i. -volus, comparison of adjs. in, 71, 5. Vowels, 2, i. Vowel changes, 7. W. Word-formation, 146 f. Word-order, 348 f. Word questions, 162, i. Y. y, i, i. i Z, I, I. Zeugma, 374, 2, a) . Allyn <5r Bacon .... Boston. Lindsay & Rollins. Easy Latin Lessons. i2mo. 370 pages. $1.00. The prominent features of the book are : I. The Lessons are made short and easy, to enable young pupils to master them without difficulty, and older ones to advance with ra- pidity. II. The Vocabularies are brief, introducing not more than ten new words for each lesson. III. Only the Essentials of Latin Grammar have been given, and these in simple form. No attempt has been made to teach the whole gram- mar in the first year. IV. It is complete in itself, and can be used with or without any Grammar. V. Connected Latin for reading is introduced at regular intervals from the outset. VI. A Complete View of all the forms of in- fection is given in the Appendix, in addition to the detached parts found with the lessons. Walter A. Edwards, Principal High School, Rockford, Illinois. I find the Easy Latin Lessons excellently adapted to the end the authors have set themselves. The choice of material to be presented has been judiciously made, and the self-restraint of the authors, following out their wish not to displace the teacher, cannot be too highly commended. Allyn