THE LIBRARY
OF
THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA
RIVERSIDE
Ex Libris
: C. K. OGDEN '
1 z ir^^y
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juries
A TREATISE
ON
MUSICAL FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION
BY THE
REV. SIR F. A. GORE OUSELEY, BART., M.A., Mus. Doc.
ni
PROFESSOR OF MUSIC IN THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD
AT THE CLARENDON PRESS
M.DCCC.LXXV
[A/I rights referred']
MT66
#94
TO
THE REV. T. VERE BAYNE, M.A.,
IN REMEMBRANCE OF A LONG FRIENDSHIP,
'
AND AS A GRATEFUL ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF MANY ACTS OF KINDNESS,
THIS TREATISE
IS AFFECTIONATELY DEDICATED
BY
THE AUTHOR.
PREFACE.
THE present Treatise is intended to supply an acknowledged want, and
to be a sequel to the Author's works on Harmony and Counterpoint.
He has been so often asked to write a treatise on the subject of Form, to serve
as a text-book, that he is encouraged to hope that the following pages may prove
useful, and supply a want that is certainly felt.
He had at one time intended to have written a few chapters on In-
strumentation, either as an Appendix to the present Volume, or as a separate
work. But subsequent consideration has satisfied him that the excellent treatises
of Berlioz and Kastner, of which the former has been translated into English,
amply suffice for the instruction of students in the art of writing for various
instruments.
Though the Author feels that he can honestly say that he has spared no pains
to render this Treatise on Form as perfect as possible, he yet knows that there
must be omissions and blemishes in it ; and he therefore hopes that if it should
ever reach a second edition he may have the benefit of friendly criticism to aid
him in the task of improving it.
October, 1874.
b 2
TABLE OF CONTENTS,
CHAPTER I.
PAGE
Introductory and General Observations i
CHAPTER II.
Of Melody. Need of Genius. Rules may aid to evoke latent Genius. Difference
in this respect between Melody and other branches of Musical Study. Melody
must be in a definite Key. Gregorian Scales. Principle of Symmetry. Periods,
Phrases, and Strains. Example of Symmetrical Melody analysed. Analysis
of " God save the Queen." Overlapping Periods. Analysis of a Double Chant.
Prolongation of Periods by Interpolation. Combination of Melodies in succession.
Irregular Rhythm. Analysis of "Charmante Gabrielle." Melodic Modulation.
Instrumental and Vocal Melody compared. General Cautions. Additional Rules. 3
CHAPTER III.
Definition of Form. Advantages it offers. List of usual Forms. Reference to
Treatise on Counterpoint and Fugue 30
CHAPTER IV.
Of the Ancient Binary Form. Its two varieties 32
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER V.
PAGE
Of the Modern Binary Form. Analysis of it. Its two divisions. Subsections.
Sequence of Keys. Curtailment. Prolongation. Rules for Minor Mode.
Tabular view 34
CHAPTER VI.
Of the Ternary Form. Analysis of it. Tabular view 41
CHAPTER VII.
Of the Minuet Form. Original kind. Trio. Repeats. Coda. Scherzo.
Intermezzo 43
CHAPTER VIII.
Of the Rondo Form. Its two varieties. Characteristic features. Analysis of it.
Tabular View 45
CHAPTER IX.
Of the "Air with Variations." Description. Rules. Cautions 48
CHAPTER X.
Of the Fugue Form. May be combined with the Modern Binary Form. Or with
an " Air with Variations " 51
CHAPTER XL
Of Combinations of Forms. Different "Movements." Symphonies and Sonatas.
Order of Keys. Old use of the word Sonata. Chamber-music. Concertos . . 52
CONTENTS. xi
CHAPTER XII.
PAGE
Of Vocal Composition. Cases where regular Form is admissible. Application of
various Forms to Vocal Composition. National Songs. Hymn Tunes. Anthems.
Motetts. The Round, or Free Canon, a Vocal Form 56
CHAPTER XIII.
Of Formless Music. " Coupe de Fantaisie." New Forms. Cautions to Beginners.
" Ars celare artem." Avoidance of prolixity. Paramount importance of Melody.
Analogy of Music and Painting. Concluding Remarks 59
Xll
LIST OF EXAMPLES.
PAGE
No. 1. A Eegular Melody by Haydn, analysed 62
No. 2. The "Old Hundredth" Tune, analysed 63
No. 3. Melody by Mozart. Prolongation , . . 64
No. 4.' "La ci darem la mano." By Mozart 64
No. 5. Melody by Haydn, analysed 65
No. 6. Song by Delia Maria, analysed . * 66
No. 7. Part of a Duet from Marcello's " Psalms," to illustrate the overlapping of
Phrases 68
No. 8. Analysis of Handel's Air "But Thou didst not leave" 70
No. 9. Gigue by Handel, analysed. Ancient Binary Form. (First Variety.) ... 71
No. 10. Example of the same Form. Air by Hasse, analysed 77
No. 11. Example of Ancient Binary Form. (Second Variety.) Air " Lascia ch' io
pianga"from Handel's "Binaldo" 89
No. 12. Sonata by F. A. G. 0., in the Mozartean Style, analysed ...... 94
ERRATA.
Page 75, last bar, treble,
for
read
Page 99, first line, bass, bar 1, for i* read *].
bar 2, for
read _
last bar, bass, add ft before B, twice.
Page 100, line 1, last bar, balsa, add Q before
B, twice.
Page 103, first bar, treble, add Q before A
(second note).
Page 110, last line, first bar, treble,
4- J !
read " _ ^
Page 112, first line, 2nd bar, treble,
read
Page 112, second line, first bar, treble,
,
read
Page 117, first bar, treble, add tl before E.
bass,
2nd bar, treble,
Page 128, first bar, bass,
r
read
Page 131, last line, second bar, treble, the word
" loco" should be over the note next after
the one where it is now placed.
THE PRINCIPLES
OF
MUSIC.
CHAPTER I.
Introductory.
1. IT is often thought that, when a student has thoroughly mastered
the theory and practice of Harmony and Counterpoint, and can consequently
harmonise any given melody correctly and variously, and introduce such
" learned" devices as imitations and canons into his work, then he is
a trained musician and composer, and has only to apply his acquirements
in order to enrich the world with new and excellent compositions of his
own. No mistake can be greater than this : it might as well be supposed
that a man who had learnt grammar and orthography might thereupon
set up for an epic poet, or become a writer of satirical essays, without
further training. For in truth Harmony and Counterpoint are, after
all, but that preparatory study of the technical rules without which the
edifice cannot be reared ; but it requires architectural skill and experience
in addition to form them into a really good musical structure.
2 THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
2. This architectural skill and experience cannot be imparted entirely
by books. In some degree it is a natural gift, possessed by certain
persons, and denied to others. And just as we are told that " Poeta
nascitur non fit/' so it may be said of a composer, that the requisite
genius must be born in him, and cannot be acquired by study. Still,
as there are different degrees of genius and of aptitude among men, so
it may well be argued that any one who has the least musical per-
ception can tell what latent sparks of inventive musical fire he may
possess. And if so, it is obvious that cultivation and study will tend
to develope those hidden resources and quicken the creative powers.
A knowledge of Harmony and Counterpoint is the first and most in-
dispensable requisite for such a purpose ; but, after all, Harmony and
Counterpoint are not enough by themselves to enable the student to
accomplish the toilsome ascent of the musical Parnassus. The power
of originating new melodies and of combining them together so as to
form a consistent whole is the first faculty of which any newly-awakened
genius will avail itself. The Harmonic and Contrapuntal treatment of
such melodies may be regarded as absolutely necessary if the composer
aspires to climb the highest peaks. But the origination of melody is
after all the true act of composition ; while the correct way of using and
combining new melodies is one of the highest walks of art. And this is
exactly where the power and importance of symmetry and rhythmic
balance make themselves felt, and from this consideration we must
deduce the whole theory and practice of MUSICAL FORM, which is to
be the principal subject of this treatise.
Our first care then must be to investigate the laws of melody.
CHAPTER II.
Of Melody.
1. A GENERAL definition of Melody would describe it as "a succession
of single musical sounds arranged in a certain order both as to pitch
and as to rhythm, so as to produce an agreeable impression on the ear."
But this, although a correct general definition, would be insufficient as
a guide either to the composition or to the analysis of particular
melodies, unless accompanied by many special rules and explanations.
2. Indeed it may well be doubted whether the composition of new
melodies, worthy of the name, can be acquired by rules or definitions
at all. The most that such artificial aids can do is to enable the student
to avoid glaring errors in his own works and to detect them in the
works of others. The faculty of inventing a new melody is a gift, as
we have already observed ; it must come, as it were, spontaneously into
the composer's head. In this fact indeed it is obviously akin to poetry ;
for although you may teach a man the rules of versification or of melody,
yet you cannot thereby make him a poet or a composer, unless he have
also those natural dispositions for the work which constitute him what
is commonly called a genius. Both poetry and melody appeal to the
emotions of the hearer for their effect ; and no hearer will recognise or
respond to their appeal, unless it have its origin in the emotions or
passions of the composer or poet himself. Such emotional powers of
B 2
4 THE PRINCIPLES OF FOKM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
influencing others through the medium of the arts cannot be acquired
by study, unless the creative germ of them be already there. But if
it be there, if the student be gifted, that is, with even a single spark
of poetic or musical fire, then indeed the rules of art can fan that
spark into a flame, and enable the latent gifts to develope themselves
into real artistic powers. And these powers may fairly be called in-
fluences, because the sister arts may be regarded as a kind of language
wherein, so to express it, soul speaks to soul ; and if the language of
art be not understood, it must be because either the hearer is deaf or
the speaker mispronounces his words. In other terms, the true criterion
of art is the effect it produces on an intelligent hearer ; without this
effect all the labour expended on it may be said to have been utterly
thro?wn away.
3. These remarks do not apply so much to Harmony as they do to
Melody ; for any man may learn how to harmonise correctly by a diligent
study of the principles and rules of that branch of the art, and by the
aid of qualified instructors. It does not require the gift of genius to
make a man a good harmonist ; although it must be confessed that
without that gift he will never be able to strike out new effects in
Harmony. But in the case of Melody no amount of study can teach
an unmusical man to invent a new tune, although he may learn to
find out the faults in an old one or to copy its merits.
4. Again, Counterpoint and the art of Fugue can be mastered
thoroughly by dint of laborious application ; even good fugues may be
produced without any real musical inspiration, though of course they
would be all the better were that important element present. Given
the melodies, any studious musical scholar may learn to supply the
harmonies, the counterpoints, and even the instrumentation. But when
he has done all this he will only have proved himself a good arranger,
OF MELODY. 5
not a composer, inasmuch as the very foundation on which all his
superstructure has been reared is not his own at all.
5. From what has just been said it follows that, from one point of
view, Melody is the most important and necessary of the elements which
go to make a good composer. A man may be a thoroughly accomplished
musician, an excellent critic, an admirable arranger, a perfect sight-reader,
a brilliant player, an exquisite singer, a steady accompanyist, or an
experienced conductor ; any or all of these things he may be ; but if
in addition to his other qualifications he is not able to compose good
original melodies, he has no claim to be considered a true composer.
6. On the other hand there is reason to believe that the power of
originating good melodies is latent in many persons who are ignorant of
their own faculties, and have therefore never cultivated them. In all such
cases an acquaintance with the rules of art and a careful study of the
best models will tend to draw out and make available that hidden power ;
and it is principally to such persons that this portion of our treatise
will be found useful.
7. Moreover it will surely be admitted to be a manifest advantage
to any lover of music if he can analyse any melody he may hear, so
as to be able to judge of its merits or demerits. To this object also
this treatise pays attention, and will, it is hoped, be helpful to the
student.
8. A melody, if it is to produce a pleasing effect on the ear, must
be written in some definite tonality. The intervals of which it consists
must form part of some regular scale. In ancient times, long before
the invention of Harmony, scales were more varied, and also less
satisfactory than they are now. The consideration of the Ancient
Greek scales, and likewise of Oriental systems, is foreign to the
6 THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
purpose of this work. But of the so-called Gregorian scales it may
be said that they are founded on the Greek tetrachords, and named
after the ancient Greek modes. They consist, as do our modern diatonic
scales, of tones and semitones, and they also agree with our scales in
only admitting two semitones in the octave. But they differ from our
modern scales in the place of their semitones : instead of placing them
always between the 3rd and 4th, and the /th and 8th degrees, as in
the modern major mode, or between the 2nd and 3rd, and the 7th and
8th, as in our present minor mode, the ancient musicians of Europe
placed their semitones very variously, as will be seen by the annexed
diagram, in which the various Gregorian scales or modes are placed in
order, with their Greek names attached, and divided into their two
divisions of authentic and plagal, with the principal note (called in ancient
days the Dominant) in larger characters by way of distinction.
AUTHENTIC.
Dorian, or first mode.
DefgabcD.
Phrygian, or third mode.
EfgabcdE.
Lydian, or fifth mode.
F g a be d eF.
PLAGAL.
Hypodorian, or second mode,
a be D ef g a.
Hypophrygian, or fourth mode.
bcdEfgab.
Hypolydian, or sixth mode,
c d eF g a be.
Maesolydian, or seventh mode. Hypomaesolydian, or eighth mode.
GabcdefG. defGabcd.
v^^V
A line has been drawn under the letters indicating the interval of
a semitone in the above table.
9. It will be observed that none of these scales coincide exactly
with our major and minor modes. The second mode looks like a minor
scale, but the principal note is D instead of A. So again, the sixth mode
OF MELODY. 7
looks like a major scale, but the principal note is not C but F. Melodies
written in any of these scales have the effect of being, as we may say, in
no particular key ; and if we attempt to harmonise them, we are obliged
for the most part to begin and end our harmonies in a different key
from that which seems to prevail in the course of the piece. Although
then it must be admitted that many melodies of this kind have a certain
wild and crude charm of their own, yet no one in the present day would
feel inclined to compose in such imperfect and unsatisfactory scales.
As soon as the modern system of tonality was discovered and introduced
to the musical world some three hundred years ago, all new melodies
were made to conform to it, and every piece of music required a proper
close on the tonic. This then is an essential requisite in every fresh
melody ; it must be written in some major or minor key, closing on the
key note, with a regular cadence from dominant to tonic.
10. The next fundamental principle which regulates the production
of good melody is that of Symmetry. There can be no doubt that the
more regularly balanced the members of a melody are, the more easily
intelligible it will be. In mediaeval times the only symmetry observed
was that of the poetry to which the music was set, except indeed in
the case of dance-music, which necessarily had a musical rhythm of its
own, but of which we unfortunately know very little. Ever since the
introduction of the signs for notes of various lengths (by Franco, in
the middle of the twelfth century), an increasing attention to and appre-
ciation of musical symmetry and rhythm have made themselves felt :
and no melody can be satisfactory to modern ears in which these
conditions are not duly fulfilled.
11. Every regular melody may be divided into Periods, Phrases,
and Strains. These may be said to constitute the Prosody of music.
8 THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
Let us analyse a fragment of melody in order to explain this. The
following is the beginning of the Huntsman's Chorus in Weber's Opera
" Der Freyschtitz":
This, taken altogether, is a Period a complete sentence ending with
a full stop. It is divided into two Phrases of equal length. Each of
these phrases is subdivided into two equal Strains. The strains are
marked by brackets placed over the notes ; the phrases by longer
brackets placed under them. Here we obviously have perfect symmetry
and regularity throughout the whole period.
12. Symmetry may exist, however, without melody. Here, for
instance, there is no melody, but yet there is perfect symmetry; for
we have a period of eight bars divided into two equal and similar
phrases, and each phrase consisting, as it were, of two equal and similar
strains, as indicated by the brackets. But this cannot be called music,
because there is no melody at all. To make music of it, it will be
OF MELODY.
necessary to build a melody on this symmetrical but monotonous basis.
This may be done as follows
The symmetrical arrangement here remains as before : the value of
the notes is not altered : the division of the period into phrases and
strains is exactly the same : but there has been superadded a real
melody, and it has been made so by varying the pitch of the notes.
The great principle of definite scale and key, without which no melody
can exist, has here been carried out. In the present instance our
melody is in the key of C major. A melody need not be kept rigidly
in one key ; but it should begin and end in it always ; and in the
case of so exceedingly short a melody as this one, which is only eight
bars long, no room is left for any departure from the key in which it
begins and ends. Indeed, so simple is the tonality of this tune, that
it can be accompanied by the descending scale of C, excepting indeed
the last note but one ; thus
j^gj
2
IE:
:
5 6
76 76
76 36
or still better by adopting the bass figure, which occurs in the last bar
but one throughout, in this way
10
THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
^^^
m
-i
6 5
6 5
6 5
13. But let us now proceed to analyse this melody a little more
narrowly. It consists of the following strains :
No. i.
No. 2.
-JZ O_3E
tf)i '
No. 3.
No. 4.
Now it is noticeable that of these four strains none, except the last,
wholly satisfies the ear : there is always a craving for some new thing
to follow, until we get to the end of No. 4. And why is this 1 Simply
because there is no full stop in the sentence till then; no perfect
cadence or close. Let us then consider this matter of cadences or closes
with reference to the construction of a melody. The meaning of
cadences in relation to Harmony, together with the necessary rules for
this aspect of them, is fully explained and discussed in the author's
"Treatise on Harmony," Chapters XIII and XIV. But purely melodic
cadences, where no accompanying harmony is present, vary somewhat
from the cadences of harmony, being more numerous, and of a different
nature in some respects.
OF MELODY. 11
14. A melodic perfect cadence must end with the key-note, preceded
by either the dominant itself, or some note belonging to the dominant
chord.
It must also generally fall on the first, or strong beat of the bar.
To both these rules there are exceptions, but they are of comparatively
rare occurrence.
Let us now apply them to the four strains of which the above melody
consists.
In No. i the cadence is not perfect, because it goes from the tonic
C to the dominant G-, and also because it ends on the last or weak beat
of the bar.
In No. 2, although the cadence falls on the strong beat, yet it does
not end on the tonic, but on the leading note, or major third of the
dominant : it is therefore also an imperfect cadence.
In No. 3, although the cadence goes from the dominant to the
tonic, yet it is not a perfect melodic cadence, inasmuch as it falls on
the weak or second beat of the bar.
But in No. 4 the cadence not only goes from dominant to tonic,
but also falls on the strong beat at the beginning of the last bar : this
then is a perfect cadence, or full stop ; the ear is satisfied ; it requires
nothing more to follow. Therefore, as far as it goes, this little period
of melody, short as it is, is absolutely complete.
15. The next point to observe is the correspondence which exists
between the four strains.
The first is repeated, very nearly in the same intervals, by the
third, only at a pitch a fifth lower. As the first goes from the tonic
to the dominant, so does the third go from the subdominant to the
tonic. The correspondence between the second and fourth strains is
of a different sort, depending entirely on the cadences. That of the
C 2
12
THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
second strain is the same as to symmetry of rhythm with that of the
fourth, for they both end with one note on the down beat; but,
whereas the second leads away from the key, the fourth strain leads
back to it ; whereas the second appears to ask, " Here I am, how
shall I get home V the fourth strain answers the enquiry by em-
phatically crying, " Come this way, now you are at home again."
16. By adding various harmonies, of course, the meaning of the
melody may be considerably varied. For instance, the half-close at the
end of the second strain may be thus converted into a real modulation
into the key of G major, or of A minor ; thus
yff
I
c
i
M ' J f ^
<-d
vl) 4-
**J
4
r ^ ,rr
"T^ ^*~
+ * - ^~~
x^\ 4~J
I
n
\
9 p I
1 ^^" JJ
\
1
^ ^
*
6 5
6 - 65
*
OF MELODY.
13
tf\] * "
-
J W
SEE
* i
" J ! *
i
;
* -^-
(9)'
i 1
i 1
^c? w
h^-V-
Ea
r~\ \ H
r^T
6 -
But what we have chiefly to attend to at present is the melody
alone, apart from all harmonic considerations.
17. Now, if it were wished to lengthen this little melody, the first
operation would be to get rid of the full close, or perfect cadence at
the end of the period, or at least so to modify or weaken it as to
destroy its finality, and thus to induce the ear to expect something
to come after it : otherwise the effect of the whole piece would be
rather that of two distinct melodies heard in succession than that of
one melody divided into two periods. Instead, therefore, of making the
last bars end as they do at present, it will be necessary to alter the
close somewhat as follows :
This is now no longer a perfect melodic cadence, for it neither ends
on the key-note, nor does it finish on the strong beat of the bar.
It is now fit to receive some such addition as the following :
a
*^+
'-=$
^^-U^g
14 THE PKINCTPLES OF FORM AND GENEEAL COMPOSITION.
18. If this new period be analysed, it will be seen to consist, like
the former one, of eight bars, divided into two equal phrases of four
bars, these again being subdivided into strains of two bars each ; so that,
in point of symmetry, it is as complete and regular as its predecessor.
In all other respects, however, it differs from it altogether. For the
two strains which make up its former phrase are almost alike, except
as to pitch, wherein they differ by an ascent of a whole tone. The
second phrase contains two utterly dissimilar strains, of which the
former is somewhat of an imitation of the preceding strains, while
the latter comes to a close on the note G. But here the question
arises, what sort of G have we here 1 Is it a dominant or a tonic G ?
In other words, has a modulation taken place into the key of G-, or
are we still in that of C 1 This question is at once answered by the
occurrence of F ft twice in the period, which note forms no part of the
scale of 0, but belongs to that of G, of which it is the leading note.
We have then modulated into the key of G. But have we come to a
full close in that key 1 Is the ear satisfied with the end to which
this new period has arrived 1 or does it crave something more ? Most
assuredly it asks for more, and for two reasons; first because the
concluding note is not on the strong but on the weak beat of the
bar ; and secondly and chiefly because the impression of the original
key of C is not entirely effaced, and therefore a trace of the dominant
character of the G still remains. The melody therefore is still incom-
plete ; and it may be completed in two ways : either by composing an
entirely new period to succeed the last one, which shall end regularly
with a full close on C ; or by repeating the first melody by way of
conclusion with its original full close. Taking the latter of these
alternatives, the completed melody will be as follows, consisting
altogether of three equal periods of eight bars each.
OF MELODY.
15
r I J
r
16 THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
f
r
19. But most melodies are somewhat less symmetrical in their
structure than the foregoing example. And music has this in common
with versification, that a slight departure from absolute regularity of
form may be sometimes a relief to the ear and an improvement of the
effect, while at the same time the strictest symmetry is usually
observed, and any exceptions to it should be made and guarded by
the most careful attention to the requirements of good taste.
20. The above melody is absolutely regular, as we have shown.
Every period is divided into equal and similar phrases, and each phrase
is composed of equal and similar strains. But a strain may consist of
three bars instead of two ; or a phrase may contain three strains
instead of four or two; or again, a period may be composed of three
phrases instead of two or four. The melodies resulting from the above
combinations will be less symmetrical and regular than those we have
been hitherto considering ; but they may be very beautiful notwith-
standing.
21. "God save the Queen" may be cited as a remarkably good
instance of a melody of a slightly irregular kind. Indeed it is so
endeared to us by old associations, and patriotic feelings, that we do
not easily recognise its departures from the normal form. Yet it is
OF MELODY.
17
essentially an irregular melody. It is divided into two periods, but
they are of unequal length. The former period consists of three strains
of two bars each. The latter may be divided into two phrases of four
bars, each of these phrases being divisible into strains of half that
length
XI ft
' w
2
^ 2
r r
r
2 !
ffn
I j^F
* ^^ 1
i
IV ^^
vl/ '-
1
^
*J
/^ -^
-^ -^
Jr u
P P
r i*
M
p p p j
i* V J
rd T
[/
p :
r r r 1
/rn "
1 * *
S l
1 I/
Now the . former period rather gives the idea of being an expansion
of a regular four-bar phrase of two strains, formed by the interpolation
of an additional strain, inserted between the two others and moulded
as a counterpart to the first. Thus
J J
is the opening strain ;
is the second or interpolated strain, of which the rhythm is obviously
D
18 THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION,
the same in all respects. The third strain,
which forms a perfect close on the tonic, is somewhat different in
rhythm from its two predecessors. And it is a somewhat noticeable
fact that the irregularity of the whole period in the matter of
symmetry takes off somewhat from the absolute perfection of this full
close and leads the ear to expect some sort of continuation. Thus one
irregularity of construction in this case neutralises the effect of the other.
Consequently the beauty of the melody as a whole remains unimpaired.
In the second period the first thing which we observe is the rhythm
of the first two strains, which is the same as that of the opening strains
of the former period, thus securing unity of effect in the whole air.
These strains are also similar to one another in the order or succession
of intervals, except that the second is pitched one degree lower in the
scale than the first, thus
The third strain is altogether unlike the rest> and is clearly to be
regarded as a connecting link, or rather as a preparation for the final
close which follows it. These two concluding strains make up this
phrase.
OF MELODY.
19
The air is on the whole a very good example of an irregular
melody.
22. It sometimes happens that the same bar forms the close of one
period and the beginning of another. In this case the adjacent
periods overlap, and the whole melody is consequently one bar shorter
than perfect symmetry would require. It is however quite possible to
construct a melody containing this peculiarity, which shall not produce
a bad effect. Here is an example taken from Keicha's " Traite de
Melodic." It consists of two periods of four bars each, which overlap
one another by half a bar, and yet do not by any means produce an
unpleasant result.
tr
First period of four bars.
^
..Mb
Second period of four bars.
Such melodies as the above must always be to a certain extent
lame and unsatisfactory, nor can they ever produce so good an effect
as those in which the requirements of perfect symmetry are enforced :
still the above example, and many others which might be quoted,
suffice to show the use which may be made of such compositions, and
it is obvious that they afford a valuable element of variety.
23. Perhaps the best and commonest instance of this particular
sort of melody is to be found in an ordinary English single or double
D 2
20 THE PRINCIPLES OF FOKM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
chant. For example, take the well-known chant in E, by Lord
Mornington.
*&
10 11
12
13
14
^^^U=g
BE
-(S>-
As usually written, of course it appears to consist of four phrases,
of which the first and third contain three bars each, while the second
and fourth contain four apiece. This apparently limping and anomalous
structure may probably be explained by supposing that the fourth and
eleventh bars do as it were double duty ; serving both as closes and
commencements of adjacent phrases. Thus
-a-3-ftz-
m
&
may be regarded as a phrase of four bars. Starting again with the
same fourth bar, the second phrase comes out as follows
which is perfectly regular, and forms the conclusion of the first period
of the chant with an imperfect cadence, or half-close, on the fifth of
OF MELODY.
21
the dominant chord. If the third phrase be treated in the same way
as the first, the result is
11 If
9 10 ll
y *r* 4t
/i tt ft
^^ i
f ^>
//h * rj
rJ
which may be regarded as a regular and symmetrical fragment of
melody, four bars in length. Then lastly, regarding the eleventh bar
as being not only the concluding bar of the third phrase, but also the
commencement of the fourth, the conclusion of the chant will be as
follows
11
12
13
14
^
-c^-
than which nothing can be more regular, as it is a phrase of four
bars ending with a full close on the tonic. So that in this case a
melody of fourteen bars produces virtually the effects of a more regular
one of sixteen : and what makes this explanation of the construction
of an English double chant more probable is the fact that the
notes which are here supposed to do double duty, and to act in two
capacities at once, are always reciting notes (i.e. notes of indefinite
length, on which long pauses are generally made), and are therefore
exceptionally well adapted for the purpose.
24. But chants are by no means the only common cases of melodies
in which phrases or periods may be said to overlap. It often happens
that in a duet, or other concerted piece, where the voices or instruments
come in with their respective melodic periods in succession to one
22
THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
another, the same bar forms the conclusion of one period and the
beginning of another for instance,
/ k / * 1 J 1 J J
i* r i* *
aw j * w
rrn ^ * J ^
UT
^ * J
vU * m w
1 r
J
iy .
fi t* y' j *"
5
^
ff[\ V y
\\ /
/S^- ^D
1
l^* 1 / * 1 A
1* J J I*
p . J
v^-k t3 n f
r . .* . *
* J *
56
65
tr
2\c;
^^
535
S
^^
' E5
u M
&c,, &c.
Other examples will be given at the end of this volume, to which we
refer the student.
25. Other cases where the same thing occurs may be found in
fugues, canons, and other imitative or contrapuntal compositions. Here
is a fugue subject of Handel's
r g
OF MELODY.
23
Handel does not scruple to bring in the answer to this subject in the
fourth bar, which bar also concludes the original melody. So the
phrases overlap, and the bar does double duty, thus
-^L-
This is so common in fugal works, that it will be needless to give
more instances at present.
26. Another large class of melodies are irregular on account of
certain interpolated strains which separate phrase from phrase, and
period from period. These interpolations are of various kinds. Some-
times they are simple prolongations of a phrase by the addition of an
extra bar or two, which generally bears some analogy to what goes
before (as is the case with the first part of " God save the Queen,"
already referred to). Sometimes they take the form of an echo or
repetition of particular phrases or strains. Such echoes or repetitions
have often a very good efiect when they occur in the accompaniment
to a song, or as a contrasting orchestral effect in pieces for a full
band. The following melody from Eeicha is a perfectly regular and
24
THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
symmetrical one of eight bars, divided into two equal phrases, each
phrase consisting of two strains of equal length. The former phrase
ends with an imperfect cadence, while the latter finishes with a full
close.
,^1
rj r
-.
A ( *
-i * r
r^ i*
t*
i 1 L>
C-^'
if n ^ j
r 1
r
i
V V
1
1 i
v !
i
i
, ^ . -^- 1 i
\
iy -^ .
i* r
* * v i*
^T ' -*^
r' ^
^^
f(T)
Q
^
^ 1
i
This may be made perhaps more interesting by repeating the second
and fourth strains in a different octave, and thus producing a kind
of echo.
8vi.-~ ~~~~~~~~~~-*~ "-loco.
JT rD i* i
!
~ P ' m
i ^
XL i
i '
f3 ~?
<n
frn
~y
Or again, sometimes a kind of premonitory strain is prefixed to a
period by way of preparation. Those who are familiar with Leslie's
charming Trio a Canone, " memory," will remember the emphatic
way in which he brings in each voice with a preliminary exclamation
before the regular melody is commenced. This is really a most effective
instance of the kind of interpolation which we have been considering.
OF MELODY. 25
27. All the melodies hitherto considered have been short and
simple. But it will be easily seen that some additional rules are
required when longer and more complicated compositions have to be
analysed from a melodic point of view. If period be added to period,
and phrase piled upon phrase, without any order as to pitch, length,
rhythm, or modulation, no good result can ever be obtained. There
must be intelligent design in order to secure the attention, interest,
and comprehension of the listener. And the first consideration should
be symmetry of rhythm between the periods. It is a very general rule
that every period should be followed by a companion, or answering
period, with exactly the same rhythm as itself. The melodies hitherto
quoted have been all, more or less, constructed on this model. Their
periods for the most part run in couples. Each couple may differ from
other couples as to rhythm; though the variety of good rhythmical
forms is by no means great. The most satisfactory periods are those
which consist of four, eight, or sixteen bars. The next best are those
consisting of three, six, or twelve bars. Periods formed of other numbers
of bars generally produce a limping or halting effect on the mind, and
should not be taken as models. At the same time a few good examples
may be found of melodies containing periods or phrases of five bars ; when
such is the case such periods or phrases should always be accompanied
by a similar companion. As an instance of a melody thus formed,
none perhaps can be found more successful than the old French air
"Charmante Gabrielle," which consists of two periods, the former
containing six bars, while the latter is composed of two companion
phrases of five bars each.
dfca '
^ il ^ i
Jr
1 * i i
i
2
m P m
Xk *
1 ^
2
a
2
r
i**i r -
r^ f*
(M) z
J J
^ * J
'
1 1
- .
1
HS
.
E
26
THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
^r^~^rr\r^
^^=3
S
e
I
In this, as in many other instances, it is mainly the form in which
the versification of the words is cast which renders the irregular
rhythm of the music tolerable. On the whole the student will do
well to avoid in his compositions all phrases or periods of five or
seven bars, and confine himself to those of four, eight, or sixteen, in
preference to all others.
28. The next consideration is the proper combination of unity and
variety in the matter of modulation. If every period in an extended
melody began and ended with the tonic, or even with any note in
the tonic harmony, a most insufferable monotony would inevitably be
produced. To avoid this result, it is absolutely necessary to vary the
keys of the different periods, by the introduction of judicious modulations
or progressions ; only taking care always to begin and end the whole
melody in its principal key, and if possible to end it on the key-note
itself. At the same time it is very necessary to guard against
changing the key so often as to obscure or lose sight of the original
key. If this original key be lost to the memory of the hearer, all
unity of design is sacrificed. About half-way through an extended
melody it is usual and desirable to come to a full close in some nearly
related key, such as the dominant, or the relative minor or major.
This rests the eai without giving the effect of final completion, and
thus prepares the way for the remainder of the tune. And great
care should be taken that each period should flow easily out of its
OF MELODY. 27
predecessor, without any violent break in the tonality ; otherwise a
jerky and disconnected effect would be produced, which ought to be
carefully avoided.
29. In the next place there is a great distinction between vocal
and instrumental melody. Instrumental melody may range over a
larger compass of notes than vocal ; it may indulge in distant skips
and awkward intervals, which are utterly inadmissible in music for
voices. Again, vocal music is very dependent on the words to which it
is set, and of which it should be the exponent. The emotional character
of the words should govern the style of the melody. No melody set
to words can be considered good, if it does not agree in all respects
with the sentiments it is meant to convey. It is true indeed that
melody cannot express very definite ideas by itself: apart from words,
all that it can do is to excite certain emotions, analogous to the more
obvious ones which the words alone can define. Thus it can intensify
the effect of poetry, although it never can usurp its place. But such
intensification can only be secured by suiting the style of the music to
the idea imparted by the words to which it is set. Purely instrumental
music is of course independent of all such considerations.
30. There are two great dangers which beset an inexperienced
composer of melodies from opposite quarters, which ought not to be
passed over in this place. One of these dangers arises from the natural
tendency which exists to fall into conventionalisms and hackneyed
phrases. Nothing vulgarises a tune so much as this. The other and
opposite danger is a certain morbid craving after originality with
which many young composers seem to be aiflicted. Such a tendency
is utterly destructive of all real melody, for it chokes spontaneous
origination at its birth. It is impossible too strongly to warn a
beginner against these two pitfalls.
E 2
28 THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
31. We have seen that melody ought to be written in a definite
and regular scale, that it should begin and end in the same key, that
it should be conceived in systematic rhythm, and above all that it
should be symmetrical. As a deduction from some of these data, it is
clear that those melodies can alone be considered perfect which adapt
themselves readily to harmony. For a melody which can only be
harmonised awkwardly (as for example a large number of so-called
Gregorian chants and hymns), however pleasing it may appear to some
persons when heard by itself, can yet never produce perfect music.
For the strained and unnatural harmonies \shich are required to
accompany such a melody are in themselves a drawback to the
excellence of the compound, and forbid us to reckon the music thus
produced as perfect. It should be remembered that music consists of
two essential elements, melody and harmony. Melody conceived without
harmony is the music of barbarous and savage nations, or else of the
old days before harmony was discovered. Every musical person
now-a-days who has the power of mentally conceiving melody, also
conceives (albeit unconsciously) a harmonic accompaniment thereto. In
the case of an educated musical ear, the one necessarily involves the
other. It is therefore obvious that a melody deprived of the natural
harmony which belongs to it, and was conceived with it, only em-
bodies half the original conception, and is therefore imperfect music.
On the other hand harmony without melody can never interest a
hearer. It can convey no definite emotion to his mind. It has no
outline to define it. It has no primary idea to illustrate. It must
ever be vague and unsatisfactory, and akin to the mournful sighing
of the breeze, as it plays among the strings of an Aeolian harp.
It is obvious then that these twin sisters, Melody and Harmony,
should never be separated; they cannot thrive apart.
OF MELODY. 29
32. The following rules are given in conclusion by way of advice
to young composers :
i. Never attempt to get rid of the idea of harmony which will
always come into your head together with any melody you
may conceive.
ii. Never allow yourself to modulate from key to key on any
instrument without an effort to produce some melody along
with your harmonies.
iii. Never commit to paper, and retain as approved, any melodic
conception which fails to realise all those conditions of per-
fection which have been enumerated in this chapter.
iv. Never rest satisfied with any composition, however good may
be its harmony, form, counterpoint, or instrumentation, unless
it is founded on regular and interesting melodies.
v. Get into a habit of analysing melodies according to the
principles laid down in this chapter. For the better guidance
of the student in the work of analysis a few specimens have
been given at the end of this volume, pp. 63, 64, Nos. 1, 2, 3,
and 4.
CHAPTER III.
On Form.
1. FORM in music may be defined as "The art of balancing the
constituent parts of a composition with reference to symmetry of
construction." We have already seen the importance of this principle
as applied to a simple melody. But still more important does it
become when we are engaged on more extended and complicated
works. Of course the selection of forms must be purely arbitrary, and
those forms will be best which most perfectly economise new ideas,
without involving tedious repetition and prolixity.
2. If a long composition consist of a succession of new ideas strung
together without regard to regularity of order, it will be impossible for
the hearer to enter into any of them so as to engrave them on his
memory ; for each succeeding idea will drive away and efface the
impression of the last. To avoid this result it is essential that the
principal ideas should be introduced more than once, according to some
systematic plan.
3. On the other hand, if the principal ideas are too frequently and
injudiciously reiterated, the hearer will tire of them before the whole
piece is concluded, and thus all interest will be lost. It is the object
of rules of form to steer clear of these two opposite dangers.
ON FORM. 31
4. There are many kinds of form which have been adopted and
commended to us by the best classical composers, of which it will be
necessary to treat in order. The principal forms are the following :
1. The Ancient Binary Form.
2. The Modern Binary Form.
3. The Ternary Form.
4. The Minuet Form.
5. The Rondo Form.
6. The Variations Form.
7. The Fugue Form.
Of these seven species the last, or Fugue Form, has been already
sufficiently explained in the author's "Treatise on Counterpoint, Canon,
and Fugue," to which the student is referred, and no further explanation
of it will be needed in this volume. The other six must be examined
separately, together with certain minor varieties, which may be looked
upon as derived from some of the above.
CHAPTER IV
Of the Ancient Binary Form.
1. THIS is probably the oldest species of form, as it is unquestionably
derived from ancient dance music, the origin of which is lost in antiquity.
It consists, as its name imports, of two parts, the latter of which must
be in some way the complement or response to the former. Most old
songs are written on this model, and we also find it in Gavottes,
Corantos, Rigadoons, Jiggs, and other old-fashioned dance-tunes, such
as were used to make up "sets," or "suites de pieces," down to the
days of Bach and Handel. We here give two varieties of this form.
No. i.
- i. Principal melody, say sixteen bars, in principal key.
ii. Combining passages modulating simply and quickly into the
key of the dominant.
iii. Second melody in dominant key concluding the first division,
with or without a "repeat."
OF THE ANCIENT BINARY FOEM. 33
iv. Principal melody (No. i.) transposed into key of Dominant,
and perhaps curtailed slightly.
v. Combining passages modulating simply and briefly into original
key.
vi. Second melody transposed into original key, and so concluding
the whole piece.
No. 2.
i. Principal melody in principal key, leading into
ii. Secondary melody in key of dominant, after which a return to
original melody curtailed, concluding in the same with double
bar, and a repeat.
lii. New melody in relative major or minor (as the case may be),
treated with secondary melody, &c., exactly like the former
division, and ending in the same key as it begins; then Da
Capo, the original first division, ending at the first double
bar.
2. Most of Handel's songs are written in one or other of the
above varieties of this form. Some examples will be found at the
end of this Volume.
F
CHAPTER V.
Of the Modern Binary Form,.
1. THIS is the most important form of all. Every one of the
symphonies of Haydn and Mozart, and the earlier ones of Beethoven,
contain movements cast in this mould : and every composer who has
followed in their track has given us specimens of it in symphonies,
overtures, concertos, and chamber-music for stringed instruments ; nor
are there wanting numerous good instances of it as applied to vocal
music also.
2. Like the last-described form, it is divided into two parts, or
sections, generally (though not always) separated by a double bar, and
often with a repeat.
3. The former division or section contains all the raw material, all
the original melodies of the piece. These succeed each other without
contrapuntal or harmonic developments, according to a certain order of
key- sequence.
The order will be as follows if the piece is in a major key :
a. First original theme or melody in the principal key ; it may
be of 8, 12, 1 6, 20, or 24 bars' length; it may be made
according to the rules for melody laid down in Chapter II,
$ 14-20; and may vary in length and in character according
to the dimensions intended for the whole piece.
OF THE MODERN BINARY FORM.
35
The Bridge, composed of modulating passages, to lead from the
first to the second theme. These passages may be new, or
they may be made out of fragments of the original theme ;
they may be melodic in character, or not, according to cir-
cumstances. They should be so contrived as to lead the ear
to expect some new theme in the key of the dominant, and
for this purpose they should generally be concluded by some
sort of pedal on the dominant of the new key. Thus for
example, supposing the original theme to be in the key of
D major, the bridge should consist of passages or progres-
sions modulating in some such way as the following :
No. 1.
f^i
or, No. 2.
i
-<s>-
t
or, No. 3.
\^' **# <T3
-
f^^j
f^^j
f^^J
X^ jf o;
^3^
^" J
-. -,
^P ^
CSP
'- ^
6 7 6 5 S *7 %
* 4 * \
or. No. 4.
-<s>-
-&-
b7
6 a
F 2
36 THE PRINCIPLES OF FOEM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
7. The bridge leads us into the key of the dominant, on
which must now be introduced a second original theme or
melody. This should present some points of contrast with
the character of the first theme for the sake of variety, and
may vary in length according to circumstances.
<$. A few passages of a tolerably brilliant kind should lead to a
perfect close in the key of the dominant, thus forming the
conclusion of the first section of the piece.
4. In the second section of the composition should be developed
the ideas already enunciated in the first part. But it may be divided
into two sub-sections, in the former of which these developments are
chiefly put.
a. In fact the only use of this former sub-section is to give an
opportunity for the development of ideas. These develop-
ments should be of a contrapuntal, canonical, imitative, or
fugal kind, and therefore it is often desirable so to
construct such original melodies as may work well together
in double counterpoint. The student may be referred also
to the remarks on fugal Episodes in the author's
" Treatise on Counterpoint, Canon, and Fugue," Chapter
XXII, for various modes of imitative treatment, which
may well be introduced in this part of a piece. As
to modulation, this subsection ought not to begin in the
original key, especially if the first division of the piece
has been repeated. But it may start in any of the fol-
lowing keys :
i. The dominant major;
ii. The dominant minor;
OF THE MODERN BINARY FORM. 37
iii. The supertonic major ;
iv. The mediant minor;
v. The tonic minor ;
vi. The minor-mediant major.
The modulations employed may be left to the un-
fettered fancy of the composer, provided only they never
transgress the rules of harmony, or the dictates of good
taste. The length of this subsection is very various
according to circumstances. If the original ideas do not
lend themselves sufficiently well to development, it is
allowable to introduce a new original idea contrived
expressly to work in with those already existing. This
sub-section ought to end with the harmony of the dominant
of the original key, intensifying its dominant character, if
need be, by the introduction of a dominant pedal leading
directly into the second subsection.
This second subsection may be looked upon as the d6noument
of the whole piece. It usually begins by repeating the
original theme or melody in the original key, either
exactly or with such variations and curtailments as the
case may seem to demand. This is followed by a Bridge
of modulating passages analogous to, but yet different
from, that in the former division. In the present case it
should lead first from, and then back to the original key,
introducing it, if necessary, with a dominant pedal. After
this comes the second original theme in the key of the
tonic, (and not as before in that of the dominant,) and
thus with a few brilliant passages, and concluding chords,
the whole piece comes to a satisfactory termination.
38 THE PBINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
If the composer wishes to lengthen the piece he may do it in many
ways. Accessory passages may be added to either or both of the
principal themes ; or the developments of the former subsection may
be extended into real episodes ; or a coda may be added at the end,
which may either consist of brilliant passages, or may itself be an
episode, or may be formed of fugal developments analogous to those
described above.
If it be desired, on the other hand, to shorten the piece, the former
sub-section containing the developments may be curtailed, or even
almost omitted, as is generally done in the overtures of Italian operas,
and in the first movements of short easy sonatines.
5. If the piece be in the minor key the order will be as follows:
FIRST DIVISION.
a. First original theme in original key.
/3. Bridge modulating into relative major, and ending generally
with a dominant pedal in that key, so as to lead the ear
to expect the
7. Second principal theme, in the key of the relative major.
S. Accessory passages, &c., concluding this division in the key
of the relative major.
SECOND DIVISION.
a. First subsection. Developments, beginning in one of the
following keys :
i. Relative major;
ii. Minor of relative key ;
OF THE MODERN BINARY FORM. 39
iii. Key of minor seventh, major;
iv. Submediant-major ;
v. Submediant-minor ;
vi. Flattened tonic major :
it will then modulate contrapuntally or otherwise as above
described, and so lead (by a dominant pedal generally)
into the
/3. Second subsection, which commences with the original theme
in the original key, and is conducted exactly like a piece
in the major key, as above described, except that
7. The second principal theme may be reproduced either in the
minor or the major of the original key. This will of
course depend partly on the character of the melody, and
partly on the taste of the composer. If brilliancy and
strong contrast are required, it will be best to conclude
in the major. If the whole piece is intended to partake
of a pathetic or mysterious character, then a minor
conclusion will be preferred.
S. It may be observed that sometimes, though rarely, the second
principal subject is introduced into the first division in the
minor key of the dominant, instead of the relative major,
that division therefore ending in a minor key. In such
a case it is obvious that the modulations in the second
division will have to be somewhat modified.
6. We will now give a general tabular view of the binary form, to
assist the student in impressing it on his memory.
40
THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
First original
theme.
FIRST DIVISION.
Bridge to lead from
first to second
theme.
Second original
theme, in new key.
Accessory ideas,
&c., concluding in
new key.
SECOND DIVISION.
FIRST SUBSECTION.
Perpetual modulations and developments. Half clof e on dominant (pedal) of original key.
SECOND SUBSECTION.
First theme in the
original key.
Transient modula-
tions founded on
the bridge, and
leading back to
the same key.
Second theme trans- Coda, or passages
posed into the ori- forming conclusion,
ginal key of the
whole piece.
CHAPTER VI.
Of the Ternary Form.
1. THIS form divides a piece into three portions of about equal
length.
2. The first portion is devoted to the exposition of the original
melodies or themes on which the whole piece is to be built. It should
begin and end in the same key, and only transient modulations and
short developments are admissible.
3. The second portion is formed like the first. It must however
begin and end in some different key from the preceding. It must be
also the exponent of new themes. Only transient modulations and
short developments can be admitted. It should end in the key in
which it begins. Its length should be, as nearly as may be, the same
as that of the first portion. The key in which it is composed should
be nearly related to that of the first portion, so as to succeed it
without the intervention of modulating chords or passages. The parts
are separated by a double bar, generally without "repeats."
4. The third portion generally begins in the original key of the
piece, in which of course it also concludes. No new theme should be
here introduced. Modulations are admissible and desirable, provided
G
42
THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
the original key be never entirely forgotten. Developments of the
themes contained in both the preceding portions should form the prin-
cipal material used, and the whole should culminate in a brilliant and
effective coda formed in a similar way.
5. We subjoin a tabular view of this form.
FIBST PORTION.
Exposition of themes; hardly
any modulation or devel-
opment ; end in original
key.
SECOND POETION.
THIRD PORTION.
Commence and end in some
nearly- related key; new
themes, treated as in first
portion in all respects.
Modulating developments
formed out of all pre-
vious themes, beginning
and ending in original
key, and concluding with
coda.
CHAPTER VIL
Of the Minuet Form.
1. THIS is a light and pleasing form, of smaller dimensions than
the foregoing, it is useful as a contrast or relief between two longer
movements in a graver style.
2. The original minuet form always consisted of a piece in triple
time and of moderate speed, to which was attached a "trio" or
additional movement, always ending with a repetition of the minuet
itself.
3. The minuet and trio were always written in the short or
ancient binary form, each consisting of two portions separated by a
double bar, and each portion repeated ; excepting when the minuet
was played over for the last time after the trio, when no repeats were
made. To ensure this, at the end of the trio the words "Menuetto
Da Capo senza replica" were usually inserted. The trio was almost
always in some nearly related key.
4. Sometimes a few additional bars by way of coda were added to
the minuet after its last repetition, with the object of leading smoothly
into the succeeding movement.
An example of a regular minuet and trio will be found at pp.
121, 125.
G 2
44 THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
5. Beethoven introduced a more lively style of minuet and trio,
called a scherzo. A regular scherzo exactly resembles a minuet and
trio, save that it is generally in g time, and is always much quicker
and more lively than the older form.
6. Sometimes the trio of a scherzo is not a distinct movement, but
is rather a mere prolongation of the scherzo, dispensing with the usual
repeats.
7. Lastly Beethoven and after him Mendelssohn and others sub-
stituted a movement in ? time for the scherzo, or for the trio, or for
both. Such a movement often assumes larger dimensions, and is written
in the modern binary form. In such a case it is called an " Intermezzo."
8. Any of the foregoing modifications of the regular minuet may
be advantageously adopted according to the requirements of the piece
into which they are to be introduced.
9. If it is desired to lengthen a regular minuet, a second or even
a third trio may be added, always provided that the minuet, without
repeats, be played again between each trio, and at the end of the
whole.
10. If the minuet form is adopted for a complete and isolated
composition, it should be lengthened considerably, and then both the
minuet and trio may be written in the ternary form.
CHAPTER VIII.
Of the Rondo Form.
1. THIS form is of two kinds, one developed out of the Binary, and
the other out of the Ternary Form.
2. Its chief characteristic in every case is the continual recurrence
of the first original theme, with which every division and sub-section
must always conclude, save that at the last repetition it may be
followed by a final coda.
3. Every repercussion of the original theme must be in its own
original key. But certain curtailments or variations of it may be
admitted when its repetitions are many.
4. As it follows from the reappearance of the original theme at
every double bar that each division and sub-section will end in the
original key, certain modifications of the modulations and successions
of key will be necessitated, which will be sufficiently obvious to the
student without being minutely described here.
5. As the original theme will be very often heard during the
course of the piece, it will be best to avoid making it more than
sixteen bars in length, although accessory melodies may be appended
to it on its first appearance, which may advantageously be omitted
afterwards. The second original theme may be made of longer
46
THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
dimensions, as it will only be heard twice during the course of the
piece, and then in different keys.
6. We will now give a tabular view of the Rondo Form, which will
sufficiently explain its structure.
FIRST RONDO FORM, DERIVED FROM BINARY FORM.
FIRST DIVISION.
First original theme, Bridge to lead from Second original Accessory ideas and First theme, cur-
with accessory me- first to second theme, in new key. passages modu- tailed and repeated
lodies, &c., often theme. lating back to in its original key.
ending with theme
repeated.
SECOND DIVISION.
FIRST SUBSECTION.
Perpetual modulations and
developments of both
themes.
Half close on dominant
(pedal) of original
key.
SECOND SUBSECTION.
First theme, in extenso, but
without accessories. It
may be slightly varied or
embroidered.
Accessory passages Second theme in ori- Short accessory de- Coda and conclusion,
and episodal develop- ginal key. velopments leading
ments leading into into first theme in
original key, cur-
tailed.
OF THE RONDO FORM.
47
SECOND RONDO FORM, DERIVED FROM TERNARY FORM.
FIRST PORTION.
Exposition of original theme, and accessory melodies, with
slightly modulating passages, leading to
Original theme in same key,
but curtailed.
SECOND PORTION.
Begin in new key with new themes, and
slight modulations, leading back to
same new key.
Bridge, or accessory
ideas, modulating
back to
First theme in original
key, uncurtailed.
THIRD PORTION.
Modulating developments formed out of
all previous themes, but ultimately
leading back to
First theme in original
key, varied and
curtailed.
Coda and conclusion.
CHAPTER IX.
Of the Air with Variations.
1. THIS form is used either for complete isolated pieces, or as part
of more extended compositions.
2. It is perhaps one of the oldest forms, as it was very commonly
employed three hundred years ago for virginal music, and 'consorts for
viols.' It almost always formed part of regular suites de pieces for the
spinet and harpsichord, down to the time of J. S. Bach and Handel.
It was often introduced into symphonies, quartetts, and sonatas, by
Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, and their followers. Lastly, a very florid
and brilliant form of it has been used in the composition of a large
quantity of modern pianoforte music. It is therefore on the whole a
form of considerable importance, although perhaps inferior from an
artistic point of view to those we have already described.
3. Variations may be constructed either upon an original theme or
motivo, or upon some well-known or popular melody. The latter is
the plan commonly adopted by modern composers of pianoforte music.
The former is the more classical way, and ought alone to be used
when a theme with variations forms a part of a larger work. The
two ways however are of equal antiquity, and have both been adopted
by some of the best ancient and modern composers of instrumental
music.
OF THE AIR WITH VARIATIONS. 49
4. The character of the variations will vary according to that of
the instrument, or combination of instruments, for which they are
intended. And therefore the rules we shall here give must be subject
to many corresponding modifications according to circumstances.
5. The following are some of the ways in which melodies may be
varied :
i. Preserve the melody unaltered, but vary the accompaniments
by introducing more florid figures and rapid passages.
ii. Ornament the melody with grace-notes, shakes, appoggiaturas,
passing and auxiliary notes, turns, and the like.
iii. Introduce brilliant passages continuously which shall contain
in them the notes of the melody, while at the same time
they form an embroidery thereon.
iv. Put the melody, if major, into the minor of the key, or into
the relative minor ; or, if it be minor, then into a major
key ; so as to alter its character.
v. Change the pace of the melody from fast to slow, or from
slow to fast; or else change the time of it from common
to triple, or from simple to compound, or the converse of
these.
vi. Put the melody in the bass, or in an inner part, and weave
in a new melody with it in the upper part.
vii. Treat the theme canonically, or with perpetual imitations,
and various counterpoints.
viii. Combine some of the above ways together if the theme will
admit of it.
50 THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
6. There is of course no rule which limits the number of variations
which may be successively introduced, except the requirements of good
taste. Suffice it to say that if they exceed a certain limit extreme
weariness is sure to be produced.
N.B. In making variations the original bass and harmony should
never be altered.
CHAPTER X.
Of the, Fugue Form.
1. FOB, a detailed account of this form the student is referred to
the author's "Treatise on Counterpoint, Canon, and Fugue," where the
subject is fully discussed.
2. But the fugue form may be combined with the modern binary
form very advantageously, either in overtures or in the last movements
of sonatas, symphonies, and quartetts. Perhaps the finest examples of
such a combination are the overture to Mozart's opera " Die Zauberflote,"
and the finale to his symphony in 0, No. 6. We specially recommend
the student to examine and analyse these magnificent works, and to
imitate them as far as he can.
3. A fugue on the original theme will often make a good finale to
a set of variations.
H 2
CHAPTER XL
Of Combinations of Forms.
1. THE various forms described in the preceding chapters are often
grouped together to constitute the different "movements," of which
the larger sort of instrumental works consist.
2. Thus are constructed symphonies and sonatas ; string-trios, quar-
tetts, quintetts, sestetts, septetts, and ottetts ; overtures and concertos ;
and also, sometimes, though much more rarely, certain vocal com-
positions.
3. A symphony is by far the most important composition of all, as
regards the powers and resources of absolute music, i.e. music which
depends solely on itself for its effects, and is in no wise dependent on
words, scenery, acting, or any other extraneous condition. Therefore a
symphony may be regarded as the highest development to which the art
of music has ever attained.
4. A symphony is a work composed for a full orchestra ; it consists
of three or four distinct movements, each movement being complete
in itself; and involves all the known resources of pure musical art.
5. The first movement of a symphony is usually an allegro, a
tolerably brisk piece (preceded sometimes, however, by an introduction
COMBINATIONS OF FORMS. 53
in slow time, in no particular form, of a majestic or mysterious
character). This allegro is almost always written in the regular modern
binary form, as described in Chapter V.
6. The second movement of a symphony is generally slow; adagio,
largo, or andante. It should be of a deeply impassioned and emotional
character, containing good flowing melodies, and striking harmonies.
The form may be either modern binary or ternary. Sometimes indeed
a theme with variations is substituted, but this is not common, nor is
it a desirable plan to follow. The second movement ought not to be
in the same key as the first, but in some nearly related key, so as to
avoid monotony, and secure contrast and relief.
7. The third movement should be a minuet and trio, a scherzo, or
perhaps an intermezzo. Sometimes this movement is placed before
the slow movement, their order being thus inverted. Sometimes it
is altogether omitted. In this case again there should be a change
of key, care being taken to choose one which will equally well follow
what precedes, and lead into that which is to come after.
8. The last, or concluding movement, usually called the finale,
should always be in the same key as the first movement, excepting
only that when the symphony begins in a minor key, the finale may
be either in the minor or the major of the same. This last movement
should be generally of a lively and busy character, and should always
conclude with a brilliant coda. It may be either in the modern
binary, ternary, or rondo form, of which however the last is pre-
ferable.
9. The effect of a symphony depends of course, in a very great
degree, upon the skill displayed in its instrumentation, of which this
54 THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
is not the place to speak. Every student who has an ambition to try
this highest walk of art, must carefully study the theory and practice
of writing for various instruments, and devote much time and pains
to the analysis of the symphonies of Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Spohr,
and Mendelssohn.
10. A sonata is a work composed for one, or at the most for two
instruments ; generally for the pianoforte. As regards its form however
it is identical with the symphony, and therefore all the rules for the
composition oi symphonies in that respect will equally apply to the
case of sonatas.
11. If it is desired to write a very short sonata, the developments
of the binary movements must be curtailed, and the third movement
omitted. The composition will then be properly called a Sonatina.
12. The modern binary form is often but inaccurately styled "the
sonata form," on account of its being always adopted for the principal
movements of sonatas.
13. The term sonata was also formerly applied to short concerted
pieces for three or four stringed instruments, as in the case of those
by Corelli, Geminiani, and Purcell. But this application of the word
has long since fallen into disuse.
14. Chamber-music is the name given to trios, quartetts, quintetts,
sestetts, septetts, and ottetts, for instruments of the violin class, or for
these in conjunction with the pianoforte. All such compositions are
written on the same model as symphonies and sonatas, as far as form is
concerned. Sometimes also compositions of exactly similar form and
kind are written for various wind instruments, with or without the
pianoforte ; or for a combination of wind and stringed instruments.
These however are not so common at present as they ought to be,
COMBINATIONS OF FORMS. 55
considering the marvellous variety of beautiful effects which they
can produce. In all these cases it should be borne in mind that
they differ from symphonies by having one instrument only to each
part.
15. Concertos are symphonies in which some one instrument (or
at most two instruments) bear a prominent part, the rest of the
orchestra being only employed to support them either by accompaniment,
alternation, or contrast. In form concertos differ in no respect from
the foregoing kinds of composition. It will therefore be needless to
enlarge on them further.
CHAPTER XII.
Of Vocal Composition.
1. It has already been observed that regular form is mainly
applicable to instrumental music rather than to vocal ; and the reason
is this, that in vocal music the first consideration must always be
the words to which it is set. Still, for all that, there are many cases
in which vocal music may also be advantageously cast in a regular
form, without any detriment to the words. Whenever this is the
case, it is very desirable to avail oneself of the facility thus afforded.
2. Many slight songs and duets for voices with accompaniment for
the pianoforte are set to such very weak and almost unmeaning words
that these may count for almost nothing, and the music must as it
were shine by its own intrinsic light. It will be a great advantage
then to let it assume some regular form. The best will generally be
either of the kinds of ancient binary, or the modern binary curtailed
and simplified. An example of such vocal music, which is deserving
of careful study, may be found in Haydn's celebrated canzonets. Most
of Handel's songs are likewise set in the ancient binary form. Mozart
also frequently writes his airs in the modern binary form. Nor are
examples of the ternary form by any means wanting. There are other
cases again in which the words themselves are suggestive of some
OF VOCAL COMPOSITION. 57
regular form. When this is the case, it ought of course to be
unhesitatingly adopted.
3. But the fugue form is perhaps the commonest of all in the case of
sacred choruses, and it should be freely adopted whenever it does not
too much obscure the sense of the words.
4. National songs and choruses often take the form of a kind of
vocal march, and should be considered as specimens of ancient binary
form. For a regular march, as regards its form, is in all respects like a
minuet and trio, save that it is in common time.
5. Hymn tunes are very regular in form, but their form is merely
the short binary form of a regular melody, as described in the second
chapter of this work.
6. Anthems are often nearly formless, and simply follow the
rhythm of the words to which they are set. But frequently they
contain movements in the fugue form, and also, in the case of many
more recent specimens, there are movements in a curtailed modern
binary form. For example, that fine anthem by Sir John Goss, "If we
believe that Jesus died," and the second movement of his "Praise the
Lord, my soul."
7. Many of the motetts of Haydn and Mozart are written strictly
in the modern binary form ; for example, Haydn's " Insanae et vanae
curae," and Mozart's " Splendente Te Deus." And again, in his
" Misericordias Domini," Mozart has combined the binary and fugue
forms in a masterly way. All these specimens, and many more like
them, should be carefully studied by the young composer.
8. There is another form, almost exclusively vocal, which ought
not to be passed over here. This is the round, or free canon. In this,
I
58 THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
one voice begins a melody and completes one division of it. Then
another voice sings the same, while the former voice continues the
next division of it, which must be so constructed as to run in correct
double counterpoint with it. Then a third voice comes in under the
same conditions, and so forth. This is an exceedingly pleasing kind of
composition, and much to be recommended. The late Sir Henry R.
Bishop greatly excelled in this style of music. His " When the wind
blows," " Hark ! 'tis the Indian drum," " To see his face," and many
others, deserve to live in the memory of more than one generation.
Cherubini was also a master in the art of composing such pieces. His
"Perfida Clori" is too well known and admired to need further praise
here. The student may be also referred to such examples as Rossini's
" Cielo il mio labbro ispira," Curschman's " Ti prego, O madre pia," and
Leslie's " O memory."
CHAPTER XIII.
1. THERE are many compositions which cannot be brought under
any of the foregoing heads, and which yet possess a certain regularity
of structure peculiar to themselves. Some writers would class all these-
works together, as composed in the "Coupe de Fantaisie," or fantasia
form. But it is better perhaps to regard them as individual attempts
to invent new forms, each of which might be followed by other composers,
did it seem equally applicable to any but the one composition in which
it first appeared. For, after all, regular forms are absolutely arbitrary*
and are recognised and recommended chiefly because experience, and the
practice of the best composers, have demonstrated their superior excellence
and value.
2. The great danger of going in search of new forms, lies in
the risk of losing all regularity of structure, and thus destroying every
advantage which a regular form could supply. The young composer
is therefore advised on no account to attempt new forms, especially in
instrumental music, but to be content with getting as many original
effects as he can out of the old forms. A first-class composer of long
experience may of course do with impunity what would be an act of
conceited folly in a tyro, and matured genius may earn praise for
judiciously violating rules, the infraction of which would justly expose
a younger composer to ridicule and censure. Therefore an example of
daring license from the approved works of a classical writer ought never
I 2
60 THE PRINCIPLES OF
to be adduced as an excuse for errors in the music of a learner. It is
always necessary to acquire the habit of observing rules with facility
before beginning to seek ways and means of breaking them.
3. But above all should the composer's motto be " Ars celare artem."
In other words, let him strive to introduce all the resources of the art,
whether of harmony, counterpoint, form, or instrumentation, without
letting the labour of such devices appear conspicuously in his
compositions. All should be done naturally, easily, and as it were
spontaneously, otherwise half the effect of the science employed will
be entirely neutralised.
4. Prolixity, again, should be carefully avoided. It is far better
for the audience to wish for more, and call for a repetition of the piece,
than for them to be wearied with it, and wish it over before its
conclusion.
5. There is sometimes a tendency among modern composers to
make melody and regularity of design altogether subsidiary to
instrumental effect. Such a method of proceeding is greatly to be
deprecated, inasmuch as it is a complete inversion of the true order of
things. The better way is always to begin with the melody, then
harmonise it, then extend it and continue it with other melodies
according to some regular form, then introduce, if need be, the setting
off of instrumental variety of effect. For it is herein analogous to
the art of painting, where the artist begins with a sketch or out-
line, then shades it and gives it substance, then extends and combines
together the main features of his picture according to the rules of
perspective, and lastly colours the whole, and thus crowns his
work. At the same time the general effect of the picture, or of
the musical composition, as the case may be, may be conceived
FORM AND GENEEAL COMPOSITION. 61
in the mind of the artist, or composer, before he enters on his
work. Only when he proceeds to embody his preconceived ideas,
he must set about his task secundum artem, or else a failure will
probably ensue. An orator must be sure that he knows what he wants
to say before he begins to speak, or he will speak nonsense, while at
the same time he must speak good grammar, and pronounce his words
clearly, or he will be unintelligible.
6. We have now gone through the various matters needed to enable
the student to acquire the art of composition ; all that remains is to
commend the following examples to his careful study, and to express,
in conclusion, an earnest hope that this work may help towards
the improvement of musical composition and musical criticism in
this country.
EXAMPLES.
No. 1. A regular Melody by HAYDN.
3=^
By the brackets it will be perceived that this melody consists of two
similar and corresponding periods of eight bars each.
EXAMPLES.
63
Each period is divided into two phrases of four bars each.
Each phrase is made up of two strains of two bars each.
The first phrase ends with an imperfect cadence on the fifth of the
dominant, on the down-beat.
The second phrase concludes with the third of the tonic, but at the
up-beat.
The third phrase suggests first a transition into B minor, and then
finishes with the third of the dominant on the up-beat.
The fourth phrase winds up the melody with a perfect tonic cadence.
This melody is therefore in all respects perfectly regular.
No. 2. The "Old Hundredth" tune (equal notes version).
tt ' '
1
y *
| ,
]
'
yf I
a
^3J
J
C3 i
i
rJ c- 51
C2 (**"rj
_j
2
1
^^ <^3
f~J
-^
This tune is perfectly regular. It cannot be subdivided into strains,
but consists of two periods of eight bars each, these being subdivided
into phrases of four bars.
The only imperfection is the perfect tonic close at the end of the
third phrase : were the tune harmonised it would be well to accompany
this close with either an inverted chord of G, or with the chord of
E minor.
THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
No. 3. Melody by MOZART.
As it stands, this is a perfectly regular period. It can be prolonged
by the addition of two bars, partaking of the nature of an echo ; thus
M
No. 4-. Melody by MOZART, with a similar prolongation.
ir
EXAMPLES.
65
No. 5. Melody by HAYDN, analysed.
This melody is divided into three periods, of which the first and last
are perfectly regular. These each consist of two phrases, and these are
subdivided into strains of two bars each.
But the second period is irregular, inasmuch as it contains only six
bars, and cannot be split up into phrases, but only into three equal
66
THE PEINCIPLES OF FOEM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
strains, each of two bars. It will perhaps be best to look upon the
third of these strains as a kind of interpolated coda, to give emphasis
to the two preceding ones.
This melody affords a good example of half-bar rhythm, that is to
say, rhythm commencing always at the latter half of a bar. When a
melody is so constructed, it is important that this system of rhythm
should be consistently adhered to throughout the whole piece.
No. 6. Longer melody, with words, by DELLA MARIA, analysed.
Andante.
' '
1 !
h
ir i {*
i P is
p fc. 1
/r <Q p j* ^
J , P
2 ^
J | N i
J W
k. r i* J
21 J
>^ U ii ^^^
* J *
* S LT' r ' *
J * * 1
1 (Instrumental ritornello.)
V ^-*J
i
I
' ' ic
1 1 .
k
V n K
i r^ k.
%
^- i i^ v
/r >7 i* w
J i P
> 1 p J
_j W i r 1
frn fj *
J * J
J w C *
* J * J
^^
Lorsque dans une tour ob - scure ce jeune homme est dans la dou -
- leur, Mon cceur gui - de par la na - ture doit com - pa - tir a son mal -
- heur. i (Instrumental ritornello.)
Si j'en - tends sa plainte tou -
EXAMPLES.
67
a
i r
r*
N 1 M 1
f
yj 7
^
\ k
r
r>
m + m
%
k r
p i*
I /
j r*
<j *
2 MI
m(\\ *
s
J /
k G
1 *
^
1 3F
!j
r /
i-/ r
A^ y
e r
r /
^^
IT
iX /
-k
chante je
deviens triste
tout le jour, Ma-man, ne
sois pas
mecon -
tente, la pi - tie n'est pas de 1'a - mour, la - - pi - tie n'est pas de I'a-mour.
This air is another instance of a melody beginning every strain on
the latter half of the bar.
After an instrumental phrase of four bars, divided into two equal
strains, the voice begins a period of eight bars, divided into two phrases
of four bars, and these again subdivided into strains of two bars each.
Then two bars of instrumental ritornello are interpolated by way of
prolongation. The voice then enters upon the second period, which is
not so regular as the former one, as its second phrase is lengthened by
a coda of two bars, added in order to emphasise the concluding words,
these being as it were the pith of the whole sentiment. These irregu-
larities do not in the least impair the symmetrical beauty of the whole
air.
K 2
68 THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
No. 7. Example of a part of a Duett, in which the parts overlap, so
as to apparently cut off the ends of phrases.
From MARCELLO'S Psalms. Psalm vi. 1.
Lento.
3:
m
r^ri r ' I^B
T^
Si - gnor quando ar-de il fuo - co del -
Si -
r k E L>
U_BU_Z
E^
^ y^ r
R fr b
I/ r
w w
17
1
tic.
gius-to
Tu - o fu -
ro -
S"
re, del
k
gius - to
k
/^\* I 1
^ K ic
h is
ic K SU
(&' | (5 J
^ -IT"
9 f.
* J
i^ J * -
szg.; *
* *
D *
* *
I/ ,\ IX
IX
9 \
- gnor
quando ar-de ii
fuo - co del
^
gius - to
"V.
Tu - o fu -
(gy. , b
h 5 *^
P *
9-
1^ J ~i
^^"p >
^ J
r r
p^ p 1*
9 \
76 5
7
6 7
8
9
266
10
7 6
11
EXAMPLES.
69
H-C
3 v T *
1
PT ^
7 r
^
I
[7
* .
rC
Tu - o f u -
ro
re,
Tut - -
s~
*N
^?N
/Sy
m m
r i* *
Hsr
,
' 1*
2
^
P
,
i* r N
L* r r
^^
-7P--
S
--
-f
_P__
V X ^
/ k
1 '
"Sit -
fn
ie,
s~
~"S
/T\
/SY
^ i ._
lX*l_
' I*
<*
1*
"" i* ^
J li
r*st_
^^ 7
U I
c
c
m *
i>^.
> 1
r
1
LfcJ
* *
J^^
^^ fi
** w
12
13
14
15
16
6 6
17
s
18
f 3 J
P
r i*
8? _i i'
r *
i
U 7 k Z .
* *
"V ^^ ^
X
~ijf_
p 7
E
r y
_5 w
lie*
- to non u - sar me - co di giu - di - ce il ri - gor. &c.
^. ^^ _
\^+*
i ^V
i
t^'" i ' i ^
J J^ N
\ | K
L>
f* r
^^ ^ K ii^ta 1 !j
* J
* ^ J
^J W
D
J
^ ^^^^ ^
^3nE
^^
r '
giu - di - ce il ri - gor - di giu - di - ce il ri - gor. &c.
ro-, ~> *
j n^ 1 ^
S2I5.U i
^ ^
* ^ k- ^
J r
_ k^
J
-- 6B6
19 20
D6
21
22
23 24
In the foregoing example the first two bars are an instrumental
symphony of one strain. The melody begins at the third bar, with a
phrase of four bars divided into two equal strains. Before this phrase
is concluded, the second voice enters with a similar melody at the sixth
70 THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
bar, thus apparently, though not really, cutting off the phrase begun by
the first voice. At the fifteenth bar the same thing occurs, except that
in this case it is the lower voice which leads.
No. 8. Analysis of Handel's Air in the Messiah, "But Thou
didst not leave."
The music of this example is not given here, because every one may
be supposed to possess a copy of so popular a work as that in which
it occurs.
This song is a very good specimen of the ancient binary form. It
is in the key of A major, and commences with an orchestral symphony
of five bars. The voice then begins the melody at bar 6, which forms
a phrase of Jive bars, in consequence of an interpolated bar like an in-
strumental ritornello. Then follows, at bar 11, a modulation into the key
of the dominant, E major, leading to a concluding phrase of melody
which closes the first division of the song in the key of E at bar 17.
At bar 18 the first melody is transposed into E, and slightly
altered so as to glide into the key of A again at bar 20, in
which key the remainder of the air is kept, concluding with an almost
exact counterpart of the phrase which ended the former division, only
transposed into the key of A, in which the air regularly ends.
Most of Handel's longer airs are written in the second variety of
the ancient binary form, of which a specimen will be given hereafter.
Meanwhile it will be well to study the following example of an
instrumental piece by the same great composer, in which the bars have
been numbered in order to facilitate analysis.
EXAMPLES.
71
No. 9. Gigue from the first "Suite de Pieces" by HANDEL.
Although there is not much regular melody in this piece, yet it is
a fair example of the first variety of the old binary form. The first
subject occupies six bars, and is in a quasi-fugal style. At the tenth
bar there is a modulation into the key of the dominant, E, after which
a series of passages lead to a concluding phrase of four bars ending in
E, at bar 22.
At bar 23 the first subject is transposed into the key of E, and
slightly curtailed.
At bar 27 begin a series of modulations to lead back gradually
to the key of A.
At bar 32 commences a number of passages in the key of A,
almost identical with those which occurred in the former part in the
key of E.
The four concluding bars correspond with those which closed the
former part, only of course transposed into A.
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72 THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
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EXAMPLES.
73
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15
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74 THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
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19
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21
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EXAMPLES.
75
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76 THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
m
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41
EXAMPLES.
77
45
No. 10. Example of First Variety of the Old Binary
Form.
The first twenty-one bars are an instrumental symphony to introduce
the voice.
At the 22nd bar the voice enters with the principal melody in
the key of A major. This melody is a curiously constructed one, as it
is composed of four phrases of three bars each.
At the 34th bar the second subject is introduced in the key of E.
A short symphony of six bars introduces the first subject transposed
into E, and curtailed, so as to return to the original key of A. After
which accessory passages lead to the second subject, which reappears
at the 73rd bar, transposed into A, in which key the movement
concludes.
This air may be regarded as a link between the two varieties of
the old binary form, as it possesses a second part, commencing at bar
78
THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
92, and leading back to a repetition of the original air, ' Dal segno
al fine.'
Se spunta arnica stella.
Air from the Opera of " Tigrane," by HASSE.
Andante.
tr
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pr"^
10
11
EXAMPLES.
79
tr
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tr
f
12 13 14 15 16 17
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Se spun - ta a -
18
22
80 THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
44
fT^t
- - mi - ca stel - la, Al ti - mi - do noc - chie - ro,
p
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23
25
26
27
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Sem - bra ri - den - te e bel - la, Per - che nel suo sen
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29 30
31
32
EXAMPLES.
81
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33
35
36 37 38
ma . . puo - spe - rar
39
40
41 42
43
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82 THE PRINCIPLES OF FOKM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
48
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49
50
51
52
53
EXAMPLES.
83
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58
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84 THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
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66
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69
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72
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EXAMPLES.
85
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75 76 77
78
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83
84
86 THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
Fine.
*:
Fine.
85 86 87
88
89 90
Co - si quest* al - ma mi - a, ch'al ser - to, al - so - glio as -
92
93 94
95
96
EXAMPLES.
87
ftfct
97
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pi- ra quel-la bel - la sos - spi-ra, Col cui fa -
98
99 100
101
vor de - si - a,
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2
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102
103
104
105
106
88 THE PEINCIPLES OF FOEM AND GENEEAL COMPOSITION.
*
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107 108 109
110 111
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Dal Segno al Fine.
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112 113 114 115 116 117
118
Segno al Fine.
EXAMPLES.
89
No. 11. Example of the Second Variety of Ancient Binary Form.
Air " Lascia ch' io pianga/' from the Opera of " Einaldo," by HANDEL.
Largo.
xi n
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90 THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
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EXAMPLES.
91
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92 THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
Fine.
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EXAMPLES.
93
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94 THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
No. 12. Sonata in F, by the EEV. SIR F. A. G. OUSELEY, BART.
The following sonata has been expressly composed in imitation of
the regular style of the Mozartean epoch.
The first movement is in the modern binary form.
The second movement is in the ternary form.
The third movement is a perfectly regular minuet and trio.
The fourth movement is a rondo based on the modern binary form.
The bars have been numbered, and a careful analysis has been
added, by way of model.
The first subject consists of sixteen bars in the key of F, divided
into two periods of eight bars each, whereof the former ends with an
imperfect or dominant cadence, while the latter concludes with a perfect
cadence in the tonic.
At the last beat of bar 16 commences the 'bridge' modulating into
the key of the dominant, and terminating with the dominant harmony
of the new key at bar 22.
At the last beat of bar 22 the second subject is introduced in
the key of C, and in the tenor part. It is eight bars in length, and
is succeeded by accessory passages, bringing the first division of the
movement to a close in the key of C at bar 38.
The second division begins at bar 39 in the key of D minor,
modulating perpetually, and introducing the first subject in various
keys and in imitative counterpoint, until bar 52.
EXAMPLES.
95
Bar 53 : dominant C pedal, on which are built fragments of second
subject, leading back to the repercussion of the first subject, slightly
varied and curtailed at bar 58.
At the fourth beat of bar 65 begin accessory passages instead of
bridge, ending on dominant of original key.
At the fourth beat of bar 70 begins the second subject transposed
into F, and played in the treble instead of the tenor, with slight
embellishments.
Bars 78-89 : accessory passages in the key of F, intended to bring
the whole movement to a brilliant conclusion.
Allegro moderate,
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96 THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
. 1.
mez.
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101
11
13
EXAMPLES.
97
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98 THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
20
3^2
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^= s ^=^=^
22
23
t
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EXAMPLES.
99
27
28
29"
con brio.
31
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100 THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
33
^=^f^f^^^^^Sir^-^^3
(,()) \/ I i j [- = p = * = EJ:? : ^ y ^ y bS S ^
35
F=F
36
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EXAMPLES.
101
40
45
102 THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
46
47
f
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EXAMPLES.
103
j.
55
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56
104 THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
__
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60
61
63
EXAMPLES.
105
65
67
pf^ny-^rr *rfi^
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69
10G THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
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71
73
75
EXAMPLES.
107
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76
77
Svi.
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78
79
8vi.
loco.
P 2
108 THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
83
85
87
EXAMPLES.
109
si*
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87
88
89
Movement.
First subject in D minor, of eight bars divided into two periods of
four bars each, concluding in the key of F major at bar 8.
Bar 9 : accessory subject in F, eight bars long, and modulating back
again to the original key of D minor.
Bar 17: first subject repeated, but so changed as to end in the
key of D minor.
Bar 24 is an interpolated bar to prolong the cadence.
Bar 26 : new subject commencing the second division in the key
of B flat, and keeping entirely in that key.
Bars 50-53 : four bars inserted to connect the second and third
divisions.
Bar 54 : third division beginning and ending in D minor, and con-
sisting entirely of developments of the preceding subjects, modulating
into several keys, but returning to the original key of D minor.
Bars 79-82 : three concluding bars by way of coda.
110 THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
Andante con espressione. / ""
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EXAMPLES.
Ill
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14
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112 THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
m.
17
18
19
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EXAMPLES.
113
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114 THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
*
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31
32
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33
34
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EXAMPLES.
115
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41
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116 THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
cres.
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47
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EXAMPLES.
117
51
53
55
56
59
118 THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
60
mi
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62
63
r^^teCSS^^i^
64
65
EXAMPLES.
119
66
67
70
120 THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
=^hj-^^^B
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74
75
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77 l ^*^
EXAMPLES.
78
rallentando.
79
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80 81
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Minuet.
Regular minuet in the old binary form. Subject of sixteen bars,
with four accessory bars in the key of F.
Bars 21-28 : Melody of eight bars, leading back to original subject
Bars 29-40 : Original subject, but changed so as to remain in B flat ;
with four accessory bars transposed into the same key.
122 THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
Tempo di Menuetto, ma non troppo lento.
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11
12
EXAMPLES.
123
13
14
16
17
18
19
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21
23
B 2
124 THE PRINCIPLES OF FOEM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
ores.
27
28
29 30
/L fr .' I I I i I
1
i
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J
m
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1
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5 14-
31
32
33
EXAMPLES.
125
38
39
40
Trio.
Regular Trio in the old binary form. Exact counterpart of Minuet,
only in the key of E flat, and with entirely new melodies.
Dolce.
XI i? A ' * m m <
frh 7 ft j_ *]**?*
1 9 i* r i*
i m r
Sill db . J r . f | f ~
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1 ^=^ j J
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126 THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
n u 1
1
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15
13
r
14
EXAMPLES.
127
16
17
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a
a
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18
19
20
21
y , 17 ^ * W J i
i
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m * * m
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22 23
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128 THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
SE^ES^J
I dolce.
-P i r~H '
r^
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i
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3
r r
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28
29
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30
31
32
33
1st time.
J^ J
^
ir r :
2nd time.
J:
fei
E
f
S
Memietto.
D.C.
Senza replica.
35
36
[36]
EXAMPLES. 129
Rondo.
Bar 1 : first subject of sixteen bars, divided into two equal periods.
Bar 17 : accessory melody of eight bars leading back to the main
subject.
Bar 25 : repercussion of main subject to conclude the first sub-
section.
Bar 33 : bridge to modulate into key of dominant.
Bar 48 : dominant pedal to establish the key of C.
Bar 56 : second subject of sixteen bars in the key of C.
Bar 71 : accessory passages to second subject.
Bar 80 : dominant seventh leading back to original subject in the
key of F, to conclude the division.
Bar 91 : developments and perpetual modulations formed out of
previous subjects and figures.
Bars 108-18 : ten bars of enharmonic modulation.
Bar 136 : dominant close leading to original subject in F, slightly
embroidered, to conclude the sub-section.
Bar 154 : developments and modulations leading to second subject.
Bar 170 : dominant pedal.
Bar 181 : second subject transposed into F.
Bar 196: accessory passages by way of conclusion.
s
130 THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
Svi. . .
Allegretto vivace,
tr
i
tr
^^
^
^-
mez.
i
fee:
4
loco.
9 10
f- i - J trty-^ = T=%=^^
^s 1 i. i ^^^^.
^
5
11
12
13
14
EXAMPLES.
131
18
19
20
22
S 2
132 THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
tr
fe
S
-^
27
23
29
30
31
34
37 38
EXAMPLES.
133
42
44
45
46
49
50
134 THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
54
SEE
mez.
55 56
57
58 59
t*^
^=^T=^
:
i
J-
1
tt*-
to*-
60
61
EXAMPLES.
135
63
64
67
68
69
loco.
136 THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
75
76
loco.
79 v 80
EXAMPLES.
137
mez. tr
mf
=*^
83
84
~W
85
86
Pffgjpere^
s
g
89
90
.
k. ^g: ~^:t:
*
L-&-
=
91
92
93
138 THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
96
100
101
102
EXAMPLES.
139
yf -far 1 I I I
103
gi
104
B
5
1
^
-*r -m- -m-
-9- -*- -0-
pp
p
106
107
109
cm.
p
no
111
112
113
T 2
140 THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
115
116
117
118
119
120
iem
Svi. . . .
122
123
124
EXAMPLES.
141
tr
loco.
128
129
130
142 THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
: tr
rr + w
e^
ri*r^
i i i i
i i T i i-
z
ra//.
mez.
a tempo.
ife
135
136
137
138
8ri.
tr
^
^L^ ^L^.
T 1
*
^
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
EXAMPLES.
143
150
152
loco.
1
BB
r
* ^ r u^
-0 ^
f"^
+t
i .
i
I r 1 1 1 f [ ~]
4j>- ^
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^
ft
r 1
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c^
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0-
f/*
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i
i
E
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v ^b L
>
i
B
r
153
'-154
155
156
144 THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
157
158
159
160
^
161
162 163
164
EXAMPLES.
H5
1G8
169
170
IS
E
p
r
^
i
^
E2
171
172
173
loco.
Zu
R
3"
2
P
i
fm
B
B
I*
H
B
1
1
B
1
I
N
t
JK^ -v. K
^-~ ^
i
v J
r* 2
yi-
S
1
r
9
r r
r
a.
r
174
175
176
146 THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
riten.
177
178
179
180
a tempo.
mez.
1 ' ' ^1 I
181
182
183
184
EXAMPLES.
147
188
190
191
192
193
194
loco.
TJ 2
148 THE PEINCIPLES OF FOKM AND GENERAL COMPOSITION.
198
199
200
201
203
loco.
204
205
209
EXAMPLES. 149
We would further recommend for study and analysis Beethoven's
Septett, op. 20, which consists of the following movements, all very
regular as to form, and beautiful as to melody, harmony, and
instrumentation.
1. Introduction, in E flat major, 3-4. Adagio.
2. Allegro con brio, in E flat major, *. Modern binary form.
3. Adagio Cantabile, in A flat major, 9-8. Modern binary form.
4. Minuet and Trio, in E flat major, 3-4.
5. Air with Variations, in B flat major, 2-4. Andante.
6. Scherzo and Trio, in E flat major, 3-4. Allegro Vivace. Minuet
form.
7. Introduction to Finale, in E flat minor, 2-4. Andante con moto.
8. Finale, in E flat major, (ft, Presto. Modern Binary Form.
DATE DUE
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