IRVINE, No. THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA IRVINE GIFT OF ROBERT CARLSON THE TEACHING STAFF THE SURVEY COMMITTEE OF THE CLEVELAND FOUNDATION Charles E. Adams, Chairman Thomas G. Fitzsimons Myrta L. Jones Bascom Little Victor W. Sincere Arthur D. Baldwin, Secretary James R. Garfield, Counsel Allen T. Burns, Director THE EDUCATION SURVEY Leonard P. Ayres, Director CLEVELAND EDUCATION SURVEY THE TEACHING STAFF BY ./C WALTER A. JESSUP DEAN OF THE COLLEGE OF EDUCATI STATE UNIVERSITY OF IOWA ox THE SURVEY COMMITTEE OF THE CLEVELAND FOUNDATION CLEVELAND OHIO 18 1916 Lf\ COPYRIGHT, 1916, BY THE SURVEY COMMITTEE OF THE CLEVELAND FOUNDATION WM P. FELL CO ' PRINTERS PHILADELPHIA FOREWORD ,. This report on "The Teaching Staff" is one of the 25 sections of the report of the Education \ Survey of Cleveland conducted by the Survey j' Committee of the Cleveland Foundation in c 1915. Twenty-three of these sections will be . ' published as separate monographs. In addi- 'tion there will be a larger volume giving a ' summary of the findings and recommenda- tions relating to "the regular.' worTi"^ the public * VV ' - J - **-* ' O J o * * ^ * schools, and "a' second similar volume giving the summary of those sections rcia^iLVg^Q.i;!^- dustrial education. Copies of all these pub- lications may be ; ob tanked ^frooi the Cleveland Foundation. They may also be obtained from the Division of Education of the Russell Sage Foundation, New York City. A complete list o will be found hi the back of this volume, to- gether with prices. J177253 TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Foreword 5 List of Tables 9 List of Diagrams 10 Salary schedule of elementary teachers 11 Salary schedule of high school teachers 13 Exception to the regular schedule 14 Special provisions 16 Substitutes in high schools 17 Salary schedule of elementary principals 17 Special teachers 17 Salaries actually paid to Cleveland teachers 19 Number and salaries of supervisory officers 20 Salaries in Cleveland compared with salaries else- where 20 Salaries of elementary principals 23 Salaries of high school teachers 26 Salary increases 28 Increase in the cost of living 29 What do other people receive in Cleveland? 30 Salaries of teachers as compared with those of policemen and firemen 32 High school teachers 32 Why should citizens of Cleveland be interested in this question? 32 School funds and teachers' salaries 36 Teachers' pension fund 38 Sex of teachers 41 Experience of teachers 42 Experience of principals 45 Tenure of elementary and high school teachers 47 Ages of teachers 49 Ages of principals 51 Education of elementary and high school teachers 53 Educational and professional preparation of ele- mentary principals 55 Teachers trained in Cleveland 57 Exceptional cases 60 The pension fund and teachers who enter late 62 Married teachers 65 Training in service 68 Summer schools 70 Teachers' meetings 71 Other means of training teachers in service 74 Promotions 75 Reports of professional growth 79 Promotions for merit and service 80 The Normal Training School 81 Larger opportunities for the Normal Training School 85 Health of teachers 87 Teachers' certification 93 Tenure 103 Dismissal of teachers 104 Substitutes 106 Appointment of teachers 107 Summary 109 LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE 1. Salaries of Cleveland teachers, payroll at close of 1914-15 18 2. Salaries of supervisory officers in 1915 19 3. Salaries of elementary teachers in Cleveland and 13 other cities in 1913 20 4. Distribution of annual salaries of regular teach- ers in elementary schools in Cleveland and in 13 other cities of more than 250,000 in- habitants 21 5. Distribution of annual salaries of principals in elementary schools in Cleveland and in 13 other cities of more than 250,000 inhabi- tants 24 6. Distribution of annual salaries of regular teach- ers in secondary schools in Cleveland and in 13 other cities of more than 250,000 inhabi- tants 26 7. Per cent of increase in average salaries of ele- mentary teachers in 14 cities from 1904 to 1913 28 8. Percentage of increase in retail food prices from the average for the years 1890-99 to the year 1914 30 9. Annual wages of elementary teachers and ar- tisans in five cities 31 10. Total teaching experience of elementary and high school teachers 44 11. Total teaching experience of elementary prin- cipals 46 12. Length of teaching experience in Cleveland of elementary and high school teachers 48 13. Ages of elementary and high school teachers 50 14. Ages of elementary principals 52 15. General and professional education of ele- mentary and high school teachers 54 16. Educational and professional preparation of elementary principals 56 LIST OF DIAGRAMS DIAGRAM PAGE 1. Median salaries of elementary teachers in 10 cities 23 2. Median salaries of elementary principals in 10 cities 25 3. Median salaries of high school teachers in 10 cities 27 4. Professional training of elementary teachers in Cleveland 55 5. College education of high school teachers in Cleveland 55 6. Professional training of elementary principals in Cleveland 56 7. Per cent of teachers and principals who are home trained and not home trained 58 8. Number of teachers leaving service for each cause at each successive year of age 64 9. Teachers receiving pay for different amounts of absence in 1913-14 90 THE TEACHING FORCE SALARY SCHEDULE OF ELEMENTARY TEACHERS For purposes of salary adjustment there are five classes of teachers in the elementary schools of Cleveland: the probationary class, the first class, the second class, the third class, and sub- stitutes. Teachers are assigned to one or the other of these classes at the time of appoint- ment. Teachers in the probationary class receive $500 the first year. " Teachers of one or more years of successful experience in this class may be promoted to the first class only by the super- intendent with the approval of the Board of Education." Teachers of the first class receive the first year an annual salary of $550; the second year $600; the third year $650; the fourth year $700. " Teachers with four or more years of successful experience in this class may be promoted to the second class only by the superintendent with the approval of the Board of Education." Teachers of the second class receive the first year an annual salary of $750; the second year 11 $800; the third year $850; and the fourth year $900. "Teachers with four or more years of suc- cessful experience in this class may be promoted to the third class only by the superintendent with the approval of the Board of Education." Teachers of the third class receive the first year an annual salary of $950; the second year and thereafter $1,000. "This schedule applies to all teachers in the grades, including teachers of cooking, German (exchange and special), School for the Deaf, classes for defective chil- dren, and kindergarten. Provision is made so that teachers in the elementary and industrial schools, the Boys' School, the Observation School, the Training School, and School for the Blind, shall receive 10 per cent above this schedule." The Board regulation concerning elementary substitute teachers is as follows: "In the ele- mentary schools, substitutes who perform the duties of absent teachers, whether the absence is occasioned by illness, leave of the superin- tendent of schools, or in a school to which no regular teacher has been assigned, shall be paid by the day at the rate which their experience would allow, according to the provisions of pro- bationary class, first class, and second class of the foregoing schedule; provided, however, that such as are under-graduates of the Normal 12 School without experience, shall be paid at the rate of $400 per year." Thus, according to the provisions of this schedule, it may be seen that the elementary teacher who begins as a probationary teacher at $500 may arrive at the third or highest class salary after a minimum experience of 10 years. On December 27, 1915, the Board of Educa- tion amended the salary schedule by providing that after the beginning of the school year 1916- 17, the salary of probationary teachers shall be increased from $500 to $550, and that of the first class teacher in her first year from $550 to $600 and in her second year from $600 to $625. SALARY SCHEDULE OF HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS For the purposes of salary adjustment in the normal and high school, there are also five classes of teachers. The salary schedule for each is as follows : First class teachers receive $1,000 the first year. There is an annual increase of $100 until $1,200 is reached. After four or more years' successful experience under this schedule, teachers are eligible to promotion by the super- intendent, on the recommendation of the prin- cipal and approval of the Board, to positions of the second class. Teachers of the second class 13 receive $1,300 with biennial increases of $100 until $1,500 is reached. Teachers of 10 or more years' successful experience, under this schedule, are eligible to promotion, under conditions men- tioned above, to positions in the third class. Third class teachers receive $1,600 the first two years. They then receive $1,700 for one year and $1,800 for two years. Teachers of 15 or more years' successful experience, under this schedule, are eligible to promotion, under con- ditions mentioned above, to positions of the fourth class. Fourth class teachers receive $1,900 the first year and $2,000 the second year. A fifth class is made up of first assistant princi- pals of high schools who receive $2,100 the first year and $2,200 the second year. First assistants in high schools with an enrollment of more than 1,000 may receive $2,300. Second assistant principals with 18 years' experience, under the schedule, upon recommendation of the principal and superintendent, may receive $2,100. EXCEPTION TO THE REGULAR SCHEDULE The Board regulation concerning exceptions reads as follows: "This schedule is based on 25 periods per week of class instruction in academic studies (approximately 30 periods per week being an equivalent in laboratory and shop in- 14 struction), covering a period of 38 weeks. In schools which vary from this base (1) in the number of periods of class teaching per week; or (2) in the number of weeks teachers shall be paid pro rata." This regulation, coupled with the fact that the sessions in all academic high schools by Board regulation are shorter than in the techni- cal high schools, including the High School of Commerce, means that lower salaries are paid in the academic high schools. The Board regu- lation is as follows: " Sessions in all academic high schools shall be from 8 :30 a. m. to 1 :30 p. m. For all pupils of technical high schools, in- cluding the High School of Commerce, the hours shall be from 8:30 a. m. to 3:30 p. m., with one period for luncheon." There has been no little dissatisfaction among the teachers in the academic high schools in regard to this adjustment of salary, and on December 27, 1915, the Board of Education amended it so as to do away with the difference in the rates of pay of the teachers in the acade- mic, technical, and commercial high schools. Under the new provisions, which go into effect in September, 1916, the length of the school day will be uniform in all the high schools. Teachers employed in December, 1915, who continue in their positions after September, 1916, will not 15 in any case have their salaries reduced by the operation of the new schedules. The new salary rates will then be as follows : First probationary class $800 Second probationary class First year 900 Second year 1,000 Regular first class First year 1,100 Second year 1,200 Third year 1,300 Fourth year 1,400 Fifth year 1,400 Regular second class First year 1,500 Second year 1,500 Third year 1,600 Fourth year 1,600 Fifth year 1,700 Sixth year 1,700 Regular third class First year 1,800 Second year 1,900 Third year 1,900 Fourth year 2,000 Regular fourth class First year 2,100 Second year 2,100 Third year 2,200 Regular fifth class 2,300 SPECIAL PROVISIONS Special provisions regulating the salaries of the administrative and supervisory force of the various high schools and the Normal School have been made by the Board. 16 SUBSTITUTES IN HIGH SCHOOLS Provision is made by the Board for the employ- ment of substitute teachers in the high school at a salary somewhat lower than the lowest class of regularly appointed teachers. These differences in salaries are based on experience. For example, substitutes of less than two years' high school experience are paid at the rate of $800 per year; substitutes with not less than five years' experience may receive a salary as high as $1,200 per year. SALARY SCHEDULE OF ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS The Board regulation concerning salaries paid to elementary principals is based on the num- ber of regular standard classrooms in the build- ing or buildings over which they have charge, according to a regularly graded schedule. For example, the principal of a four-room building is eligible to a salary of $1,000. The principal of a 36-room building is eligible to a salary of $2,000. Assistant principals receive an extra stipend of $50 each year in addition to the amount fixed by their regular classification on the payroll. SPECIAL TEACHERS Provision is made for the employment of special teachers in the departments of medical inspec- 2 17 tion, manual training, physical training, and the like, at salaries ranging from $700 in the case of a special teacher of physical training in the elementary school, to a maximum of $1,500 for a special teacher of manual training. TABLE 1. SALARIES OF CLEVELAND TEACHERS, PAYROLL AT CLOSE OF 1914-15 High school teachers Elementary principals Elementary teachers 2 at $2,640 4 at $2,000 1 at $1,650 1 2,530 1 1,980 2 1,540 1 2,500 1 1,960 4 1,500 5 2,400 1 1,880 1 1,430 2 2,300 3 1,840 1 1,400 4 2,280 4 1,800 5 1,300 4 2,200 6 1,740 1 1,210 2 2,160 1 1,710 7 1.200 7 2,100 3 1,700 1 1,155 3 2,040 4 1,680 71 1.100 22 2,000 3 1,650 83 1,050 7 1,920 3 1,620 3 1,045 20 ,900 1 1.600 762 1,000 37 ,800 8 1,590 108 950 4 ,700 13 1,560 196 900 14 ,680 7 1.520 112 850 24 ,600 2 1,500 2 825 24 ,560 10 1,480 130 800 19 ,500 3 1,440 1 770 27 1,440 5 1,400 133 750 23 1,400 1 1,325 4 715 12 1,320 5 1,320 164 700 17 1,300 1 1,300 145 650 66 1,200 2 1,200 136 600 10 1,100 4 1,160 20 550 12 1,000 1 1,120 110 500 17 800 1 1,080 1 400 1 650 Two high school principals at $3,500 and eight at $3,000. 18 THE SALARIES ACTUALLY PAID TO CLEVELAND TEACHERS Table 1, based on the payroll at the close of the year 1914-15, shows the different salaries paid to the different types of teachers. This table should be read as follows : There were two high school teachers who received $2,640, four ele- mentary principals who received $2,000, and one elementary teacher who received $1,650. TABLE 2. SALARIES OF SUPERVISORY OFFICERS IN 1915 Officer Men Women Salary Superintendent 1 $6,000 Assistant superintendent 4 3,750 Supervisor of requisitions and reports Assistant superintendent (physical education 1 3,000 part time) 1 1,500 General supervisor '2 2,400 General supervisor 1 2,300 General supervisor 1 2,000 Supervisor of German 'i 2,000 Supervisor of drawing and applied arts 'i 2,100 Assistant supervisor of drawing and applied arts 3 1,050 Assistant supervisor of drawing and applied arts 1 1.000 Supervisor of music 'i 2,400 Assistant supervisor of music Assistant supervisor of music 'i i 1,200 1,050 Assistant supervisor of music 2 1,000 Supervisor of writing i 2,300 Assistant supervisor of writing Assistant supervisor of writing Assistant supervisor of writing Supervisor of manual training "i 'i i i 1,200 1,050 1,000 2,500 Assistant supervisor of manual training Supervisor of domestic science i i 1,000 2,000 Supervisor of physical education Supervisor of indoor recreation "i 'i 2,400 1,200 Supervisor of work for the blind 'i 1,500 Total 12 19 $65,650 19 NUMBER AND SALARIES OF SUPERVISORY OFFICERS Table 2, based on the payroll at the close of 1914-15, shows the salaries paid to the various supervisory officers of the Cleveland schools. TABLE 3. SALARIES OF ELEMENTARY TEACHERS IN CLEVE- LAND AND 13 OTHER CITIES IN 1913 City Popu- lation Average salary Median salary Lower quartile Upper quartile San Francisco 440,995 $1,152 $1,200 $1,140 $1,224 Boston 722,465 1,059 1,176 792 1,176 Chicago 2,344,018 1,054 1,175 925 1,200 St. Louis 723,347 993 1,032 972 1,032 Newark 379,211 951 1,000 730 1,100 Cincinnati 398,452 941 1,000 850 1,000 Minneapolis 333,472 937 1,000 900 1,000 Milwaukee 408,683 886 876 876 876 Philadelphia 1,631,956 861 900 750 1,000 Cleveland 622,699 834 850 675 950 Washington 348,077 798 750 700 950 Indianapolis 253,668 767 875 600 925 Baltimore 574,575 722 700 600 800 New Orleans 355,958 668 700 600 750 SALARIES IN CLEVELAND COMPARED WITH SALARIES ELSEWHERE It is important to note how the salaries paid in Cleveland compare with the salaries paid in other cities. Table 3, taken from Bulletin No. 589 of the United States Bureau of Education, indicates the relation which existed between the salaries paid elementary teachers in Cleveland in 1913 and salaries paid elsewhere at that time. 20 In this table and in Table 4 assistant principals are included as regular teachers in every case. It is to be noted that three years ago the only cities ranking lower than Cleveland, so far as the average salary paid elementary teachers is con- cerned, were the three cities having large num- bers of colored teachers. It is true that Cleve- land has since increased teachers' salaries so that the median salary is now $50 larger than it was then. It is also true that some of the other cities have increased salaries during the past three years. The figures of the table are the latest ones that can be secured for all of the cities on the same basis. TABLE 4. DISTRIBUTION OF ANNUAL SALARIES OF REGULAR TEACHERS IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS IN CLEVELAND AND IN 13 OTHER CITIES OF MORE THAN 250,000 INHABITANTS City Salaries not exceeding the amounts specified were earned by teachers bearing to the aggregate num- ber employed in each city the proportion of 10 per cent 30 per cent 50 per cent 70 per cent 90 per cent San Francisco Boston Chicago St. Louis Cincinnati $840 648 675 700 700 $1,164 840 975 1,032 900 $1,200 1,176 1,175 1,032 1,000 $1,224 1,176 1,175 1,032 1,000 $1,224 1,224 1,200 1,120 1,000 Minneapolis Newark Cleveland Philadelphia Milwaukee 750 630 600 630 876 950 780 750 780 876 1,000 1,000 900 900 876 1,000 1,100 1,000 940 876 1,000 1,300 1,000 1,000 876 Indianapolis Washington Baltimore New Orleans 475 625 600 500 625 700 700 600 875 750 700 700 925 890 750 750 925 980 800 800 21 Table 4 presents in more complete form the comparison between the salaries paid elemen- tary teachers in Cleveland and those paid in the 13 other large cities. These data are from the payroll of the Cleveland schools at the close of the school year in 1915 and from "Tangible Rewards of Teaching," published by the United States Bureau of Education in 1914 and giving data for the school year 1912-13. This compari- son is unduly favorable to Cleveland for it takes into account the salary increases made here from 1913 to 1915, but does not take into ac- count those that have been made in the other cities. The meaning of Table 4 becomes clear when read as follows : 10 per cent of the teachers of San Francisco are receiving $840 or less. 30 per cent of the teachers of San Francisco are receiving $1,160 or less. 50 per cent of the teachers of San Francisco are receiving $1,200 or less. 70 per cent of the teachers of San Francisco are receiving $1,224 or less. 90 per cent of the teachers of San Francisco are receiving $1,224 or less. Ten per cent of Cleveland's teachers are re- ceiving $600 or less; 30 per cent of the group are receiving $750 or less; the 50 per cent or median is $900; the 70 per cent and 90 per cent groups are receiving $1,000 or less. 22 THE SALARIES OF ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS The salaries of the elementary principals of Cleveland as compared with those in 13 other ISan Francisco Boston CLEVELAND Milwaukee Diagram 1. Median salaries of elementary teachers in 10 cities cities of its class are indicated in Table 5. Here the data are from the same source as those of Table 4 and are treated in the same way. 23 Again it must be remembered that if it were possible to secure reliable figures for all cities completely up to date, the showing of Cleve- land would be less favorable than it is here. TABLE 5. DISTRIBUTION OF ANNUAL SALARIES OF PRINCI- PALS IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS IN CLEVELAND AND IN 13 OTHER CITIES OF MORE THAN 250,000 INHABITANTS Salaries not exceeding the amounts specified were earned by principals bearing to the ag- gregate number employed in each city the proportion of City 10 per cent 30 per cent 50 per cent 70 per cent 90 per cent Boston $2,580 $2,940 $3,300 $3,300 $3,300 Chicago 1,800 2,600 2,800 3,100 3,100 Newark 2,000 2,400 2,600 2,900 3,000 St. Louis 1,220 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,000 Cincinnati 1,800 1,900 2,200 2,400 2,400 Baltimore 1,900 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 Milwaukee 1,980 1,980 1,980 1,980 1,980 San Francisco 1,560 1,800 1,800 2,160 2,340 Minneapolis Philadelphia 1,100 1,100 1,300 1,510, 1,600 1,600 1,800 2,380 2,100 2,500 Cleveland 1,320 1,480 1,560 1,650 1,840 Washington 1,130 1,310 1,510 1,540 1,890 Indianapolis 950 1,100 1,300 1,500 1,800 New Orleans 900 1,150 1,250 1,300 1,350 The meaning of Table 5 becomes clear when it is read thus: 10 per cent of the elementary principals in Boston receive $2,580 or less. Another way of stating the same thing is, 90 per cent of the principals in Boston are receiv- ing $2,580 or more; 70 per cent $2,940 or. more, and so on. Reference to Cleveland reveals the fact that in the 10 per cent group Cleveland 24 ranks eight ; in the 30 per cent group Cleveland ranks 10; in the 50 per cent group Cleveland ranks 11; in the 70 per cent group Cleveland [2233 Diagram 2. Median salaries of elementary principals in 10 cities ranks 11; in the 90 per cent group Cleveland ranks 12; in other words, salaries of the prin- cipals in Cleveland are extremely low, as com- 25 pared with the salaries of principals in other cities of the same class. SALARIES OF HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS The salaries of the high school teachers of Cleve- land as compared with the salaries paid in 13 other cities of its class are indicated in Table 6. These data are from the payroll of the Cleve- land schools for 1914-15 and from "Tangible Rewards of Teaching," United States Bureau of Education, 1914. The cities are arranged in the descending order of the median or 50 per cent salaries. TABLE 6. DISTRIBUTION OF ANNUAL SALARIES OF REGULAR TEACHERS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN CLEVELAND AND IN 13 OTHER CITIES OF MORE THAN 250,000 INHABITANTS City Salaries not exceeding the amounts specified were earned by teachers bearing to the aggregate num- ber employed in each city the proportion of 10 per cent 30 per cent 50 per cent 70 per cent 90 per cent Newark Washington San Francisco Boston Chicago $1,400 1,300 1,680 1,044 1,100 $1,600 1,600 1,680 1,260 1,400 $1,900 1,800 1,680 1,620 1,600 $2,100 1,800 2,040 1,908 1,800 $2,500 1,800 2,040 3,060 2,300 St. Louis Cleveland Minneapolis Philadelphia Cincinnati 1,120 1,100 1,100 1,000 900 1,300 1,300 1,300 1,250 1,100 1,520 1,500 1,400 1,400 1,300 1,700 1,800 1,500 1,600 1,800 2,100 2,000 1,600 2,500 2,300 Milwaukee Baltimore Indianapolis New Orleans 1,260 780 900 750 1,260 1,000 1,000 900 1,260 1,200 1,100 1,100 1,260 1,300 1,200 1,150 1,380 1,800 1,500 1,400 26 Table 6 should be read : 10 per cent of the high school teachers of Newark are receiving $1,400 Diagram 3. Median salaries of high school teachers in 10 cities or less; 30 per cent are receiving $1,600 or less. Expressed in another way, it means that 90 per cent of the teachers are receiving $1,400 or 27 more. It is noteworthy that Cleveland stands in about the middle place in all the comparisons. SALARY INCREASES According to the data reported in Bulletin, 1915, No. 31, of the United States Bureau of Educa- tion, the increases in the average salaries for elementary school teachers in the period 1903-04 and 1912-13 were as follows in the 14 large cities for which we have data : TABLE 7. PER CENT OF INCREASE IN AVERAGE SALARIES OF ELEMENTARY TEACHERS IN 14 CITIES FROM 1904 TO 1913 City Per cent increase Boston Cleveland Philadelphia San Francisco Washington 6 15 20 21 25 Chicago Newark Baltimore Cincinnati Indianapolis 26 29 31 31 31 Minneapolis New Orleans Milwaukee St. Louis 34 37 39 52 It is evident that Cleveland did not recognize the changed living conditions within this period, in so far as the salary of the elementary teacher is concerned. The average increase of salary in every city except Boston was decidedly larger 28 than Cleveland. While it is true that the aver- age salary in Boston increased only six per cent, it must be borne in mind that in 1903-04 the average salary paid the elementary teacher in Boston was $941, which is $256 more than the average salary paid in Cleveland at the same time. INCREASE IN THE COST OF LIVING The teachers of Cleveland surely confront seri- ous difficulties in the matter of meeting living expenses. Table 8 shows the percentage of in- crease in retail food prices from the average for the decade of 1890-99 to the year 1914. The figures are for the north central states and the data are compiled from the bulletins of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, Whole Nos. 140 and 184. It is a well recognized fact that the purchasing power of a dollar varies somewhat from one sec- tion of the country to another. Statisticians of the United States Bureau of Labor estimate that a salary of $900 in Cleveland is equivalent in purchasing power to one of $990 in Boston, and $880 in Chicago. Thus the average salary of $791 in Cleveland shows to an even greater dis- advantage when compared with the $1,034 average annual salary of elementary teachers in Chicago. Those figures are from the Report 29 of the National Education Association on "Teachers' Salaries and the Cost of Living." TABLE 8 PERCENTAGE OF INCREASE IN RETAIL FOOD PRICES FROM THE AVERAGE FOR THE YEARS 1890-99 TO THE YEAR 1914 Article Per cent of increase Sugar, granulated Potatoes, Irish Flour, wheat Milk, fresh Butter, creamery 2 16 32 41 55 Eggs, strictly fresh Corn meal Lard, pure Rib roast Ham, smoked 57 64 68 70 76 Hens Sirloin steak Round steak Bacon, smoked Pork chops 80 86 105 109 114 WHAT Do OTHER PEOPLE RECEIVE IN CLEVE- LAND? According to data furnished by the Bureau of Railway Economics, Exhibit No. 39, Washing- ton, D. C., September, 1914, the average annual wages of artisans in Cleveland were as shown below. The average salary of the elementary teacher is included for comparison. Plumbers $1,219 Bricklayers 1,192 Plasterers 1,132 Painters 1,003 Carpenters 992 Molders 945 Machinists 875 Teachers 791 30 Thus it may be seen that the teachers of Cleve- land receive a lower average annual wage than do any of the other workers in the classes above. Interest attaches to the problem of how the salaries paid to teachers in other cities compare with the wages paid to other skilled workers. Table 9 is of interest in this connection. TABLE 9 ANNUAL WAGES OF ELEMENTARY TEACHERS AND ARTISANS IN FIVE CITIES Cleve- land Boston Chicago Minne- apolis San Fran- cisco Plumbers $1,219 $1,320 $1,394 $1,044 $1,540 Bricklayers 1,192 1,244 1,293 1,197 1,390 Plasterers 1,132 1,201 1,326 1,201 1,309 Painters 1,003 957 1,232 921 1,081 Carpenters 992 1,026 1,139 1,030 964 Molders 945 980 942 927 1,126 Machinists 875 1,074 884 958 944 Teachers 791 1,001 1,034 937 1,124 It may be seen that the average salary of the teacher in Boston is larger than the wages of molders or painters, and is close to that paid to carpenters and machinists. In Chicago the salary of the teacher is larger than the wages of machinists or molders. In San Francisco the salary of the teacher is larger than the wages of carpenters, machinists, or painters, and is close to that paid in one or two other trades. In Minneapolis the salary of the teacher is larger than that paid to molders, and painters. The 31 Cleveland teacher is paid on a relatively dif- ferent scale. SALARIES OF TEACHERS AS COMPARED WITH THOSE OF POLICEMEN AND FIREMEN The average salary paid to policemen in Cleve- land* is $1,177; to firemen, $1,081. The aver- age salary of the teacher, $791, does not loom large in this comparison. In Portland, Oregon, the teachers receive an average salary of $1,006; the policemen $1,080; the firemen $1,080. HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS In the five years between 1905 and 1910, the high school teachers of Cincinnati received a 50 per cent increase of salary; San Francisco, 36 per cent; Newark, 26 per cent; St. Louis, 22 percent; Minneapolis, 18 per cent; Milwaukee, 14 per cent; Chicago, 13 per cent; Cleveland, 6 per cent; Boston, no increase. Here again it is evident that the city of Cleveland is not adjust- ing salaries of teachers on the same basis as other cities. WHY SHOULD CITIZENS OF CLEVELAND BE IN- TERESTED IN THIS QUESTION? At the present time there are some 700,000 school teachers employed in the United States. * Bulletin No. 31, 1915, U. S. Bureau of Education. 32 Of this number Cleveland employs more than 2,700. The citizen of Cleveland is vitally con- cerned with the efficiency of the particular teachers on the Cleveland payroll. In the long run we get what we pay for. While this may not be so evident in the purchase of public service, yet there can be no doubt of the fact that ulti- mately a higher price means a better product. Many of us like to take advantage of bargain sales, but we have come to be wary of goods that are marked down at a decidedly lower price than can be found elsewhere. Competition estab- lishes somewhat definite relationship between value and cost. We hesitate before purchasing a $5.00 pair of shoes for $2.50, unless we are able to see clearly the reason why these shoes are offered for this price. We try to find the reason for this reduction. We ask whether this reduction has been due to over-production, de- layed shipments, the bankruptcy court, or in- ferior goods? Many of us who might be quite willing to take advantage of a bargain in the purchase of material goods would hesitate long before we would risk the health of a sick child by calling in a cheap physician. We should be equally careful when we call a teacher to our assistance in the up-bringing of our children. We are forced to ask ourselves the question as to why it is that the teachers in Cleveland work 3 33 for less money than do the teachers in Cincin- nati, in Boston, in Minneapolis, in Chicago, and elsewhere. Can it be that Cleveland is unwill- ing or unable to recognize competitive prices? With the present salary schedule, there is small likelihood of Cleveland being able to attract teachers from other large cities in the country to its employ. On the other hand, it is difficult for this city to make the work sufficiently at- tractive to keep the ambitious teacher in Cleve- land from going to Chicago or Minneapolis or elsewhere. The attitude of the average citizen, when he thinks of the school system, is modified con- stantly by the fact that he knows only a very small number of individual teachers. Not having a check upon the effectiveness of the service throughout a great city, he tends to look at the salary schedule as an individual matter. When the question arises " Can the city afford to pay Miss Lucy Smith $100 more than she is now receiving?" he considers the increase a mere bit of good fortune to Miss Smith. How- ever, the fact that cities of the class of Cleve- land have increased their salary schedules within recent years means that Cleveland cannot main- tain the highest standard of efficiency on the present salary schedule. The service of the teacher is of a professional 34 character. She deals with a child in his period of helplessness. The professional service of the teacher is indeed strikingly like that of the phy- sician. The physician is called in at the moment of weakness when the patient can no longer meet a physical situation. The child is turned over to the school teacher at a period when he is unable to cope with the experiences of the world. When he needs to learn to read, the teacher is called in; when he needs to write, the teacher is at hand; when he learns to cipher, the teacher guides him through the intricacies of the process. Modern teachers' training schools have sought to instill ideals of social service rather than ideals of personal advantage. The teacher herself is at a disadvantage in the matter of salary ad- justment. The typical teacher is not in a posi- tion to wage a campaign for an increase in salary. She not only lacks the skill to marshal her forces, but her whole training makes such a campaign more or less repulsive to her nature. Indeed every attempt at the organization of teachers along this line has been met with this funda- mental attitude, so that even with low salaries it is still possible to fill all the positions. But it should always be borne in mind that with the growing economic independence of women economic pressures are such as to make 35 it imperative that many teachers seek work out- side to eke out a living, or shift from city to city in search of higher salaries. Again, many teachers are coming to look upon the work of teaching as a career. A number of cities are al- ready seeking the type of teacher who assumes this attitude, with the result that the keenest, most ambitious, best all-round teachers gather in the cities which provide the most advantage- ous conditions of service. The work which men teachers often do out- side of school hours, such as dabbling in real estate, conducting private classes, maintain- ing professional offices of one type or another, cannot be other than unfortunate for the schools of any city. The woman who looks after a fam- ily, who works until late at night in meeting the household cares, cannot be the effective public servant that she could be if she received a salary large enough to enable her to devote her entire time and energy to the professional service rendered to children in school. SCHOOL FUNDS AND TEACHERS' SALARIES All of these considerations combine to render the teachers' salary schedule a matter of deep concern to every citizen who has at heart the welfare of the city. In Cleveland the problem 36 is a peculiarly difficult as well as an important one. The revenues of the city are so small that municipal indebtedness is growing with alarming rapidity. The expenditures of the city are less than those of other municipalities of similar size. Nevertheless the expenses of the city are each year larger than the income receipts. From the meager budget that is available, Cleveland hands over to the public schools a larger pro- portion than does the average city of similar class. The sums thus made available for educa- tional purposes are honestly and, in general, efficiently administered, but they are not suffi- cient to meet the necessary running expenses of the school system. The result is that the pub- lic schools, as well as the municipality, are bor- rowing funds from year to year to meet de- ficiencies for current operating expenses. In the face of these serious circumstances the city is confronted by the fact that it is paying its teachers less than other similar cities pay their teachers. The question at issue is how to meet this situation. It is a problem not unlike that faced by the head of a family who finds that he is not purchasing sufficient food of proper quality for his wife and children. Since food is a necessity, he first tries to remedy the situation by economizing somewhere else and devoting to the purchase of food the funds thus saved. 37 If it proves that the problem cannot be solved by this method, the next step is to secure more income by some means or other. The Board of Education now finds itself in a similar situation. Teaching is a necessity, not a luxury. If it is to be adequate in quality, it must be paid for at rates which are in the long run fixed by the salaries paid in other cities and in other forms of employment. The funds avail- able in Cleveland are not adequate to pay such salaries as are now being received by teachers elsewhere. The first step in remedying the situ- ation is to economize in other expenditures. This process has probably been already carried about as far as is wise. The next step is for the Board of Education to present these needs to the public in so convincing a manner that they will insist on their representatives in the state legislature changing the laws so that the Board can secure funds adequate to purchase the teaching services that are imperative necessities in a modern educational system. TEACHERS' PENSION FUND Through the activities of the principals' round table in Cleveland in February, 1906, a move- ment was started for the establishment of a teachers' pension fund. The vote of the teachers 38 on the establishment of this fund was 797 for, and 713 against. While the majority was not large in favor of the creation of the fund, yet, according to the state law, the approval of but one-third of the total number of appointed teachers is all that is necessary to make the pen- sion system operative. The state law provides for two primary sources from which the pension fund is derived, namely: the teachers' salaries, and a contingent fund. The sum of $2.00 is deducted from the monthly salary of each teacher who has accepted the provisions of the pension law. This includes the teachers who have entered the system since the pension fund was established, and all of the teachers who were in the system prior to that time who chose to accept the provisions. From the contingent fund the Board of Education pays semi-annually into the pension fund "Not less than one per cent or more than two per cent of the gross receipts that the Board raises by taxation." In addition to these two chief sources of revenue, the state law requires the Board of Education to pay monthly into the pension fund "All deductions from the salaries of teachers on account of either tardiness or absence." Up to a maximum of $450, the amount of pen- sion is determined by the length of service and not by position or salary. Any teacher may 39 retire and become a beneficiary who has taught for a period aggregating 30 years, one-half of which period has been spent in the schools of Cleveland. Such a teacher is entitled to receive annually $12.50 for each year of service as a teacher, except that the maximum amount re- ceived in any case may not exceed $450. The foregoing is subject to a provision that the teacher, in order to receive a pension, must have paid into the pension fund $20 for each year of service up to a maximum of $600. In case a teacher has not been able to pay this amount "The Board of Trustees must withhold on each month's payment 20 per cent thereof until the amount above provided for has been thus con- tributed to the fund." Should the Board of Education retire a teacher because of physical or mental disability who has been in service for 20 years, one-half of the time having been spent in Cleveland, that teacher is entitled to a pension, the amount of which is determined by the provisions herein- before mentioned. A teacher voluntarily retiring from the sys- tem at any time is entitled to one-half of the amount which she has paid into the pension fund, provided application for it is made within three months of her resignation. If, on the other hand, a teacher is discharged, she is en- 40 titled to a refund of the entire amount paid into the fund. An average of only 10 teachers annually have gone on the pension list since its establishment, consequently, at the present time the pension fund is more than sufficient to meet the demands made upon it. However, the margin between the income and the outgo will tend to become less and less as the number of beneficiaries in- crease, and until the number added each year does not greatly exceed the number dropped. Of course the number added each year will normally exceed the number dropped so long as the school system of Cleveland continues to grow. The actual increase now exceeds the normal increase above referred to, and will continue to do so for a number of years to come because the pension fund is still very young. SEX OF TEACHERS The fact that there is only one male teacher re- ported in the group of elementary teachers or principals is of interest. This is especially note- worthy in view of the fact that Cincinnati has been increasing the number of male teachers in the elementary school. In the year 1913, ac- cording to the Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Education, No. 47, Cincinnati em- 41 ployed 197 male elementary teachers out of a total of 1,063. " Principalships and assistant principalships are made exclusively male posi- tions, with increased salary as a special conces- sion to secure men in the service." This no doubt explains the fact that almost 90 per cent of the principals of Cincinnati are receiving $1,800 or more as compared with $1,320 in Cleveland, and that 50 per cent of the principals of Cincinnati are receiving $2,200 or more, as compared with $1,560 in Cleveland. Boston, Baltimore, Chicago, Detroit, New York, Phila- delphia, and Washington, all have men teachers in the elementary schools varying from 59 in Washington to 1,093 in New York. Out of 70 principals in Boston, there are only seven women. In the high schools Cleveland has followed the practice of other cities in employing slightly more men than women. It is interesting to note that Cleveland conforms to the practice through- out the country in the sex distribution of high school teachers, and departs sharply therefrom in the sex distribution of elementary school principals. EXPERIENCE OF TEACHERS In any analysis of working conditions in institu- tions, it is desirable to know something about 42 the extent of experience of the persons engaged in doing the work. How long have the teachers of Cleveland taught? What is the experience of the principals? Every citizen of Cleveland should be interested in knowing the answers to these questions, since the experience of the teachers may be so limited as to indicate a low quality of work. On the other hand, their ex- perience may be of such duration as to limit the efficiency of the schools. Table 10 shows the distribution of the total teaching experience of elementary and high school teachers. This table should be read as follows : Of the 1,989 elementary teachers reported, 111 have had one year of experience, 113 two years, 115 three years. Running down the column we find that one teacher is teaching with an experience of 49 years, one of 48, one of 43, and so on. The median elementary teacher has had about 10 years' ex- perience. Stating it another way, half of the teachers have taught 10 years or longer; one- fourth of the teachers have taught 18 years or longer, while one-fourth of the teachers have taught five years or less. It is interesting to note the similarity in terms of experience between the teacher in high school and the elementary school. The median term of experience is about 11 years, which is a year more than that for the elemen- tary teacher. The range of distribution is nine 43 TABLE 10. TOTAL TEACHING EXPERIENCE OF ELEMENTARY AND HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS Years of experience Elementary teachers High school teachers All teachers 1 111 9 120 2 113 13 126 3 115 10 125 4 120 19 139 6 95 14 109 6 89 26 115 7 96 20 116 8 96 21 117 9 96 19 115 10 99 18 117 11 80 12 92 12 78 10 88 13 67 17 74 14 60 16 76 15 62 14 76 16 67 6 73 17 50 12 62 18 52 9 61 19 52 10 62 20 49 8 57 21 35 6 41 22 21 7 28 23 40 6 46 24 30 4 34 25 37 6 43 26 29 3 32 27 27 2 29 28 17 5 22 29 19 5 24 30 21 3 24 31 12 5 17 32 12 5 17 33 6 4 10 34 13 13 35 5 *3 8 36 6 4 10 37 7 1 8 38 3 4 7 39 3 1 4 40 3 2 5 41 2 2 42 1 1 43 1 1 48 1 1 49 1 1 Total 1,989 359 2,348 44 years less . One-fourth of the high school teachers have had 19 years of experience or more, and one-fourth have had six years experience or less. We may express this fact in a different way by saying that one-half of the elementary teachers in the Cleveland schools have had between five and 18 years of experience. One-half of the high school teachers have had between six years and 19 years of experience. The experience of ele- mentary teachers in Cleveland is not strikingly different from that found in other large cities. It is the same, for example, as that of the teachers of New York City. Three-fourths of the teachers in the high schools in cities of 50,000 or over on the accredited list of the North Cen- tral Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools have had five years' experience or less. This would seem to indicate that the teachers in Cleveland high schools are somewhat more experienced than the teachers of the high schools in other cities. EXPERIENCE OF PRINCIPALS Table 11 shows the distribution of the total years of experience of elementary principals in Cleve- land: 45 TABLE 11 TOTAL TEACHING EXPERIENCE OF ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS Years of Number of experience principals 13 1 17 1 18 2 19 1 20 1 21 2 22 1 23 3 24 2 25 5 26 2 27 4 28 4 30 5 31 5 32 9 33 6 34 4 35 4 36 7 37 2 38 5 39 7 40 2 41 1 44 2 46 2 50 3 57 1 Total 94 This table becomes clear when read as follows: Cleveland employs one principal with 13 years' experience, one with 17 years' experience, two with 18 years' experience, one with 57 years' experience, three with 50 years' experience. The median experience of principals is 32 years, 46 which means that half of the principals of the elementary schools of Cleveland have had 32 years or more of experience. One-fourth of the principals have had 37 years of experience or more, and one-fourth have had 27 years of ex- perience or less. Expressed in another way, half of the principals have had between 27 and 37 years of experience. The fact that the median experience of the elementary teachers is 10 years, and the median experience of elementary principals is 32 years, and that no principal has had less experience than 13 years, leads to the generalization that the expectancy of becoming a principal of ele- mentary schools in Cleveland is limited to those who have stayed in the system for a long time. It has become a traditional practice in Cleveland to appoint teachers to principalships on the basis of seniority rather than on the basis of prepara- tion and professional qualification. In view of this it may be safe to hazard the opinion that the elementary school principals in Cleveland are likely to be somewhat conservative in regard to the administration of education. TENURE OF ELEMENTARY AND HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS Table 12 shows the length of service among ele- mentary and high school teachers in Cleveland. 47 TABLE 12. LENGTH OF TEACHING EXPERIENCE IN CLEVE- LAND OF ELEMENTARY AND HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS Years of experience Elementary teachers High school teachers All teachers 1 204 26 230 2 198 46 244 3 136 24 160 4 117 31 148 5 115 29 144 6 88 24 112 7 89 26 115 8 95 14 109 9 78 8 86 10 96 13 109 11 63 10 73 12 81 12 93 13 52 12 64 14 45 14 59 15 57 6 63 16 42 5 47 17 40 4 44 18 45 8 53 19 40 1 41 20 44 11 55 21 36 4 40 22 19 2 21 23 32 3 35 24 21 21 25 26 'i 27 26 23 3 26 27 23 1 24 28 14 4 18 29 11 3 14 30 14 4 18 31 5 1 6 32 6 2 8 33 4 1 5 34 12 12 35 3 "l 4 36 2 2 4 37 4 4 38 2 "2 4 39 3 3 40 2 "l 3 41 2 2 Total 1,989 359 2,348 48 This table should be read as follows: 204 ele- mentary teachers are teaching their first year in Cleveland; 198 their second year; 136 their third year; two teachers have taught 41 years, two 40 years, three 39 years, and so on. The median tenure is eight years. Among the high school teachers 26 are teaching their first year, 46 their second year, one has taught 40 years, and two have taught 38 years. The median tenure is six years. One-fourth of the elementary teachers have been teaching in Cleveland for 15 years or longer. One-fourth of the high school teachers have been teaching in Cleveland for 13 years or longer. AGES OF TEACHERS Considerable interest attaches to the question as to whether or not the teachers in Cleveland are young or old. Are they so young that they are unable to bear properly the responsibility of training the future citizens of Cleveland? Are they so old that they have lost sympathy with the ideals of childhood and are out of touch with the ideals of modern citizenship? Table 13 is a distribution table of the ages of elementary and high school teachers. This table becomes clear when read as follows : Of the 1,989 elementary teachers four are 19 4 49 TABLE 13. AGES OF ELEMENTARY AND HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS Years of Elementary High school All teachers age teachers teachers 19 4 4 20 30 "l 31 21 85 1 86 22 98 98 23 109 "l 110 24 103 8 111 25 81 8 89 26 88 19 107 27 75 12 87 28 106 13 119 29 85 15 100 30 76 15 91 31 79 16 95 32 61 17 78 33 48 16 64 34 60 18 78 35 74 15 89 36 66 19 85 37 41 9 50 38 60 8 68 39 63 13 76 40 58 15 73 41 42 7 49 42 42 5 47 43 44 12 56 44 35 4 39 45 42 12 54 46 32 7 39 47 27 10 37 48 38 6 44 49 18 8 26 50 15 6 21 51 9 3 12 52 21 6 27 53 13 7 20 54 8 4 12 55 8 6 14 56 9 4 13 57 9 3 12 58 5 2 7 59 2 2 60 8 "4 12 61 3 3 62 1 1 63 3 "l 4 64 1 1 65 2 2 66 1 1 67 1 1 68 1 1 69 1 1 70 1 1 Total 1,989 359 2,348 50 years of age, 30 are 20 years of age, 85 are 21 years of age, and so on; one 67 years of age, one 66 years of age, and two 65 years of age. The median age of the elementary teacher is 31 years, which means that half of the teachers are 31 years or older, or 31 years or less; one-fourth of the teachers are 39 years or older; one-fourth are 25 years or younger. The middle, 50 per cent, of the teachers are between 25 years and 39 years. Among the high school teachers one is 20, one 21, one 70, the median age being 36. One-fourth of the high school teachers are 45 years or older; one-fourth are 30 years or younger; the middle 50 per cent of the high school teachers are between the ages of 30 and 45 years. The age distribution of the Cleveland teachers is about the same as that of the teachers in New York City. The difference in the median age of high school and elementary teachers is no doubt due to the difference in the amount of training of these two classes of teachers. AGES OF PRINCIPALS Table 14 shows the ages of elementary princi- pals. This table becomes clear when read as follows : One elementary principal is 32 years of age, one 36, one 38, one 73, one 74. Of the 94 principals 51 listed, half are 52 years of age or older; one- fourth are 57 years or older; one-fourth are 47 years or younger. The middle 50 per cent of these principals are between the ages of 47 and 57 years. TABLE 14. AGES OF ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS Years Number of of age principals 32 1 36 1 38 1 39 1 40 1 42 1 43 4 44 4 45 2 46 4 47 4 48 4 49 4 60 6 51 7 52 2 53 6 54 7 55 3 56 4 57 4 58 6 59 3 60 3 62 1 64 3 66 1 68 2 69 2 73 1 74 1 Total 94 52 In many instances there is a striking contrast between the professional attitude of the prin- cipals who are 50 years of age or younger and that of the principals who are 50 years of age or older. In other words, there is a deep educa- tional significance in the fact that one-fourth of the elementary principals are 57 years old or older. EDUCATION OF ELEMENTARY AND HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS It has become the universal practice of America to set up certain arbitrary educational qualifi- cations for the position of teachers. These quali- fications are checked either by examination or by reports on teaching. Diagram 4. Professional training of elementary teachers in Cleveland 53 Table 15 shows a distribution of the various types of schooling for the different classes of teachers. No reports came from some teachers. This table becomes clear when read as follows : Of those reporting, 1,435 of the elementary teach- ers have had elementary, high, and normal school training; 71 have had elementary school, high school,and college training ; 159 have had element- ary and high school training only. Among the high school teachers, 25 have had elementary, high, and normal school training only; 208 have had elementary, high, and college training only. TABLE 15. GENERAL AND PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION OF ELEMENTARY AND HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS Elemen- High Education tary school All teachers teachers teachers Elementary, high, and normal 1,435 25 1,460 Elementary, high, and college 71 208 279 Elementary and high 159 14 173 Elementary, high, normal, and college 63 63 126 Elementary, high, normal, and part of college 71 7 78 Elementary, high, and part of college 64 13 77 Elementary, high, and part of normal 33 2 35 Elementary and part of high 22 5 27 Elementary only 10 12 22 Elementary, high, part of college, part of normal 17 1 18 Elementary and normal 12 2 14 Elementary, part of high, and part of normal 11 1 12 Elementary, high, college, and part of normal 5 5 10 Elementary, normal, and part of high 8 1 9 Elementary and part of normal 5 5 Normal only 3 3 Total 1,989 359 2,348 54 It may be seen that there are 71 teachers in the elementary schools who have not completed a high school course, and 326 who have had no normal school training; 21 of the high school teachers have not completed a high school course. Eighty-three, or almost one-fourth, of the high school teachers are not graduates of colleges and thus do not come up to the cus- tomary standard of college graduation. HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS College graduate* 78 par cent Diagram 5. College education of high school teachers in Cleveland EDUCATIONAL AND PROFESSIONAL PREPARATION OF ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS Table 16 shows the educational and professional preparation of elementary principals. This table should be read as follows : 63 of the elementary principals have completed the work 55 TABLE 16. EDUCATIONAL AND PROFESSIONAL PREPARA- TION OF ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS Education Number Elementary, high, and normal Elementary and high Elementary and part of high Elementary, high, and college Elementary and normal Elementary, high, normal, and part of college Elementary, high, and part of normal Elementary, high, part of normal, and part of college Elementary, part of high, and normal Elementary, high, and part of college No school 63 14 4 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 Total 94 in the elementary, high, and normal school; 14 in the elementary and high school; and so on. Only three are college graduates; eight have not completed a high school course; 26 have not completed a normal course. ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS Normal graduates 73 per cent Diagram 6. Professional training of elementary principals in Cleveland 56 TEACHERS TRAINED IN CLEVELAND In view of the recent investigations which have been made by the United States Commissioner of Education concerning the selection of teachers trained in the local schools, it is important to know the extent of that practice in Cleveland. Of the 1,989 elementary school teachers, 1,650 or 83 per cent, have received all of then 1 educa- tion, except summer school work, in Cleveland. Of the 359 high school teachers, 126, or 35 per cent have received all then* education, except summer school work, in Cleveland; of the 94 elementary principals, 79, or 84 per cent, have received all of their education, except summer school work, in Cleveland. Of the 1,989 ele- mentary school teachers, 1,509 have taught only in Cleveland; of the 359 high school teachers, 108 have taught only in Cleveland; of the 94 elementary principals, 73 have taught only in Cleveland. It is clear from these facts that the majority of the force in the elementary schools of Cleveland have been educated in Cleveland and have done all their work in Cleveland. The policy of employing such a large percent- age of principals and teachers whose training and experience have been confined to the home school is clearly condemned in many cities. Mr. Dixon, in his recommendation concerning Bridgeport's schools, writes: " There can be no 57 ELEMENTARY TEACHERS Home trained 83 per cent ELEMEKTARY PRINCIPALS Homo trained 8U per cent Diagram 7. Per cent of elementary teachers, high school teachers, and elementary principals in Cleveland who are home trained and not home trained 58 greater misfortune to any school system than to have a steady inbreeding of home talent. The Board of Education should insist upon the selec- tion of at least one-third of the new teachers each year from outside of the city limits." The Superintendent of Schools of Newark writes: "I have always regarded the rule adopted by the Board many years ago that preference of ap- pointment, whatever the relative excellence of candidates, must be given to local graduates, is not in the interest of the school system. I am trying to make this as plain as I can, unpopular though it may be in some quarters, because I feel that the children in Newark deserve the best teachers that can be got for the salaries paid, utterly regardless of their nativity or place of abode, or the particular normal school wherein they have been educated. Education in the United States has made its greatest strides when the free interchange of teachers has been en- couraged by the liberal and enlightened policy on the part of the Board of Education. Inbreed- ing to use the term derived from biology has been and is both the bane and blight of many school systems of this country." Superintendent Phillips of Birmingham writes in his annual report: "It is imperative that not more than one-third of the new teachers elected 59 each year should be selected from girls of the local training school." By a Board ruling in Pittsburgh not more than 60 per cent of the teachers can be drawn from the local training school. According to the United States Educational Bulletin No. 47, 1914, "Akron does not fill more than one- third of the vacancies of the school from the city, and Har- risburg secures half its teachers from elsewhere." Professor Cubberly of Leland Stanford Jr. Uni- versity says: "It is an almost necessary part of a teacher's preparation to go away from home for at least a part of her training, to come in contact with other schools and other methods of work, and to learn to think for herself by rubbing up against a difference in opinions of other people." EXCEPTIONAL CASES It would be interesting to know the basis of the employment of certain teachers in Cleveland. For example, case No. 20 has had four years' elementary education, one of high school, and began teaching in Cleveland last year at the age of 45 after 23 years' experience. Case No. 21 began teaching in Cleveland at the age of 46 after four years' experience elsewhere. Case No. 22 went seven years to elementary school, one to normal school, not graduating from 60 either, and entered the Cleveland schools at the age of 35 after four years' experience else- where. Case No. 23, a high school graduate, began work in Cleveland one year ago at the age of 45, after four years' experience in the rural schools. Case No. 24, a high school graduate, began teaching in Cleveland at the age of 52, after 17 years' experience elsewhere. Case No. 25 attended normal one year and college two years without graduating from either; began teaching in Cleveland six years ago at the age of 62 after 14 years' experience elsewhere. Case No. 72 attended elementary school six years, began teaching in Cleveland five years ago at the age of 37 after 10 years' experience elsewhere. It does not necessarily follow that the appoint- ment of such teachers as those above mentioned is unwise. However, in view of the necessity to safeguard the education of the children and the funds of the public, it is imperative that every appointment of the teaching force be scrutinized on the basis of whether or not the appointee is up to the standard required for the city. The employment of a staff as large as the one in Cleveland makes it necessary that a somewhat rigid standard of entrance be enforced in order to minimize the danger of abuses in one way or another. 61 THE PENSION FUND AND TEACHERS WHO ENTER LATE There is another reason why the school system should exercise great care in bringing into the force teachers who are no longer young. This is the serious effect which the employment of such teachers will have on the future of the pension fund. Figures for 10 recent appointments of teachers from outside of Cleveland show that their average age is 43 and that they have had an average teaching experience of 16 years. With respect to the future of the pension fund, there is a great difference between the employment of such a teacher and bringing into the force a teacher who has recently graduated from a nor- mal school and had a year or two of teaching experience. Some idea of the quantities involved may be gained from . a study of the actuarial tables pre- sented in the report of the Teachers' Retire- ment Fund of New York City published in 1915. A comparison of age and experience figures for the teaching forces of Cleveland and New York shows that the lower quartile, the median, and the upper quartile for the distribution showing the ages of the Cleveland teachers exactly cor- respond with the similar figures for those of the teaching forces of New York City. Similarly, the corresponding figures of the distribution 62 showing the teaching experience of the teachers here correspond with those showing the teaching experience in New York City. Hence we may feel fairly safe in using the New York actuarial tables in making a prediction concerning the teaching force in this city. On this basis we may study the probabilities concerning the teachers who enter the Cleveland force at about the age of 21 as compared with those of teachers brought in at about the age of 43. Such a comparison shows that only about one- third of the teachers entering at the younger age will remain in the teaching profession long enough to qualify for a pension. On the other hand eight out of nine of those who come in at the age of 43 will complete their term of service and will be eligible for pension benefits. Taking into account the payments to the fund made by all of the teachers entering at the different ages, the refunds made to those who resign, the proportion of survivors who become eligible for pensions, and the expectancy of life after beginning to participate in the pension benefits, a careful computation shows that the risk involved by the pension fund for teachers employed at the age of 21 amounts to about $130 for each year of teaching service actually rendered, while the corresponding risk for teachers employed at the age of 43 amounts to 63 64 about $330 for each year of teaching service actually rendered. The salaries paid to teachers are really of two sorts, present salary paid from month to month while the teacher is in active service, and de- ferred salary which is paid as pension benefits. In the case of the teachers brought in from out- side at the age of 43, the probabilities are that the deferred salary will be so large in aggregate amount that each year of teaching service ren- dered will cost the city $200 more than it would if the teachers were about 20 years younger. The Board would surely deem it a great hard- ship if it were now forced to pay these outside teachers with their meager qualifications $200 per annum more than the standard salaries paid to graduates of the local Normal School. Never- theless this is what it is actually doing and re- ceiving no adequate benefit for its heavy invest- ment. For this reason, as well as from considera- tions of the welfare of the children, every en- deavor should be made to insist on high qual- ifications and relative youth as requisites for admitting new members to the teaching force. MARRIED TEACHERS Article K of Section VI, page 18, of the 1915 rules governing the Board of Education reads : 5 65 "Marriage of a teacher shall be considered the equivalent of the resignation of her position." Thus, a teacher who marries in the Cleveland school is required to resign immediately. In most cases, however, she is reappointed at once as a substitute teacher. She does her work as before with a slight reduction of salary. So far as her position in the school is concerned, she bears in effect no different relation after marriage than before. However, under the pro- visions of the substitute appointment, she can be dropped any day. There are at least 250 such appointments in the city of Cleveland at the present time. There are also some teachers who do not wish steady employment and so remain on the substitute list indefinitely in order that they may have an opportunity to go back into the service of the schools in case they should ever desire to do so. They arrange to teach a few days each year in order to keep their certifi- cates valid. It is reported in Bulletin 47, 1914, of the United States Bureau of Education that, "Of the cities having more than 100,000 population, 10 seem to place no limitation upon married teachers. These are Chicago, Newark, Los Angeles, Minneapolis, Indianapolis, Denver, Toledo, Oakland, New Haven, and Grand Rapids. In most of the others marriage is equi- 66 valent to resignation." Milwaukee reports occasional exceptions. Washington has a few "married teachers." In Columbus the appoint- ment requires a two-thirds vote of the School Board. Citizens of Cleveland are concerned with the efficiency of the schools, rather than with the question as to whether or not the teachers are married. However, if the conditions under which married teachers are employed are such as to discourage professional growth, it becomes a matter of public concern. In the opinion of the writer the policy of employing a large num- ber of married teachers on such a basis as in- dicated above is questionable. With a contract which can be terminated any day, there is small likelihood that the teacher will be ag- gressive in the matter of preparing for a larger professional usefulness in the school system by means of professional reading, attendance at summer sessions, and the like. Surely the Cleve- land schools have more to gain either by refus- ing to employ married teachers or by employ- ing them without discrimination, thus giving them the same incentive for superior service and improvement as that given to any other teacher. 67 TRAINING IN SERVICE The Board of Education has a rule concerning professional study which reads: "All teachers will be diligent students of the science and art of education through the use of the pedagogical, as well as other departments of the public li- brary and the standard periodicals of the day. All opportunities for special or general culture which are within their reach and means should be employed for the furtherance of this end." While this is an excellent statement of the ideal to be developed among the Cleveland teachers, there are no data available to indicate the extent of this type of professional work. While it is true that something has been done in connection with the organization of "ex- tension" courses from the neighboring state normal training school and the near-by colleges, yet the city school administration apparently has not aggressively fostered the development of this sort of thing in recent years. A good example is seen in St. Louis where the Board of Education organized this work along very definite lines. While the work has not been compulsory, the Board of Education has made provision for the work and advertised it in order that the teachers might understand the conditions under which this work might be done. Within recent years more than two-thirds 68 of the grade teachers who are not graduates of the teachers' college, and almost half of those who are, and more than half of the elementary principals, took one or more courses in the ex- tension work offered by the training school. Each course consisted of 24 definite lessons. In 1913-14 more than 60 principals and super- visors and more than 550 elementary teachers took work. These courses were given almost entirely by the members of the teaching force in the training schools. Attractive offerings were made to the teachers as indicated by the fact that 37 courses were offered in 1914. Special courses for scientific investigation of problems of supervisors have been maintained for years on Saturday mornings in St. Louis. In view of the fact that the teachers in Cleve- land have been so largely trained at home, have had so much of their experience at home, and are relatively mature, it would seem highly ad- visable that the Board of Education follow up their suggestion of professional study by a defi- nite organization adequately financed, whereby teachers might be stimulated to a continuation of professional growth by means of extension courses. The presence of a large number of well- trained men and women instructors in the nor- mal school, colleges, and near-by state normal school and the strong colleges and universities 69 within the city makes it easily possible for the rapid development of strong extension courses. SUMMER SCHOOLS Within recent years the number of teachers at- tending summer schools throughout the coun- try has increased enormously. Summer schools have been the mecca for thousands of teachers who have eagerly sought the inspiration afforded by this educational agency. The enthusiasm brought back from these summer schools has resulted in many instances in a genuine educa- tional awakening within the cities. Indeed, some boards of education have gone as far as to pro- pose an increase in salary almost sufficient to bear the added cost of attendance at these insti- tutions. Almost three-fourths of the elementary teachers of Cleveland have never attended a summer school; almost two-thirds of the ele- mentary principals have never attended a sum- mer school. The percentage is somewhat higher for the high school teachers, almost half of whom have attended at least one summer school. The Boards of Education of Chicago and St. Louis have sought to develop strong summer classes for all teachers. The teachers of New York and San Francisco find it easy to take work in strong educational institutions supported either by endowment or by the state. 70 It would seem worth while for the city of Cleveland to cooperate with other educational agencies nearby with the view of developing a strong and attractive summer course for teach- ers. While it is true that the teachers who have had all their experience and schooling in Cleve- land might be profited more by going to a sum- mer school outside of Cleveland, yet there are many teachers who would find a summer session in Cleveland a valuable means of increasing professional equipment. TEACHERS' MEETINGS Section 10 of the 1915 rules governing the Board of Education reads: " General meetings: teachers' meetings and grade meetings may be called by the superintendent or assistant super- intendents from time to time as conditions of the school and work may necessitate. Meetings of the teachers in a school may be called by the principal when needed. Meetings for instruction by the supervisor may be held at such times as may be deemed advisable by the superintendent. Teachers will attend all meetings to which they are called. Absence or tardiness will be reported and no excuse will be accepted in such case save as would justify absence from the school session." 71 Here we have a general formulation of the policy so far as teachers' meetings are concerned. However, it is a fact that the teachers of Cleve- land have had relatively few meetings. Indeed, neither general, district, nor special meetings have been common during recent years. Only one general meeting has been held during the present administration. District teachers' meet- ings, bringing together all the teachers, are rare. There are few if any meetings calculated to bring together all the teachers of a given sub- ject, say of Latin or English, as is the case in Cincinnati. Building meetings are common in the larger buildings, although some of the smaller buildings have no such meetings. Grade and department meetings in each district are held from time to time. Teachers are not permitted to dismiss early in order that they may have an opportunity to attend these meetings. The general feeling among the teachers and principals seems to be that these meetings are a benefit but that they are also a burden, so much so, indeed, that there is a noticeable degree of hesitation about calling such meetings. Here again the Board authorizes such meet- ings but does not provide definite facilities for the sake of their encouragement. If these meet- ings are a factor in the improvement of the 72 Cleveland schools, conditions should be so ad- justed that the administrative officers will not hesitate to call them. If there is a real grievance in regard to these meetings, that is to say, if the teachers are not adequately paid, they should be paid for attending these meetings, either on the plans adopted in some cities by early dismissal on certain days of the week, or by payment of one day extra each month, as is the case in Indiana, where teachers receive pay for 21 days each month and are required to attend meetings one extra day each month. On the other hand, the teachers have no right to assume an attitude of self-pity in regard to at- tendance at these meetings . Other cities through- out the country place a clear value upon such meetings. In the commercial and industrial world job- bing houses and manufacturing organizations, at stated times, call their sales force, their branch managers and others together in order that they may get a vision of their larger rela- tionships. Surely there is a decided value in having the teachers of Cleveland brought to- gether from time to time for purposes of organ- ization, to say nothing of the value of having frequent meetings for instruction and organiza- tion in smaller instructional groups. 73 OTHER MEANS OF TRAINING TEACHERS IN SERVICE The regulations of the Board permit teachers to visit for one day each year other schools of the city in order to observe modes of instruction and discipline. "The superintendent may ex- tend the privilege of teachers to visit other school systems for one or more days each year." In this connection it is of value to know what some of the other cities are doing. For example, in Minneapolis recently six principals and an eighth grade teacher were sent out by the school authorities to visit and report upon the schools of New York, Omaha, St. Louis, Kansas City, Boston, Newtonville, and Springfield. Accord- ing to the report made in Bulletin No. 47, United States Bureau of Education, 1914, the superintendent of schools of Minneapolis valued this work highly. Indianapolis has done more than most other cities in this connection, however. Many years ago a foundation fund was established through the munificence of Mr. Thomas D. Gregg. According to the provision of this bequest there was a "perpetual fund for the advancement and promotion of free schools in said city." Since the fund became available the money has been used chiefly in giving teachers special training in various institutions. Between 150 and 200 74 teachers have received its benefits. Many have attended summer schools; some have received half year scholarships at various universities; others have studied in Europe. A part of the income has been used recently to pay for lect- ures given for the teachers. The experience of Indianapolis in this connection is such as to challenge public spirited citizens in other cities. Such a fund would serve as a Godsend to the Cleveland schools. PROMOTIONS Reference to the Board rules in respect to the classification of teachers on the basis of salary reveals the fact that a teacher may be advanced from one class to another with a fixed number of years of experience and the approval of the Board of Education after the recommendation of the school superintendent. Thus, in effect the school superintendent is responsible for the pro- motion of teachers from one salary classifica- tion to another. As a basis of judgment the superintendent requires the principal and sup- ervisor to report on the qualifications of the teachers. This report involves an estimate of teaching ability, executive power, personal in- fluence, professional sincerity, general culture, and evidence of professional growth. 75 The principal and supervisor are required to fill out answers to the questions indicated on the form reproduced on the following pages. promotion of Ceacfjcrs Office of tt>e Smperintenbent of &eboot# CletorlanD, Ohio To THE PRINCIPAL: Please answer the questions below concerning: . Grade Present Salary School, and return this blank to the Superintendent's Office. Date blank sent 19 Answer received 19 Length of service, total Length of service in your school Please make the answers straightforward and unequivocal. (The principal will show this promotion sheet to teachers, individually, before it is filled out) J. M. H. FREDERICK, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS REPORT UPON PROMOTION OF TEACHERS Teaching Power a. Does she apply thought and method to the preparation of her daily work? b. Is she definite in her instruction? Thoughtful? c. Does she develop power in her pupils? . d. What kind of results does she obtain? . 76 2 Executive Power a. Is she successful in discipline?. b. Does she secure a responsive working spirit in her school? c. Are her relations with the principal's office satisfactory in matters of reports, care of property, discipline of pupils, etc.? d. What are her relations with the patrons of the school? e. What are her strong points?. f. What are her weak points? _ 3 Personal Influence a. Does she inspire her pupils and develop in them en- thusiasm for work? b. Does she inspire her pupils to independence in work? c. Does she influence her pupils for good beyond the time they are in her presence? d. Are her relations with other teachers in the building wholesome? e. Is her work interfered with by outside pleasures or duties or the state of her health? 4 Professional Sincerity a. Is she sincere and earnest in her work? b. Does she measure thoughtfully the outcome of her practice? c. What is her attitude toward the large interests of her profession? d. Is she frank and candid in her dealings with pupils? e. In what spirit does she receive the suggestions of the principal and supervisors? Does she regard them as personal or professional?. 77 5 General Culture a. Are her scholarship and general information accurate and adequate? b. Are her manner, control of voice and use of English satisfactory? c. Is she alert, progressive and open minded to new ideas? d. What are her special interests? e. Has the teacher's work or personality been sufficiently faulty to require serious criticism? Have you made such criticism? How often? With what effect? PRINCIPAL Date 19 Leave this space for the Superintendent. a. Promoted to Class, ACTION d. Not Promoted. Remains in Class, c. When the Teacher was notified PROFESSIONAL GROWTH Please record below any of the following or other means of growth that the teacher has utilized during the past four school years, noting those that have been especially helpful: Travel, summer classes, extension classes, lectures, concerts, special studies in literature, history, music or art. Teacher 78 REPORTS OF PROFESSIONAL GROWTH Under the head of Professional Growth all sorts of evidences are submitted. The following are typical: "Two trips up the lake." "A trip through lower Canada and New York." "Have attended several travelogues and heard several lectures." "Have heard a number of grand operas and have taken a course of piano lessons." "Have read the current magazines and several of the books of Dickens, Thackeray, Eliot, etc." "Have heard Madame Schuman-Heink, Sem- brich, and Tetrazzini." "Have heard the violinist Kubelik and I have also attended symphony and harmony concerts." Another report: "I attended the National Education Association at Boston in 1911 and at that tune traveled through the northeast states and southeastern Canada." While it is true that professional study by teachers is encouraged and urged in a board rule and is taken into account, nevertheless it is not made a requisite of promotion. As a matter of fact an analysis of the evidence of professional growth submitted in the reports for promotions indicates that on the whole relatively little emphasis has been placed upon it. This is in 79 rather sharp contrast to the practice in St. Louis, Chicago, and in many other cities. Although teachers are not promoted on the salary list as soon as and just because they have served the time in each class on the salary sched- ule, yet it is a fact that relatively few teachers fail of promotion at the expiration of the time limit. In 1914, only 20 failed of promotion. In 1915, 31 failed of promotion. Perhaps there is justification for making pro- motion easy with the present low salary sched- ule. It may be that there is justification for the statement made by one of the principals, that all teachers are recommended for promotion on account of the fact that the salaries were so ab- surdly low. However, in the long run, it should be said that Cleveland cannot hope to have the best possible teaching force until adequate salaries are paid and an adequate system of pro- motion based on evidence of growth in pro- fessional ability is established. The present system is not calculated to enable the school officials sharply to draw the line between ordin- ary and extraordinary ability. PROMOTIONS FOB MERIT AND SERVICE The following quotation from Dr. E. P. Cubber- ley well expresses the reasons why promotion should be based on merit as well as on service. 80 "In any line of work the intensity of the de- sire for personal improvement is in direct pro- portion to the stimulus it receives. A physician, a lawyer, or an engineer who lacks in professional knowledge finds himself unable to undertake important cases, and increases his professional equipment in order that he may do better work and command larger pay. These professions, being on a competitive basis, what a man can earn in them depends upon what he can con- vince others that he is worth. Teaching, on the other hand, is virtually a state monopoly, into which competitive conditions enter but slightly. All begin at about the same level, often all are advanced in pay at about the same rate, and usually all reach the maximum salary very early in their teaching career. "A teacher is no exception to the rule that most people do their best work under a constant stimulus to professional activity. This stimulus, too, needs to be kept up for a rather long period of time, until the habit of keeping professionally active has been well established. A salary schedule, based only in part on years of service, and with additional rewards for growth and effi- ciency after the common maximum has been reached, offers one of the best means for pro- viding the proper stimulus for further profes- sional growth." THE NORMAL TRAINING SCHOOL The Normal Training School was established in 1874. At the outset provision was made for 6 81 about 200 students. There has been little change so far as provisions for growth are concerned since that time. For many years there have been 10 teachers and a principal on the regular staff of the school. From time to time changes have been made in the equipment and organiza- tion. At present it may be said that the Normal Training School is one of the best equipped city training schools in the country. An Observation School employing 11 regular teachers is main- tained in connection with the Normal Training School. In addition to the Observation School there are additional facilities for practice and observation in two other elementary schools in the city. The combined teaching staff of these schools is about 50. Each principal receives $200 extra annually. The teachers each receive $100 extra. Thus it may be seen that there are about 70 different teachers employed to work more or less directly in connection with the task of train- ing additional teachers for Cleveland schools. For the past few years they have been furnish- ing about 100 new teachers each year. In view of the fact that there are now more than 200 vacancies annually, it is possible that the fa- cilities of the Normal Training School should be extended so as to accommodate a larger number of students. However, it is by no means certain that over 200 new teachers will be required each 82 year in Cleveland for any length of time; neither is it desirable that all the new teachers be trained in Cleveland. An expansion of the training school facilities should be made only after a most careful analysis of conditions. The opportunity to attend the Normal Train- ing School has been somewhat carefully guarded as is shown from the fact that students who come into it from the high school on certificate of the principal must have a general average of 85 per cent at least. "All applicants whose general average for the course in the high school, as certified by the principal thereof, is below 85 per cent, may be admitted to the Normal School on their successfully passing examinations con- ducted by the faculty of the Normal School in the following subjects of (the passing mark in each subject being 75 per cent) reading, writing, spelling, arithmetic, grammar, English composi- tion, elementary geography, United States his- tory, United States constitution, ... As many of these students in ranking order, be- ginning with the highest, may be admitted to the Normal School as shall have been determined by the Superintendent of Instruction, to be neces- sary to meet the demands of the public schools." The girls in attendance are practically all from the academic high schools. Apparently most of them are of American stock. At the 83 present time the Normal Training School is re- ceiving practically all girls who care to enter and who have the required grade of 85 per cent. There are seemingly very few instances in which a student is advised not to take the work. The course of study in the training school covers a period of two years, and includes the ordinary subject matter of city training schools reviews of elementary subjects, history, phi- losophy, the principles of education, the theory of teaching, school management, methods of instruction and discipline, observation and practice in the schools. At the present time pro- visions for training are as follows: Each girl spends three months in observation, one week in each grade and kindergarten, and three weeks in the grade which she likes best. This is fol- lowed by three months of practice in the grade that she has selected as the one best suited to her individual capacity. The head of the Normal Training School is attempting to coordinate its activities with those of the two city training schools and the Observation School. Last year three general meetings of all the teachers and 12 department or grade meetings were held. A reading circle was organized within this group. Notwithstanding the fact that this Normal Training School has been established for 40 84 years, records do not seem to be available show- ing the length of time the typical Normal School graduate remains in teaching. No records are available as to the number who fail or of the number who marry. Indeed, it is most difficult to get an accurate idea of the expectancy, so far as service is concerned, of this group of 100 teachers turned out by the Normal Training School each year. However, the present ad- ministration of the Normal School is to be com- mended on the fact that an attempt is being made to follow up the work of its graduates during their first year of service in the public schools in order to get a check on the effective- ness of the work of training. The members of the regular staff of the Normal Training School are beginning to spend some time in this follow- up work and the elementary principals are ap- parently very appreciative of this activity. LARGER OPPORTUNITIES FOR THE NORMAL TRAINING SCHOOL In the absence of adequate records, it is impos- sible to say with any degree of reliability what Cleveland gets out of her training school other than the fact that it is securing in round num- bers 100 new teachers each year who go on the probationary list at a salary of $500 annually 85 which will be increased to $550 after next Sep- tember. The answer to the question, "What becomes of these teachers after this first year?" is not clear. However, even if all of this number stayed in the schools, it would take a generation or more to remake the teaching force by this means. If there are any new conceptions of education which the teachers of the children of the Cleve- land schools need to know, it is not sufficient that Cleveland rest its case on the training of 100 new teachers a year. Rather than this it should inaugurate a system of training teachers in service through extension courses, study centers, reading circles, and summer schools. Chicago, St. Louis, and Cincinnati are making such attempts to stimulate teachers who are actually engaged in service. It is especially noteworthy that there is little evidence of any attempt to train the principals, either before appointment or after, by means of courses in supervision and organization. In view of the fact that the typical elementary principal is more than 50 years of age and has had more than 30 years' experience, it is rea- sonable to expect that these members of the staff would be able to profit enormously from a well directed plan of extension study of the modern points of view in connection with super- 86 vision and organization. St. Louis and Cincin- nati are doing effective work of this kind. It should be said in this connection that the present head of the Normal Training School is attempt- ing a move in this direction. During the past summer, through the cooperation of the staff of Western Reserve University, an attractive summer session program was offered. Almost 10 per cent of the elementary teachers of Cleve- land were enrolled. This whole movement is surely worthy of development. HEALTH OP TEACHERS The candidates for entrance to the Normal Training School are required to furnish a health certificate from a medical inspector. The Board of Education has the following rule concerning applicants for a position as teacher: Section L "The superintendent of instruction may require of an applicant for a position as teacher a cer- tificate from an accredited physician that he or she is physically qualified to perform efficiently the duties of a teacher in the Cleveland public schools. If, when required, such a certificate is not furnished, the applicant shall be con- sidered ineligible for appointment." In connec- tion with vaccination the following rule is found in the regulations: "A teacher or pupil shall 87 not attend a public school without furnishing a certificate from the health officer or some re- putable physician, approved by the health officer, that he or she has been successfully vac- cinated within the last five years or otherwise protected from smallpox." Provision, however, is made for exceptions to this rule and so far as the evidence is available there has been con- siderable latitude in the enforcement of these provisions. The Board has made definite provisions for absence on sick leave as indicated by the follow- ing quotation from the Board rule: " Section I Appointees of the Superintendent of Instruc- tion shall receive pay for such time as they shall be absent from duty on account of personal ill- ness or quarantine for a period not exceeding ten (10) days in any school year." Teachers are not strikingly different from other people in the matter of health. They are subject to the ordinary infirmities of life so that no one need be surprised to find instances of physical infirmity. There are a few teachers who are apparently close to the borderline of physi- cal exhaustion; a very few who show symptoms of deafness, lameness, and other evidences of physical defect. It is important to note that the number of absences on sick leave in Cleveland is very high. 88 It is reported from the general office that one day last year there were 120 teachers out on sick leave. These figures are very much higher than the figures reported for St. Louis. For ex- ample, in Bulletin No. 47, United States Bureau of Education, it is reported that the average number of daily calls for substitutes in the St. Louis schools varied from six near the close of school to 10 and 11 during the winter. The high- est number of calls any one day was 43. In view of the similarity in size of these two cities it is surprising to find this striking difference in teachers' absences. It should be said in this con- nection, however, that there are a few teachers who apparently take advantage of each day al- lowed for sick leave. The records in the general office seem to indicate that some teachers have taken the days " off " as students in college some- times take "cuts" in class, feeling that they are entitled to so many days off. The average number of absences in the teach- ing force on account of illness in Cleveland now amounts to about 80 absent for one session each day. Since a majority are absent for both ses- sions of the day, this means that more than 40 individuals are out on account of sickness every school day, on the average. These figures apply only to those who receive pay although absent and the real figures are largely in excess of those 89 given, for many are absent without pay and many exceed the 10 days of absence allowed and paid for. Since the Board of Education pays 222 10.0 days 182 Diagram 9. Number of teachers receiving pay for each amount of absence from one-half day to 10 days in Cleveland in 1913-14 90 not only the salary of the absent teacher but also that of the substitute as well, the cost of these absences is large, amounting to over $200 a day and to about $40,000 per year for services which the school system pays for but does not receive. For some reason there seems to be a disposi- tion to be very sensitive to the necessity of lightening the labors of the teacher. In talking with a large number of teachers and principals, one hears constant reiteration concerning the long day and the hard work. Many of the prin- cipals seem to feel that teachers need a rest in summer, on Saturdays, and all evenings. Whether rightly or not, one gets the impres- sion in visiting the new technical night schools that he is in contact with a younger, more ag- gressive, more vigorous set of teachers. This may be due to the fact that these teachers work under a higher pressure, longer day, closer supervision, higher salary. Strange as it may seem, they are required to punch a time clock as evidence of their time spent in school. Whatever the causes of the frequent absences on account of illness may be, it is clear that Cleveland cannot afford to have a tired set of teachers at work with the younger children. It is not fair to the Cleveland of tomorrow that the children be taught by teachers who are at 91 the breaking point of fatigue or illness. The aggressive, wide-awake, and happy teacher is as important in the training of children to read, to write, and to cipher as is this type of indi- vidual in successfully serving the interests of the merchant, the banker, or the manufacturer. It may be that the teaching force is not rigor- ously enough selected for the qualities of physi- cal vigor. It may be that the length of day re- quired is too long or that working conditions are too strenuous, or that the fatigue of the weak infects the others, but there can surely be no doubt of the fact that the children of Cleveland deserve to be taught by people who are up to the top-notch of personal efficiency. Pressures should not be such as to make a superintendent or a principal hesitate to ask the teachers to come together for the purposes of organization or professional advancement. A decade of that type of administration would surely mean less than normal progress on the part of the schools. The pension fund, established for the purpose of making it possible for teachers to retire who are advanced in age or physically weak, is a step in the right direction, but owing to the fact that these stipends are so low, both the administrative officers of the school and the teachers postpone retirement to the last minute. 92 In this postponement it may easily happen that a teacher is in service for a considerable time after her service has ceased to be effective. We are all inclined to share this sympathetic atti- tude toward the teacher, but the 40 children who are assigned to her, in order that they may be taught long division, reading, spelling, geog- raphy, and all the rest, are entitled to even more sympathy. The children cannot help them- selves. They must stay in school. If the retire- ment fund in Cleveland is not sufficient to meet the situation, it should be increased. The citi- zen of Cleveland cannot afford to take the risk of having his child taught by a worn-out teacher. The problem of getting results with the thou- sands of children and the millions of dollars of public money expended challenges the city to meet the retirement situation adequately. Not only is an injustice done to the child, but the teacher herself, who is forced to drag out the years of infirmity in teaching because she cannot live on the retirement fund, is not to be envied. This whole situation is one to challenge the best judgment of the city. TEACHERS' CERTIFICATION In order to receive money from the tuition fund, it is necessary that a teacher be in possession of a valid certificate of fitness for teaching. 93 These certificates are issued by the state, by the county, and by the city. At the present time there seems to be a tendency for each teacher to hold a state certificate. A graduate from an approved normal school, teachers' college, college, or university, who has completed a full two years' academic and pro- fessional course in such institution and who also possesses a first grade high school diploma or its equivalent, shall, upon application to the super- intendent of public instruction and the payment of a fee of one dollar, be granted, without further examination, a provisional elementary certifi- cate, valid for four years, in any school district within the state. A graduate of a four year academic and pro- fessional course shall be granted a provisional high school certificate for four years on the same conditions as above. A graduate of a two years' special course shall be granted a special certifi- cate for four years on the same conditions as above. To these holders of provisional state certifi- cates there shall be issued by the state board of school examiners, without examination, a life certificate of similar kind, on the satisfactory evidence that the holder thereof has completed at least 24 months of successful teaching, after having received a provisional certificate. 94 The State Board of School Examiners shall issue, without examination, a state life high school certificate to the holder of a degree from an approved normal school, teachers' college, or university, upon satisfactory evidence that the holder thereof has completed at least 50 months of successful teaching. These certifi- cates, when properly countersigned, are valid in any school district in the state. The City Board of School Examiners consists of the city superintendent of schools and two competent teachers serving full time in the day schools of such city to be appointed by the city Board of Education for a term of two years. The City Board of School Examiners may grant teachers' certificates for one year and three years. These must be regarded as provisional certificates and shall be renewed only twice each. The five year and eight year certificates now in force shall be renewed by the State Superintendent on the payment of a fee of 50 cents. All two-year and three-year certificates may be renewed by the city examining board on proof of five years' successful teaching ex- perience. County and city boards of school examiners may, at their discretion, issue certificates, with- out formal examinations, to holders of certifi- cates granted by other city and county boards of 95 school examiners. In practice the local board recognizes the certificates granted by other cities and by Cuyahoga County, but scrutinizes closely certificates from other counties. In July, 1915, a distribution of certificates held by Cleveland teachers was as follows : City State Total Elementary 2,784 509 3,293 High 441 101 542 Special (elementary and high) 554 87 641 Total 3,779 697 4,476 As far as Cleveland is concerned, three classes of provisional certificates are issued: elemen- tary, high school, and special. Provisional cer- tificates are of two grades : first grade, valid for three years; second grade, valid for one year. In order to secure a first grade certificate, the applicant must make an average standing of 85 with no grade below 75 and have a successful experience record of three years. For the second grade provisional certificate the average stand- ing required is 80, with no grade below 75. This grade certificate is open to those who have had no experience. A provisional special certificate for the first grade requires a minimum standing of 85 and a successful experience of two years. The special certificate covers a specialty and the theory of that specialty. The following examination for 96 the special certificate in manual training was given on January 30, 1915: MANUAL TRAINING EXAMINATION, JANUARY 30, 1915 Theory 1. Give an economical equipment for a grammar grade manual training room. Name the tools you would provide for the individual pupil and a dozen or more of the most im- portant tools that might be used in common by several pupils. 2. Name books or articles you have read that deal with the theory or history of manual training. Woodwork 1. (a) How and why is a rip saw different from a cross-cut saw? What is a back saw? (b) Explain the purpose of the cap iron of a plane. 2. Describe very fully the steps you would take and the tools you would use in working a piece of rough wood to three finished di- mensions. Use assumed dimensions. 3. Illustrate a "miter" joint, a "housed or dado" joint, a "slip" joint, a common "dove tail" joint. 4. Draw a design for a shelf with back, shelf, and one support. Proportion about as follows: back square; shelf two to three in width to length and placed one-quarter dis- 7 97 tance from top to bottom of back; support in harmony. Use curves in outlines. 5. Draw a design which might appropri- ately be applied in color to a rectangular box cover. The following special branches are defined by law: "Music, drawing, painting, penmanship, gymnastics, German, French, Spanish, the commercial and industrial branches, or any one of them." Applicants for high school certificates are re- quired to take examinations in the following subjects: algebra, physics, physiology includ- ing narcotics, theory and practice of teaching, literature, general history, and four electives in the following group: Latin, German, rhetoric, civil government, geometry, physical geography, botany, and chemistry. The application blank is shown on page 99 and the form of certificate on page 100. The City Board of School Examiners has nothing to do with the selection of these sub- jects as they are determined by state law. How- ever, it may be readily seen that in view of the high degree of specialization in the large high schools, examination in these subjects is not a sufficient basis for the selection of teachers of special ability for special subjects. For example, would it not be better to examine the teacher 98 R 2 PS J } 1 LMINAT TTYATV/TTW 1 | tificate. .y s c- 111 * 7! as W* H ) O Q j : ; - * o .2 jca II RESULTS OF 1 1 tTf\ TJt? 17TT T T7T-4 T 1 1 5 4 S 1 Duration o P O Theory and Pract Literature General History . . Algebra Physics Physiology, includ ELECTIVES (C ^ :_ irfiijjii liijjjijiil! RIENCE (. 2 1 3 < > S S! S! I 2 S S s S S! S! Month 1 1 2 H March 1 1 I ^ r i U 3 w 1 a 5 u I w o &r ^t L 8 1 tf < o PQ e OQ tf H 55 i i H of English more rigidly in English, with less attention to physics, alegbra, and the like? As a matter of fact, since most of the high school teachers who get into the system are college graduates and have met the requirements as far as experience is concerned, they are permitted to teach the ordinary academic subjects, after taking examination in theory and practice. This examination is, as a rule, very easy. The secretary reports that no teachers ever fail on this examination. Teachers of special subjects, including German and the technical subjects listed above are usually required to pass a somewhat more rigid examination. On the whole it, should be said; tjiat the sys- tem of certification 'is ^o'.adtxiinistered as to serve as a vepyj^kior barrier to