AGRIC, DFPT, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY BULLETIN N.O. 71. II. \V. \VII.KY, CllIKK OF 151 KKA1. FRANCE, GERMANY, AND ENGLAND, COMMENTS AM) COMPARISONS OX AMERICAN WORK. 1 5V WILLIAM 15. ALWOOU, Ayt'nt of tin' I'. S. I ><'/>/! /ininil of A:>,. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY BULLETIN NO. 71. H. W. WILEY, CHIEF OF BUREAU. A STUDY OF CIDER MAKING FRANCE, GERMANY, AND ENGLAND, WITH COMMENTS AND COMPARISONS ON AMERICAN WORK. BY WILLIAM B. ALWOOD, *** Special Agent of the U. S. Department of Agriculture and Mycologiet of the Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1903. '''.' '***** 1 -JV %;*! >; " * '^* ; LETTER OE TRANSMITTAL U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY, Washington, D. C., July 15, 1902. SIR: I have the honor to transmit herewith, for your examination and approval, the manuscript of a bulletin prepared by Mr. William B. Alwood, special agent of the Department of Agriculture, on cider making in France, German} 7 , and England. I recommend that this manuscript be published as Bulletin No. 71 of the Bureau of Chemistry. Respectfully, H. W. WILEY, Chief. Hon. JAMES WILSON, Secretary of Agriculture. 3 363372 LETTER OF SUBMITTAL VIRGINIA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, Blacksburg, Va., June 23, SIR: In pursuance of a commission from the Secretary of Agricul- ture, dated September 13, 1900, appointing- me a special agent in the Division of Chemistry, and of j^our official instructions of the same date, I beg to submit the accompan}' ing report, comprising a partial study of the cider industry in Europe, which has been prepared for the -U. S. Department of Agriculture. The present paper comprises only a part of the work authorized by the commission issued to me, and carried on under conjoint direction. The aim has been to present a practical and popular treatment of the subject, so far as the time at my disposal permitted me to carry the inquiry. Necessarily this report must be fragmentary and incom- plete, as one person could not possibly cover the entire ground in a single season. From the complex nature of the work undertaken, it has seemed best to present two reports the present one dealing with the economic and practical data collected, and a second report dealing with the more technical study of methods of fermentation and related matters, such as a study of the organisms commonly found in apple juice, and the importance of the isolation, culture, and employment of pure yeasts in the manufacture of ciders and other fermented beverages made from fruit juices. A discussion of the organisms causing mal-fermen- tations will also be attempted. Veiy respectfully submitted. WM. B. ALWOOD, Special Agent. Dr. H. W. WILEY, Chief, Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 4 PREFACE. The manufacture of cider is an important adjunct to fruit growing in the United States. A well-made cider is a beverage which is appre- ciated by all and one which is within the reach of every possessor of an orchard. Cider is also a beverage which may be manufactured without the supervision of the excise officials. It is thus an industry which can be widely extended and whose development will make the growing of fruits more profitable. It is evident that the principles which underlie the conduct of the fermentation of apple juice in order to secure a product of a definite chemical composition also apply to the juices of other fruits, such as pears and peaches, and thus a bulletin of this description affects, in general, the fruit interests of the country wherever the juices of fruits are employed for potable purposes. Up to the present time the manufacture of cider in the United States has been conducted largely by empirical methods. Little has been done toward the study of the chemical composition of the fruits, the fresh juices, the fermenting musts, or the finished products. What is true of wines is also true of ciders and other fermented fruit juices, viz, that their excellence and healthfulness are dependent entirely upon their chemical composition. The changes which take place in fruit juices during fermentation are essentially chemical, and are produced by ferments, which in these instances may be regarded as chemical reagents. In order that the manufacture of cider may be conducted in a more systematic and scientific manner in this country, it was deemed desir- able to study the best processes employed in foreign countries, espe- cially in England, France, and Germany, which are the principal cider- producing countries of the world. To this end, Mr. William B. Alwood was employed by the Secretary of Agriculture as a special agent to act under the direction of the Chief of the Bureau of Chemistry, and was detailed to study the actual processes of manufacture in the coun- tries named, as well as to conduct extensive experiments here. Mr. Alwood, in addition to collecting valuable information of a practical nature, has also brought together the scattered chemical data found in difficultly accessible reports and papers, so as to make them available for use. 6 It is evident that a careful study of the data thus collected will be of great service to our own manufacturers in showing them the methods which experience and scientific studies in foreign countries have deter- mined to be the best for the production of a wholesome and palatable article. This bulletin serves as an introduction to a more detailed study of the best methods of fermentation, cellar treatment, and preservation of cider products, together with a more detailed chemical study of the fruits, the musts, and the finished beverages. H. W. WILEY, Chief of Bureau. CONTENTS. Page. Introduction 11 Beginning of this investigation 11 Quantity of apples produced in the United States 12 Disposition of this fruit 13 Acknowledgments 14 Classification of ciders 15 In France 15 In Germany 16 In England 18 Principal cider-producing countries of Europe 19 Relative importance of the cider industry in different countries . . . 19 The chief cider-producing districts 20 The French cider districts 21 The German cider districts 24 The English cider districts 26 Cider apples 27 Important characteristics of cider apples 28 Comparison of cider apples 30 French standards 30 German standards 35 English standards 39 American standards - 42 Harvesting, transportation, and storage of cider fruit 46 Cider-making establishments 50 Primitive methods and appliances 51 Modern methods and appliances 56 Factory systems - 59 French factories 59 German factories 67 English factories 71 Production of the must 74 Ripeness of the fruit 74 Mixing varieties of apples 75 Washing the fruit 76 Grinding or crushing the fruit 76 Maceration of pulp 77 Expressing the must 78 Soaking the pomace 78 Fermentation of cider 78 Room, vessels, and appliances used - 79 Temperature of fermentation room 79 Vessels used in fermentation 80 Filling the vessels 81 Controlling the exit and entrance of gases .' 82 Ventilating bungs and spigots for casks 84 7 Fermentation of cider Continued. Page. The character of the must 86 Use of densimeters 86 What is a standard must? 87 Fortifying the must 91 Sterilizing the must by heat 91 The use of special yeasts 92 Observation and control of fermentation 94 Definition and description of fermentation 94 First or tumultuous fermentation 95 Racking off 98 Avoidance of contact with air 98 Second fermentation 99 Second racking off 100 Lager fermentation 102 German method of fermentation 102 Preserving cider in storage 103 Filtering or clarifying the cider 104 The chemical composition of cider 108 Works of reference .. 113 ILLUSTRATIONS. Page. PLATE I. Fig. 1. Main building, Royal Pomological School, Geisenheim, Germany. Fig. 2. Giant tree of Pyrus (Sorbus) domestica, Taunus, Germany 14 II. Fig. 1. Cider apple trees by the roadside, Normandy, France. Fig. 2. Glimpse into an old pear orchard, Normandy 20 III. Types of cider apple trees in Normandy, France 22 IV. Homes of peasant cider makers in Normandy, France 24 V. Fjg. 1. Train loaded with cider apples in sacks, France. Fig. 2. Ox cart used for hauling apples in Germany 48 VI. Fig. 1. Itinerant cider makers at work in streets; straw used in building up cheese, Rennes, France. Fig. 2. Similar outfit mounted for travel, waiting for a job, Trouville, France 58 VII. Fig. 1. Butleigh Court, Somersetshire, England, seat of English cider experiment station. Fig. 2. The cider orchard at But- leigh Court 74 TEXT FIGURES. FIG. 1. Bin made of hurdles for outdoor storage of apples, used in England. 50 2. The "touruauge" apple crusher, Normandy, France 51 3. Primitive apple grater in use in Germany 54 4. Primitive single-lever cider press in use in Germany 55 5. Primitive double-lever cider press in use in Germany 55 6. The "greif " apple crusher of Germany 56 7. Slotted bottom of hopper used in "greif" machine 57 8. "Greif" apple crusher sectional view of hopper 58 9. Crushing cylinders of the "greif" machine 59 10. Fermentation and storage room, Noel system, France 60 11. Vertical section of factory of the "Union Agricole," St. Ouen-de- Thouberville, near Rouen, France 63 12. Ground plan of factory of the * ' Union Agricole " 64 13. Vertical cross section of small German cider factory with arched cellars , 70 14. Vertical cross section of two-story German cider cellar 71 15. Noel device for ventilating fermentation casks 82 16. German earthenware ventilating funnel vertical section 83 17. Glycerin ventilating funnel 84 18. Bent ventilating tube 85 19. Noel ventilating bung 85 20. Device for maintaining covering layer of carbon dioxid as cider is withdrawn 103 21. Device for charging casks with carbon dioxid in storage cellar 104 22. Device for burning sulphur match in casks 104 23. Linen sack gravity filter 105 24. Cellulose power filter used in Germany ^ 106 25. Asbestos sack filter " Filtre Maignen " 107 26. Asbestos gravity filter 108 A STUDY OF CIDER MAKING IN FRANCE, GERMANY, AND ENGLAND. INTRODUCTION. in the United States cider has been in the past too generally regarded as a product of very little importance from a commercial standpoint, and it has been too often so made that most persons of cul- tured taste have looked upon it with little approval when offered as a beverage. Yet from the etymology of the word it is certain that the name is very ancient, and that cider was the wine or strong drink, "shekar," of the Phoenicians, and was well known by the Aryan race which populated northern Europe before the dawn of history. A study of the words used to denote the apple and the beverage made from it shows that the fruit and the wine were known before the races of northern Europe separated into Slavonians, Germans, and Celts, and that the ancient Britons introduced the fruit into the British Isles before the Roman conquest. a The word cider as used by English- speaking people is the same as the Latin cicera, Spanish sidra, Italian sidro, and French cidre. The German language, on the other hand, seems never to have con- tained the word cider as a pure German word, but the beverage made from the fruit of the apple is classed as a wine (apfel wein}. BEGINNING OF THIS INVESTIGATION. The subject of working up the low-grade apples left as an unmer- chantable residuum of the apple crops grown in the United States has for some years attracted the attention of the writer, and experimental work on this subject has been done in the horticultural department of the Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station for the past eight years. Several preliminary reports of this work have been published 6 from time to time, intended to encourage local efforts to utilize the large quantities of unmerchantable fruit produced every year when there is a fruit crop. These preliminary efforts served to awaken a strong interest in the possibilities of making a pure sound cider from our apples, which Sir George Bird wood quoted by Cooke in " Cider and Perry," p. 3. b Bulletins 48, 57, and 71, Va. Agr. Expt. Station. 11 12 might serve as a light American wine so cheap and wholesome as to be usable by everybody, and as a secondary product from such fermented cider a fine apple vinegar to displace the enormous quantities of chem- ical vinegars which find sale in those States where their manufacture and sale are not restricted by statute. The importance of utilizing our low-grade apples can only be appre- ciated after realizing the probable quantity of this fruit produced in the United States. QUANTITY OF APPLES PRODUCED IN THE UNITED STATES. It is impossible to present an accurate estimate of the apple crop of the United States. The Census Bureau has not in the past gathered statistics concerning this crop which can be said to cover this subject with any degree of completeness; nor has the Department of Agri- culture been able up to the present time to furnish the data desired. The difficulties grow out of the nature of the crop itself. The apple is a fruit grown almost over the entire cultivated area of the countiy, but in many instances only in a haphazard manner and as a crop of secondary importance; hence any attempt to deal with it accurately from a statistical standpoint must of necessity fail because of the immense labor involved and the lack of definite information among the farmers themselves a,s to the amount of their crops. The growth, however, of commercial orcharding, along with the practice of packing and handling the merchantable crop in barrels and boxes, has made it possible to gather with some degree of accu- racy statistics of the merchantable apples which enter into commerce. These statistics have been collected by the Orange Judd Publishing Company with perhaps more care than by any other concern in the country, and from their tables a the following data are taken: The greatest crop ever recorded in this country appears to have been that of 1896, and comprised 69,070,000 barrels. It also appears that the average merchantable crop of the country is in round numbers 50,000,000 barrels, or about 140,000,000 bushels, annually. If this quantity enters into commerce through avenues sufficiently definite to give it a place in the statistics of trade, how shall one esti- mate the millions of bushels which are unmerchantable, or which enter commerce untraced and unrecorded? It is, then, very evident that we have no means of estimating with reasonable accuracy the grand total of our apple crop; but well-informed persons will, I think, agree to the statement that, on the whole, not more than about 60 per cent of the fruit actually grown in this country finds its way into channels of commerce in such a manner as to appear in general statistics. If this be a fair supposition, then nearly 100,000,000 bushels of this fruit are either consumed without having American Agriculturist, October 27, 1900, p. 398. 13 passed through the channels of commerce mentioned above or go to waste on the farms where grown. DISPOSITION OF THIS FRUIT. First of all, a large part is consumed where grown or in local markets. Large quantities are consumed in the manufacture of evaporated fruit and of cider, both for drinking purposes and for conversion into vinegar. In certain districts large quantities of low-grade fruit are used for canning and making marmalades, butters, jellies, etc. A great quantity of this unmerchantable fruit, especial!} 7 in the South, goes into the preparation of sun-dried fruit. In some years 200 tons of this sun-dried fruit are shipped from the little station of Chris- tiansburg, Va., 8 miles from the experiment station at Blacksburg. Perhaps the data a in regard to merchantable fruit produced have been collected with as great accuracy in Virginia as in any other State. These data show that our crop of 1897 reached about 281,889 barrels. These figures are not quite high enough for that year, as the total merchantable crop was about 300,000 barrels. Supposing this to have been 00 per cent of the total crop, about 1,400,000 bushels of apples were produced in Virginia that year. Of this quantity about 600,000 bushels were locally consumed or went to waste. Formerly the esti- mates were much larger, being based on the Eleventh Census, 6 but we now know that the census figures of 1890, so far as they relate to apple production in Virginia, are inadequate. Excepting the sun-dried, evaporated, and canned fruit, the apple products just enumerated are generally adulterated in the United States, either by the use of other than vegetable substances or by the mixture of different fruit and vegetable substances, and the use of various preservatives and substances which, if not preservative, serve to mask defects in quality and cheapen methods of manufacture. This adulteration has become so notorious as to greatly injure a legitimate trade which should be a most proper and natural outlet for this large portion of our apple crop which falls below merchantable grade. The important practical bearing of these secondary industries upon fruit growing in our country has led the writer fora number of years past to devote some attention to their study, with a view to determin- ing the principles which lie at the basis of the practical manufacture of these products on the farms or in small cooperative factories placed in the midst of the districts which furnish the raw material. To this work the authorities of the Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station have given all the support possible with the funds available, and the work has progressed sufficiently to enable us to give practical instruction of a reliable character to our students, especially along the lines of canning and making butters and marmalades. But on some "Bulletin 101, Va. Expt. Sta. 6 Bulletin 48, Va. Expt. Sta. 14 lines we had up to the spring of 1900 made little or no progress, most conspicuous among which were the practical methods of fermenting ciders and vinegars, and the biology of the alcoholic and acetic ferments. All questions relating to products from fruits received consideration in my work abroad, but particular attention was given to a practi- cal examination of the methods of manufacturing cider in France, Germany, and England, and a study of the biology of alcoholic and acetic fermentation of fruit juices, either for the manufacture of beverages or vinegar. This paper deals with the cider investigation in its practical bearings, and other questions of interest are reserved for a subsequent report. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. In the investigations made abroad 1 was almost without exception received in the most cordial manner by both public officers and private individuals whom I had occasion to' call upon for assistance; and while 1 can not mention by name all persons who gave assistance, I wish to extend special thanks to the following: The diplomatic and consular officers of our Government at London, Paris, Frankfort, and Berlin extended every courtesy, aiding me by introductions and by furnishing special information, all of which assisted very much in the accomplishment of the work in hand. In England I was received in a most courteous manner and, barring some slight exceptions, was shown over the factories and given such information as was desired. Among those who thus assisted I wish to mention especially the following: Major Craigie, of the board of agriculture; Mr. F. H. Hall, of the agricultural col- lege at Wye; Hon. C. W. Radcliff Cooke, of Hellene, near Dymock, Herefordshire; Mr. Charles D. Wise, of Winchcombe, Gloucestershire; Mr. F. J. Lloyd, London, consulting chemist of the Bath and West Society; R. Neville Grenville, esq., But- leigh Court, Somersetshire; Mr. Frederick George Farwell, Bath; Mr. A. E. Beach, Winchcombe, Gloucestershire; Mr. T. W. Beach, Ealing Road, Brentford, London; Mr. H. P. Bulmer, Ryelands, Herefordshire; Mr. Henry Weston, Much Markle, Herefordshire; Mr. John Watkins, Withington, Herefordshire. In France I was very courteously received by Mr. Leon Vassilliere, director of agriculture in the ministry of agriculture, and by him introduced to others. Prof. A. Kayser, of the National School of Agriculture, Paris, extended every courtesy in his laboratory, and permitted me to note the methods of his work and study the litera- ture of his department. Mr. A. Truelle, of Trouville, Calvados, assisted me in securing information and special literature. Mr. A. Power, director of the Grand Cidrerie at Saint Ouen-de-Thouberville, permitted me to study the methods of the factory, and gave much assistance. Mr. E. Herissant, director of the Practical Agricultural School of Three Crosses, at Rennes, Brittany, in like manner explained Bui 71. Bureau of Chemistry. U. S. Dept. Agr. PLATE I. FIQ. 1. MAIN BUILDING, ROYAL POMOLOGICAL SCHOOL, GEISENHEIM, GERMANY. FIQ. 2. GIANT TREE OF PYRUS (SORBUS) DOMESTICA, TAUNUS, GERMANY. 15 the methods of his work, both in studying varieties of cider apples and making cider, and secured special literature for me. Mr. Isidore Guibout, and his son, Mr. Joseph Guibout, peasant farmers of Danestal, Calvados, gave me every opportunity to study the conditions and technique of cider making on the peasant proprietors' places. Mr. J. M. Buisson, secretary of one of the horticultural syndicates of France, extended many courtesies, and introduced me to many men from whom information could be obtained. In German}- 1 am first of all indebted to Director R. Goethe, of the Royal Pomological School, at Geisenheim (PI. I, fig. 1), for courtesies extended at that institution. I am also especially indebted to Prof. Dr. Julius Wortmann, director of the laboratory of plant physiology at Geisenheim, for his assistance in regard to every part of my inquiry and for instruction while working in his laboratory. From Prof. Dr. Richard Meissner, then assistant to Professor Wortmann, I received much personal assistance and kindly counsel. Prof. Dr. Paul Lindner, of Berlin, also extended courtesies at the Imperial High School for Fermentation Work, for which I am deeply indebted. Of the manufacturers in Germany I wish to especially remember the Brothers Freyeisen, of Frankfort, for permitting an examination of their work and factories in detail. Acknowledgments are also due to Mr. Fritz Batz, Neuenhain, Taunus, and Mr. C. H. Schmidt, of Schierstein, Rhinegau, for extending like courtesies at their factories. CLASSIFICATION OF CIDERS. Wines have long since become well recognized by specific names which, within limits, denote certain characteristics, more or less con- stant; but with the fermented juice of the apple in the past all has been cider, whether good, bad, or indifferent; and even yet only those who are well informed on the question are aware that there are ciders and ciders. To the fact that ciders have not in the past been developed on special lines and classified, we owe much of the misunderstanding in regard to the possibility of making a good beverage from apple juice; but to the fact that so much vilely adulterated or chemically concocted stuff is put on the market as a drink, we owe, in much greater degree, the general misunderstanding in regard to this product in our country. IN FRANCE. The French attempt to classify ciders as "pure juice," " marchand," and "boisson." To say that this classification is well observed is wide of the truth. The first named is intended to be pure cider of a special quality, made from the finest fruit. It should contain 6 or 7 per cent 16 of alcohol, and may be made as still cider i. e., fermented "dry" (sec); as "mousseux," cider bottled before all the sugar is exhausted, and so handled as to develop and retain a certain quantity of gas; or as cider "champagnise," which has received more special treatment than ordinary "mousseux" and often is, in fact, dosed with sugar to fortify it. The cider "marchand," or simply cider, should contain from 4 to 5 per cent alcohol, and is made from fruits of medium quality; or, as more often happens, if rich enough, it is diluted by mixture of the second pressing with pure juice. This is the cider of commerce as it ordinarity leaves the manufacturer, but after it pays the octroi or tax and enters into consumption in the city, it may be, and often is, diluted and becomes quite a different article from that which leaves the manufacturer. The "boisson," as applied to a cider, means the juice of second or even third pressing of the pomace. It is fermented comparatively "dry," contains about 2 to 3 per cent of alcohol, and is the ordinary cider of the common people, especially laborers in both country and city, in the cider districts. It is often furnished in large quantities to the farm laborers, and if so handled as to retain considerable gas, or artificially charged, it is an agreeable light drink. "Boisson" is also veiy often called "petit cidre" (small cider). A poor cider is made from the unpared chopped American dried apples and from the dried cores and parings we sell to France, by treating this stock as follows: About 10 kilos (22 pounds) of the dried stock are macerated in a vat containing one hectoliter (about 26 gal- lons) of water with addition of some raisins or sugar to suit the taste of the manipulator, and this is then permitted to ferment slightly in mass to extract the desired substances, and the liquid is expressed and treated as in case of low-grade cider. The beverage made in this man- ner is restricted by law to 3 per cent alcohol content and is a cheap drink, used mostly at low-class restaurants and for laborers. This low- grade apple stock sent to France is also used to macerate with hard cider to restore in part its quality by inducing new fermentation; but not the slightest evidence was found to substantiate the supposition heretofore frequently advanced, that this poor apple stock, or that even good sun-dried apple stock is used to make French wines or to adulterate them. IN GERMANY. Cider is classified in Germany into common cider, or "apfel wein," "export apfel wein," and "champagner apfel wein." One also con- stantly meets with such names as "Speierling apfel wein," "Boers- dorfer apfel wein," and others. These grades of cider do not correspond closely with the classes or grades of French or English 17 ciders. These names are, in fact, more to be relied upon as having a definite meaning so far as the strength and purity of the article is concerned. The common cider of Germany is made just as they make ordinary light wines, and their cider is, in fact as well as in name, a wine. It will show from 3. To to 4.50 or nearly 5 per cent of alcohol, varying with the character of the fruit, and the ordinary cider is a dry, light wine of very insipid taste to the American palate when not charged with carbon dioxid. These ciders are kept in casks and drawn as wanted. The "export apfelwein" is made practically in the same manner from selected fruit, but is either bottled when there is still sugar enough to saturate it with gas or is saturated artificially. It may show 4.5 to 5 or 5.5 per cent of alcohol and is a still light wine. The "champagner apfelwein" or "schaum apfelwein" is much like champagne from grape wines. At a proper stage the cider is clarified, sugared, and bottled, and carried through the processes described hereafter. The "Boersdorfer apfel wein" is simply a name given to indicate a product supposedly made from the Boersdorfer apple, but it was not evident that this brand had any special qualities not found in a good export grade. The "Speierling apfel wein," however, is a cider made by using a small proportion of the juice from the wild fruit known to botanists as Pi/i'KS (Sorbus) domestica. This tree was found growing to giant pro- portions on the Taunus mountains about Soden. The fruit when fully ripe and touched by frost becomes very mellow and has an agreeable flavor, but before ripening it is characterized by a pungent, acrid juice so rich in tannin as to remind, one of the unripe American per- simmon in its effect on the mucous membrane of the mouth. The juice of this wild fruit is added to apple juice in small quantity, not over 5 per cent, and by reason of the tannin contained is thought to produce a finer cider, which is more easily clarified, and to furnish in the finished product a superior flavor and bouquet. (PI. I, fig. 2.) It can not be said that the German ciders appeal to the American palate, with the exception of their champagne ciders and the very finest of the other grades; but that they are well-made standard goods is most certainly true. In Germany great quantities of fresh, partly fermented cider are offered at the restaurants in the fall season. This they call " rauscher" or "suss apfel wein" (smoking or sweet cider). The brothers Freyei- sen stated that they sold ordinarily about 5,000 hectoliters of such cider each year in Frankfort during the making season. This would be about 132,000 gallons. 17247 No. 7103 2 18 IN ENGLAND. In England a strong effort is being made to bring about a better understanding of the importance of grading ciders in accordance with some standard. But it could not be learned that any generally accepted classification had been adopted, further than that the Bath and West Society, which holds the only fair at which &ny considerable exhibit of ciders is made in England, recognizes two classes, i. e., those show- ing 4 per cent of alcohol or more, and those which show less than 4 per cent of alcohol. The latter are called small cider by their chemist, but this word is not accepted in the English trade. From analyses made by the United States Department of Agriculture of samples selected at Bath, at the annual show in May, 1900, it appears that the classification that year was not based on accurate chemical data, or else the samples were confused in handling. There were goods of both classes, bottled and in casks, and it appeared that the classification was rather artificial, being often determined, not by the quantity of alcohol a certain quality of juice will produce, but by the stage at which fermentation had been arrested. The analyses of ciders from the Bath and West exhibit of 1900 show conclusively that fermentation had not been normally carried out, but that it had been arrested by artificial means. In fact the cider of commerce in England, except in some few cases, has no recognized standard. There seems to be a very unwise effort to cater to a demand for a sweet liquor showing only 3 to 4 per cent of alcohol. If made from a good quality of fruit and unadulterated, such cider must still contain considerable unfermented sugar, which renders it very unstable and difficult to handle in shipment, except as sterilized bottled goods, unless treated sufficiently with preservatives to check fermentation. There is another alternative equally bad, namely, to ferment the juice dry, dilute with water, and dose with saccharin to produce the sweet taste desired. It was said that this was practiced, but no proof of it was seen. In England, however, excellent grades of bottled ciders were found, both still and gaseous. Some of these were made from special varie- ties of apples, as Foxwhelp, a very old English cider apple, or Kings- ton Black, but more often they were made from the mixed fruit of the district. Eight examples of these ciders are shown under sample numbers 32 to 39 (see p. 111). These were really fine ciders, some dry, some bottled with a small percentage of unfermented sugar, and others sugared in the process of champagnizing. A sparkling cider is not necessarily a sugared article, but, if pure, is best produced by bottling before fermentation is complete. It is then a normal French "mousseux." This grade can, however, be produced by charging with gas artificially when bottled. A cham- 19 pagne cider is not, properly speaking-, a pure cider, but is fortified by addition of sugar. It appears that even in the best cider districts of England there are no really accepted names for ciders which can be depended upon by purchasers. The name of the maker is practically the only mark worthy of consideration. This state of affairs, however, is in fair way to remedy itself, as the industry is rapidly developing on special lines, and certain class designations, such as still ciders, sparkling ciders, champagne ciders (both dry and sweet), of approximate alcoholic strength, will soon come to be recognized in the trade. The Bulmers, at Hereford, seem already to have reached a high degree of perfection in the preparation of their goods, and Mr. Charles Dacres Wise, at the estate of Lord Sudley, in Gloucestershire, was putting up a veiy excellent grade of both still and sparkling- ciders and perry, the latter being made from the fruit of the pear. Nothing so interesting- in the way of a country plant was found as that of Hon. C. W. Radcliffe Cook, at Hellens, near Dymock, Herefordshire. This country gentle- man, an ex-member of Parliament, was personally devoting- himself to the manufacture of cider in a small way, with the most primitive machinery, and yet producing a good sound article. It was, however, at Butleigh Court, the country seat of R. Neville Greenville, esq., that the best experimental work on cider manufacture found in Eng- land was seen. These establishments will be mentioned more fully under a subsequent head. PRINCIPAL CIDER-PRODUCING COUNTRIES OF EUROPE. When this inquiry in Europe was begun, the writer was somewhat imbued with the notion, so prevalent in the United States, that cider making could only be regarded as a secondary affair, a method of util- izing inferior fruit in the manufacture of a product of some local value, but not as an industry of general importance. However im- portant the saving- of the low-grade or unmerchantable fruit might be to our growers, it had not seemed as though cider making could be ranked as a great industry. Interest in the matter had been mainly aroused by what seemed to be a scientific question of some moment, with fairly promising economic possibilities. RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF THE CIDER INDUSTRY IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES. In England evidences were found of an industry fairly well founded, and in France and Germany there exists a great industry already well developed and employing millions of capital in the aggregate, with large areas of country devoted to growing cider fruits as an industry. France, by reason of the extent of its manufacture, is easily the leading cider country of the world, followed by Germany, England, 20 Switzerland, United States, Canada, Austria, Grand Duchy of Luxem- burg, and Spain, in order of importance/' The acreage of orchards in France can not be stated with any cer- tainty, but from estimates 6 of the total apple trees in Brittany, made by Frere Martial, of the Christian Brothers, of the Institute of Ploermel, it appears that in this province alone there are about 24,500,000 trees, and as this province makes about one-third the cider of France, a like ratio would carry the total number of trees up to about 75,000,000 for the entire cider country. After several tours of the cider country of France the writer is pre- pared to believe that this grand total is not too high. In the Calvados country, at some places, the face of the country is a forest of fruit trees, and frequently the highways are also planted on both sides (Plate II). The product of cider varies naturally with the quantity of fruit available from year to year, but the mean annual production of France for twenty years (1879-1898) was 297,946,C30 & gallons, and the maxi- mum product during this time reached 695,388,430 gallons in 1893. From the French Government reports it appears that 1,021,090 persons were entered as manufacturers of cider in 1898. The year 1900 saw one of the greatest harvests ever known in France, and without doubt the fruit product surpassed all previous figures. Consul-General Hertslet, of the British consular service, reporting in May, 1901, says that the production of cider in the 68 departments of France, in which apples are grown for this purpose, amounted to 647,000,000 gallons, in round numbers, from the apple harvest of 1900; but this estimate is doubtless not based on the final reports. The above figures as to production, except the last statement, are taken from those published by the French ministry of agriculture, and are in no sense complete as to grand total. They represent the quantity which finds its way into commerce, so as to be reported to the Government, but take no account of the enormous quantity locally consumed. Each family in the great cider provinces of Picard}', Nor- mandy, and Brittany, as a usual thing, makes its own cider or pro- vides for the same in such a manner that it does not enter into the figures reported to the Government. It is probable that the official figures include very nearly the total of pure ciders, but the " boisson," or low-grade ciders, are practically not represented in these statements. THE CHIEF CIDER-PRODUCING DISTRICTS. There are many statements current in the different countries of Europe as to the peculiar importance of certain districts as regards Truelle, address before International Congress on the Cider Industry, Paris, 1900. t> International Congress on the Cider Industry, Paris, 1900, pp. 72 and 87. c British Diplomatic and Consular Reports, Miscellaneous Series, No. 552, May 6, 1901. Bui. 71, Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Dept. Agr. PLATE FIG. 1. CIDER-APPLE TREES BY THE ROADSIDE, NORMANDY, FRANCE. FIG. 2. GLIMPSE INTO AN OLD PEAR ORCHARD, NORMANDY, FRANCE. 21 the excellence of their ciders. These statements at once recall state- ments of like nature in regard to the quality of grape wines of certain districts. In the case of wines it can not be questioned that experi- ence has abundantly demonstrated the correctness of these claims. Soil and climate certainly play a very important role in the production of all fine wines. Do they play an equally important role in the pro- duction of ciders? The chemical data on varieties grown in different countries must in part answer this question. It was not found that any investigator had really undertaken a serious inquiry into this matter, and the manufacture of cider can by no means be said to have reached a stage of perfection which warrants definite conclusions of like value to those which govern wine making. It is very evident, however, that in certain districts where grapes will not grow to such perfection as to admit of their culture as a wine fruit, apples have for ages taken their place. European peoples are without exception consumers of wines in considerable quantity, some nations much more so than others. Hence, wherever the grape wine can not be successfully produced, there has been a more or less per- sistent effort to supply the demand for wine by using a fruit which will thrive under local conditions. THK FRENCH CIDER DISTRICTS. In France the grape will not thrive in open culture to any extent in the northwestern and northern provinces. Hence the provinces of Brittany, Normandy, and Picardy, lying in this part of France, are the chief seat of the cider industry. These lie along the Atlantic Ocean, the English Channel, and the borders of Belgium. Normandy is in fact the principal cider country of France, and it is here that one finds the industry best developed in all its details. Also in this province has been developed a large number of seedling varie- ties of apples with the sole idea of cider making, and, though the face of the country is often a forest of apple trees, one never finds dessert or culinary varieties growing in these open plantations. The idea of commercial apple growing, as developed in America, is wholly unknown to these people. If a proprietor desires table fruit it is grown in his garden on walls or trellises, or on the walls of his residence or out- buildings, always in the form of cordons, espaliers, etc., never in open field culture. In fact, the orchard culture proper is for cider making, just as farther south in France the country is in places occupied with vineyards for wine making. The varieties are seedlings from the apples grown here for centuries. It is only during the last forty years that a study has been made of these various seedling varieties, and certain ones have been selected for propagation because of vigor, productiveness, and qualities desired in the processes of cider making. One finds certain varieties every- 22 where mentioned as the leading sorts, and these are largely propa- gated in nurseries. The orchards everywhere have the appearance so characteristic of seedlings of Pyrus malm (Plate III), and do not take on the character- istic appearance of American cultivated orchards. The trees are often scrubby, rough, and thorny, and so overgrown with moss and mis- tletoe that they seem to tit in well with the surroundings. The climate is oceanic, moist, and often dull from cloudiness, but never subject to great extremes of temperature. Much of the strictly orchard area in Calvados is found on a moderately elevated plateau, characterized by low, undulating ranges of hills, with decidedly moist valleys. In this connection some extracts are quoted from a work by M. de Beaumont on Normandy, in which he speaks especially of Calvados, the department in which, perhaps, better cider is made than in any other of France: CALVADOS. . General aspect. Calvados lies with an exposure to the north and extends to the hills of the Department of Orne on the south, and comprises many valleys and extensive plateaus. These valleys, which are watered by six streams flowing from south to north, are separated from each other by chains of slightly elevated hills which decrease in height to the shore, where they are suddenly transformed into high cliffs of 30 to 120 meters (100 to 400 feet). Thriving, fertile, rich in prairies, this district offers many aspects of a charming country. The hills, the geological composition of which is very far from uniform, and which do not present the same characters in any two places, form three very distinct natural regions the cretaceous, the calcareous, and the, granitic. The first comprises the eastern part of the department. Chalky formations dom- inate in the country known as ''le Pays d'Auge," situated between the frontiers of Eure and the valley of the Dives. The arrondissements of Pont 1' Eveque and Lisieux, almost entirely included in these limits, present vast chalky plateaus cut by deep valleys, showing a clayey or argillaceous deposit overlying the rock. The second region where the limestone (great oolite, inferior oolite, marls, and sandstone) predominates, includes the arrondissement of Caen and a portion of those of Falaise and Bayeux. All that portion of the Department of Calvados which comprises the division of Vire, the southern part of Bayeux, the western part of Falaise, and the southern part of Caen, under the name of Bocage, has a peculiar aspect. Its granites, gray and reddish in color, its schists, its arid plateaus scarred with great blocks of rocks, its houses constructed of materials of somber color, all present a rather melancholy aspect. Climate. Calvados, which is situated on the border of the sea and has no consid- erable elevations, enjoys a much milder climate than its geographical situation would warrant. It is part of the belt where the Seine or Parisian climate predominates, thus named because it is peculiar to the basin of the Seine, and particularly to Paris. In its general characteristics this climate is mild, but at the same time humid and variable. In spite of its low elevation and the frequent rains (one hundred and thirty-five days in a year) maintaining a chilly humid atmosphere, the climate of Calvados is very healthy, this department occupying the first rank in the relative longevity in France. The western part of the canton of Tsigny and the country situated at the mouth of the Sougnes and the Dives are less favored than the rest of the department. Bui. 71, Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Dept. Agr. PLATE III. TYPES OF CIDER-APPLE TREES IN NORMANDY, FRANCE. 23 The spring here is cold and rainy, the fine season lasts for only a month and a half from June into August. The annual mean temperature of Caen is a little higher than that of Paris, which is 10.6 C. The winter on an average is less cold than at Paris and the summer is not so warm. The' predominating winds come from the west, north, and south. Violent storms often desolate the fields at the time of the equinoxes. It rains oftener on the border than in the interior of the department. The rainfall is 74 cm. (29 inches) annually, being not quite equal to the average in France, which is 77 cm. (30 inches). A student of the geology of Normandy, M. de Caumont, has pub- lished a remarkable statement in regard to the influence of the soil upon the quality of these ciders in which he says: The quality of the ciders produced upon different soils shows very great differences, as those who use these ciders have been able to determine by comparing the prod- ucts of several cantons. These ciders, like wines, are more or less strong, and one is able to preserve them a greater or less time, according to the soil upon which they were produced. If my observations have not deceived me, the presence of fragments of quartz and silicious (flint) rocks in the earth, is very favorable to the production of a good cider, that which above all has the most agreeable taste. Therefore, the best cider prod- ucts in the arrondissements of Bayeux and of Caen are produced upon the mottled sandstone soils, earths covered very often with a great quantity of alluvium, with nodules of quartz and flint, or upon the hard limestones and lower oolite soils of a limestone and clayey character, which are covered up themselves with fragments of quartz and flint, as near Cartigny and the environs of Tsigny, and several communes of the cantons of Crevise, Littry, etc. In the arrondissements of Lisieux and Pont FEveque the best productions are taken from the chalk formations covered with an argillaceous formation carrying flint nodules in quantity. * * * These numerous observations lead us also to think that the apples harvested from a soil where lime is in excess, as upon the great oolite plains of Caen and of Falaise, are less sugary than these others which grow upon an argillaceous soil. The cider produced from fruits grown upon our limestone plains becomes acid at an earlier stage, and it is very inferior in quality to that made at Bessin and the regions of the chalk substrata like Lisieux and Pont 1'Eveque. I have made these observations not only in Calvados, but in the commune of Orne, where the regions vary equally as much in their geologic characters as in Calvados. At Danestal, in Calvados, some days were spent during November observing the work of the small landed proprietors or peasants (Plate IV), and as this country is typical of the very best cider-producing area of France, the soil was carefully examined and its agricultural value ascertained. The soil on warm southern and southeastern slopes was very rich in the first reaches above the streams, but grew thinner very markedly toward the summits of the low hills. The best soil was a rich brown loam, showing abundant nodules of flint, and at a depth of 12 inches or more a grayish sand became predominant. Along the upper slopes a gray soft sandstone showed occasionally and seemed to dip down into the hills as though erosion had carried away what was once the Translation from manuscript notes furnished by M. Truelle. 24 higher levels. The abundance of flint nodules was everywhere a char- acteristic of the best lands. The best exposures were generally planted in fruit trees and covered with heavy sod, most of the orchards being used as pastures. There was very little land under cultivation in crops. The cold slopes were mostly thin lands and often seepy, and where set in orchards were decidedly inferior to southern slopes. The uplands varied in value from 500 to 1,200 francs per hectare ($40 to $100 per acre), and the richest valley lands were held at 4,000 to 5,000 francs per hectare ($300 to $400 per acre). These values lead one to wonder how anyone could carry on such apparently careless culture and con- tinue to hold lands of such value. THE GERMAN CIDER DISTRICTS. In Germany as in France most of my time was given to specific investigations at those places which offered the greatest opportunity for practical and scientific work, viz, at centers where the bulk of the cider is made; hence, the Wiirtemberg cider districts of Germany were not inspected, but the related districts of Switzerland and a part of southern and central Bavaria were observed. In these nothing worthjr of special mention was found. Everywhere, however, the wonderful opportunities for development which would be seized upon by a more versatile people were conspicuous. At Frankfort-on-the-Main is found the center of the German cider industry. Here two firms alone were making over 1,300,000 gallons of cider annually; and from Frankfort to Wiesbaden, along the slopes of the Taunus Mountains, one finds a continuous apple country with numerous small establishments for the manufacture of cider. The industry here overlaps into the wine country, or Rhinegau proper, and extends even down to Schierstein, almost in sight of the world- famous Johannisburg wine district. But nowhere in Germany was found any area so peculiarly and distinctively a cider-producing coun- try as in Calvados, France. In German}^ the tendency seems to be away from the small peasant proprietor, and toward a factory system founded upon the very best and latest investigations of modern science, while in France this is not nearly so much the case. Possibly this fact, coupled with the well- known orderly and methodical habits of the German, may account for the fact previously stated in this report, that in Germany standards of quality are better recognized than in any other European country. As already noted, the German considers his product a wine, calls it so, and makes it by certain definite methods. The only apple-growing districts of Germany which were examined were (1) the Taunus country in Prussia, stretching from Frankfort to Wiesbaden, and (2) the Rhinegau, which extends from below Wiesba- den to where the Rhine breaks through the Niederwald below Rude- Bui. 71, Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Dept. Agr. PLATE IV. HOMES OF PEASANT CIDER MAKERS IN NORMANDY, FRANCE. 25 sheim. The Rhinegau is not, properly speaking, an apple-growing district, as here the grape overtops everything in importance, but I found the cider industry well represented as far down the Rhine as Schierstein. The Taunus' region is said by well-posted German students to be the best apple district in Germaiw. This district is not large, and comprises the western and southwestern slopes of the Taunus Moun- tains. The orchards occur occasionally even down on the more level drift soils of the floor of the Rhine Valley, but usually the flat lands along the Rhine are occupied by cultivated farm crops, or where spurs of the foothills jut down into the Rhine plain they are oftener occupied by vineyards than by orchards. The Taunus Mountains are not high, being about 1,300 or 1,400 feet at Cronberg, and nowhere in this district do they rise above 2,000 feet. The} T slope gradually to the foothills and alluvial lands of the lower levels, presenting gentle grassy slopes and rolling uplands, generally easy to till and presenting no difficulties whatever for orcharding. The Rhine plain has here an elevation averaging about 300 feet above sea level. The higher levels of the Taunus show some outcrops of shales, over- lying igneous rocks of great variety, as gneiss, mica, and feldspathic schists. The slopes occupied by the great orchards show a clayey soil, with much gravel intermingled, and, while not very rich, good care has kept it well supplied with humus and in good condition. The trees are of great size and vigor, and so far as observed, the fruit growers do not have to contend with the numerous insect and fungous troubles met in this country. The exposure is ideal for fruit growing in a country so far north; and, in general characteristics, this would be considered a typically fine orchard section. The Taunus country has climatic and soil conditions strikingly dif- ferent from those found in the French orchard country. This German district has a continental climate more like that found in America than that of France, and the whole environment is essentially like that of many American orchard regions. The character of the apples grown and their chemical composition are much closer to American types than to French. Many varieties are grown for culinary and dessert uses, and the low-grade fruit, along with some distinctly cider apples, is employed for cider-making purposes. In some places the orchards cover the hillsides, all types, ages, and qualities intermingled without much system. And here was seen for the first time the giant trees of Pyrus (Sorbus) domestica, whose fruits are used to mix with ordinary apples to produce the highest grades of cider. The lowland orchards did not have the vigorous appearance of those on higher levels, and often those in flat fields were heavily cropped under the trees, while the uplands were usually in grass. 26 That the quality of the German fruit is quite inferior for cider making to that of the best French fruit seems to be evident from chemical data given in this report. It does not appear, however, that the studies of the fruit and the ciders made therefrom in certain districts have been carried out with us much care, from the labora- tory point of view, in Germany as in France, though German factory work seemed quite superior, as remarked above. There are certainly some very important points awaiting investigation in regard to the effect of soil and climate upon the composition of apples and the result- ant qualities of ciders made therefrom. A comparative study of this sort on the German and French fruit would be interesting and yield data of much practical importance. THE ENGLISH CIDER DISTRICTS. The wonderful variety of geological formations occurring in such a small country as England confuses the stranger and renders observa- tions somewhat difficult. However, after traveling twice over the chief fruit sections of the country, the writer was able to discrim- inate somewhat as to the character of the orchard lands. The best development of orcharding observed was in Hereford- shire, Worcestershire, and Gloucestershire. The second best was in Somersetshire, though Devonshire which has a rather better reputation than Somersetshire, was not visited. The general statement current in England is that the orchard counties are Herefordshire. Devon- shire, and Somersetshire, in the order named, but certainly portions of Worcestershire and Gloucestershire should not be omitted from this category. In the excellent monograph of Dr. Henry Graves Bull, of Hereford- shire, on the Vintage Fruits," he points out that in the first two counties named the good orchard lands are situated on like geological formations, viz, the old red sandstone. In Herefordshire the great vigor and f ruitfulness of the old orchards, on the fine rolling red lands, were specially noticeable, and the ciders made, especially at Hereford and at Hellens, near Dymock, were as tine as one of ten finds. Equal praise can, however, be given to the fine cider and perry made on the estate of Lord Sudley, near Winchecombe, Gloucestershire. But as soon as one mounts the Cotswolds he is aware that he is off the fruit lands. The apple growing seen in Somersetshire did not impress one favora- bly, and the soil did not seem to produce anything like the fine trees observed in the more northern counties mentioned. It was rare, indeed, that the orchard plantings seemed to be placed with care, and the impression made was that as an industiy there was no modern devel- opment perceptible. As to orchard growing in England, the best tech- A popular treatise based on Dr. Bull's great monograph, The Herefordshire Pomona. nieal work seen was thtit of the Toddington Orchard Company at Lord Sudley's place in Gloucestershire. Though there is much small fruit grown in Kent, one of the famous fruit counties of England, very few orchards of an}' note were found, and cider making is almost unknown. There are, however, in the county good, strong, retentive loam soils, which carry abundance of flint nodules and overlie chalk formations, as in the cider districts of France. In England, as in Germany, very little attention has been given to the development of cider fruits as such, though in the former there are numerous good varieties to start from. The bulk of the product is made from the refuse of those varieties which are grown for table and culinary uses. Yet distinctly cider apples are constantly met with, and a few cider varieties have recently been imported from Normandy and are gaining in favor. No definite statistics are available as to the production of cider in England, but Hon. C. W. Kadcliffe Cooke. in a recent article in the Nineteenth Century, draws the conclusion that the total annual prod- uct is not less than 100.000,000 gallons, having a maximum value of 3.000.000 sterling, (nearly $15,000,000). CIDER APPLES. It is doubtless correct to say that there are few distinctly cider fruits grown in the United States at the present time. Formerly this class of apples received more attention. Scions of European cider apples have been distributed of late years by the I' . S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, but there are as yet no orchards of apples or pears grown distinctly for the manufacture of cider and perry known to the writer. In this regard the United State- i- at present in pretty much the same category as Germany. England is somewhat better off. as one tinds there a few distinctly cider apples and perry pears in cultivation. France has, however, made long strides in this direction, as already noted. It is of prime importance to consider here what constitutes a cider fruit, and compare the products of several foreign countries with that of our own in this regard. There can be no question that the making of cider by the landed proprietors and peasants of France for many centuries from the seed- lings of Normandy. Brittany, and Picardy may be credited with fix- ing the attention of the more critical students and cultivators of recent years upon the best characteristics of the French cider fruits. In these ancient seedling orchards and their descendants have been deter- mined empirically the qualities which distinguish cider fruits (pornrnes a cidre) from table fruits (pommes j\ couteau) in France. a Nineteenth Century, August, 1901, p. 276. 28 The work of the past thirty years in France has been directed to the task of sifting from these hundreds of seedlings (pommes sauvage) those which best embody the desirable chemical constituents and which also show the other desirable characteristics of hardiness, vigor, pro- ductiveness, proper season of blooming and maturity of fruit, adapt- ability to certain soils, keeping qualities, etc. Among those who have led in the critical study of cider fruits of France might be named Messrs. Hauchecorne, de Boutteville, Truelle, Lechartier, Herissant, Power, Andouard, Hubert, Beaurepaire, Sequin, and many others. A greater amount of work by far has been devoted to a study of the chemical composition of varieties, their description, classification, etc. , than to strictly experimental researches upon cider- making problems proper. It seems that little is now to be desired, so far as relates to analyses, classification of varieties, etc., but that much is wanting in the French work relating to real studies of soil and cli- matic influences and the practical problems of handling and working up the crop. Much has, it is true, been written on these problems, but there is a dearth of facts in such literature as is obtainable. The French cultivators have now a great number of what appear to be the best cider fruits in the world ready at their hands, and they owe a great debt of gratitude to the unselfish work of the gentlemen named above for their often unremunerated critical studies, made at the expense of much time and labor. In this regard M. Truelle, a pharmacist, of Trouville, Calvados, is perhaps the most shining example. There have been no such elaborate studies made of German cider fruits, nor of the low grades of commercial fruits so largely used in cider making in that country, although chemical data on the German fruits is not wanting. Professor Kulisch has made at the Royal School of Geisenheim somewhat extensive chemical examinations of varieties of apples. In England until quite recently no critical study of cider fruits was known, but now, under the auspices of the Bath and West Societ} 7 , supplemented by a royal grant in aid, Mr. F. J. Lloyd, of London, is making chemical studies which have already advanced to a stage where they furnish very useful data for comparison. IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF CIDER APPLES. The French students of this subject and also the French manufac- turers of cider rank the value of varieties in accordance with their content of (1) sugar, (2) tannin, (3) mucilage, and (4) acid. They also insist upon the fruits being of fine flavor and fragrant. To a stranger the most striking characteristic of many of the French varieties is their delicate, bitter-sweet flavor, and the powerful and peculiar odor which they exhale when lying in bulk ripening. 29 The writer can not refrain from observing that apparently the French attach entirely too slight importance to the acid content of cider fruits. French apple must sometimes turns black as ink in the presence of air because of rapid oxidation of the tannin; yet it is easily shown that a higher acid content will prevent this. From some state- ments made it would appear that they consider 0.1 to 0.2 per cent of acid sufficient. The Germans rank the chemical constituents in importance as fol- lows: (1) sugar, (2) acids, and (3) tannin. They pay practically no attention to determining mucilaginous substances. Their apples are so different in character (as will be seen in later discussion) that these constituent elements may not be strongly developed in them. They also claim that nitrogenous and mineral compounds are important as nourishment for the yeast organisms. The acid content is considered important in Germany, and at Geisenheim the percentage of acid demanded is 0.6 to 0.8 per cent. While they insist upon the import- ance of tannin, they do not rate it so highly as the French. No English student of the subject appears to have discussed these points from an original standpoint. However, Thomas Andrew Knight was the first to call attention to the value of the densimeter as an instrument to test the quality of must. In the United States we have no technical literature of any moment covering this subject. It appears that Americans have proceeded on the idea that the sugars are the only substance of prime importance in an apple must. Tannin appears to be regarded as objectionable. Acid is apparently regarded as an element which it is necessary to eliminate as far as possible. The character of our fruits may have had something to do with this, but it is rare that our fruits show too much acid, and it is more to be noted that they seldom or never show enough of the very important element, tannin. /Sugar content of the fruit. During the process of fermentation cane sugar and possibly some of the pectose bodies are converted into fermentable sugars, and practically the total sugar content of the apple is thus rendered subject to the breaking down process called fermen- tation. Pasteur's statement of the products resulting from the fer- mentation of fruit sugars per 100 parts is as follows: Per cent. Carbon dioxid gas (CO.,) 46. 67 Alcohol 48. 46 Glycerin 3. 23 Succinic acid (il Matter consumed by ferment organisms 1. 03 While this statement is now disputed in some particulars, it is used here to indicate the probable results which may be expected from complete fermentation of the sugar content of any fruit juice. It is, then, from the sugars that all the alcohol is derived, and also the car 30 bon dioxid gas, the first being that which gives the strength to the beverage, the second that which renders it sparkling and piquant if retained in the liquor. The glycerin helps to give body and flavor to the liquor. It is derived partly from the alcohol and doubtless in part from the organic acids present in the must. Tannin, or tannic acid, in the fruit. This is the substance so readily recognized in unripe persimmons or in the bark tissues of oak trees. In fruits it tends to give a bitter taste and to pucker the mucous mem- branes of mouth and throat. It is undoubtedly the relatively large amount of this constituent which gives to the bitter-sweet apples of France their peculiar character. This element is of great importance in the composition of any fruit for wine and cider making purposes, because of its action in coagulating albuminous elements in the must, thereby assisting to clarify the liquor, its wholesomeness to the system, and its effect in conserving a certain portion of the sugar from too rapid fermentation, thus adding very materially to the soundness and keeping qualities of the beverage. The writer is inclined to agree with the French that this element is more important than the acid. Three to five parts per 1,000 of tannin (0.3 to 0.5 per cent) is a sufficient quantity. American fruits fall far below this standard. Acids in the fruit. These exist in the apple and pear chiefly as malic acid, but possibly also as tartaric to a small extent. Their importance in a cider fruit is very considerable. If acid is not present in sufficient quantity, the oxidation of the tannin will be so rapid as to turn the must black, or blackening may even occur in the finished cider. Also the refreshing quality of a cider as a summer beverage is largely due to its acid content. American apples usually contain sufficient acid. Mucilage in fruit. The practice of determining this substance as mucilage in apple must seems only to be followed by the French chem- ists. Whether their determinations are comparable with the deter- minations of pectin by other chemists can not be here stated. These substances, give body to the cider and are important constituents of good cider fruits. COMPARISON OF CIDER APPLES. FRENCH STANDARDS. It is a matter of unquestionable importance to compare the fruits of the three prominent European cider-producing countries with one another and with our home fruits as to chemical composition. The French students of the subject have attempted to set standards by which varieties should be selected. The following is quoted from M. Hauchecorne ("Le Cidre" p. 9), in which he gives what he has deter- mined to be an average composition based upon analyses of French varieties: 31 Specific gravity 1. 067 to 1. 080 Water per cent. . 80 Sugar (fermentable) do 17. 3 Tannic acid do 5 Mudlage or pectose do 1.2 Free acids (organic) calculated as sulphuric do. ... . 107 Earthy matters, etc do. . 893 Total do 100. 000 The same author continues (p. 119): Cider apples designed for making a beverage of superior quality, from the point of view of its hygienic quality and of its conservation in a commercial condition, should be prepared from fruits which yield a must of 1.075 density in order to obtain a sufficient percentage of alcohol. ( )ne should search persistently for varieties which show at least 5 parts of tannin per 1,000 and 12 to 15 parts of mucilage, this latter being desirable because of its value to give smoothness and body to the beverage. The acidity should not be less than 1.071 parts per 1,000 in order to insure a good fermentation, and the fruits should be fragrant. At the International Congress on Cider Fruits held at Paris October 11-13, 1900, M. de Messenge de Beaurepaire, in a paper entitled "Principles which should serve as a basis for determination of the best varieties of cider fruits,' 1 enunciated the following general principles: Varieties should be divided into four categories, according to the nature of the beverage desired, as follows: 1. Varieties of apples or pears destined to make a delicate quality of cider or pe.rry. 2. Varieties destined for the manufacture of champagne cider or perry. :>. Varieties destined to make a full-bodied, strong alcoholic cider or perry. 4. Varieties for distillation of brandy. To whatever use one intends to put the fruit, all good varieties should satisfy the four following conditions: (1) Good flavor of pulp and juice. (2) A sufficient quantity of juice, falling not below 55 per cent of weight of fruit. (3) Good color of juice, above all with the apple, but not so important for the pear, as the juice of the latter is often quite pale. (4) Juice easy to extract from the pulp. He proceeds to particularize as to the chemical qualities of each category of fruits as follows: 1. Cider apples and perry pears, for a fine and delicate beverage, should show a medium density, i. e., ranging from 1.057 to 1.064, and not exceeding 1.069; sugar content, medium, 12.5 to 14.5; tannin (maximum), 0.3 per cent; flavor, sweet, slightly bitter. The distinctive qualities should be a clearly defined, delicate aroma and a sugary flavor. 2. Varieties designed for champagne should be as above except that there should be absolutely no bitter taste. 3. Varieties destined to make a strong alcoholic beverage should show density, 1.065 and above; sugar, 14.3 per cent and above; tannin (minimum), 0.2 per cent and above, the more the better; flavor, unimportant, except that it must not be acid; strong and penetrating aroma; the controlling qualities being richness in sugar and tannin. 32 4. Varieties destined for making distilled liquor should show a minimum density of 1.070 and 15.5 per cent of sugar, the richer the better. The other characters noted do not play an important role in this category. If the density and sugar content given in the first category are only medium for French fruits, in what category can one place German and many American and English cider fruits ? The French have adopted a high standard in quality of fruit, and the chemical analyses reported by the numerous investigators bear them out in this position. Do these qualities result from peculiarities of soil, or have these century- old seedling races of French apples acquired certain characteristics which can now be perpetuated in other lands by ordinary propagation ? Can their seedlings, when grown in other countries, become the founda- tion stock of seedling races of apples which will show such wonderful richness in saccharine matter and tannin as their parent stocks? After thirty years of study along what these French investigators seem to consider preliminary lines, but which has yielded already the best technical literature in the world on the subject, the Association Francaise Pomologique appointed a commission, composed of its best scholars and cultivators, to undertake a critical study of al 1 the data, and also to conduct an original investigation of all promising French cider fruits with a view to correcting the nomenclature and establish- ing a standard list with authentic information as to quality and char- acter of fruit and character of plant, so that cultivators shall have :i definite guide to aid them in making plantings. The fruit of each variety selected for the standard list Is reproduced in color for the bulletin of the association and modeled for the permanent collection. After four years of study this commission has made considerable prog- ress. On its organization at Mans in 1898, the commission adopted the following outline of points on which the varieties of fruits should be judged: (1) Vigor of plant. (2) Natural resistance of same to fungous and insect attack. (3) Fertility (productiveness). , (4) Quality, based upon the richness of the fruits in useful substances, but, above all, upon its known practical value as a cider fruit. b Out of the immense number of French cider fruits the commission decided that only 40 or 50 varieties of apples should be admitted to the permanent list, and 8 or 10 of pears, and that each subsequent year not over 5 or 6 varieties might be added to the list, and that these must be voted upon for three successive years before they could be considered as finally accepted. Up to the present the records only show 36 varieties of apples definitely admitted, and of these but 12 have yet been voted for reproduction by colored plates and models. a Condensed free translation from Proceedings of International Congress, Paris, 1900, pp. 48-50. &Bul. de 1'Ass. Fr. Pom., 16: 35. 33 These 1^ varieties represent perhaps the best known and most care- fully studied French cider apples. The chemical data which appear in the accompanying table have been collected from the bulletin of the Association Franc'aise Pomologique. For most of these varieties a very considerable number of analyses are reported. Of these analyses the maximum and minimum deter- mination for each substance are given, and then the mean of all the determinations of each substance. While there are some very striking differences between the determinations given in a number of instances, yet it is perhaps fair to say that the mean results ought to be reliable for the average composition of these varieties. Certainly no such elaborate data an. 1 at hand for the compilation of average composition of cider fruits of smy other country. To one familiar only with our best American varieties it is quite startling to note specific gravity determinations reading as high as 1.133 and total sugar 24.31, as shown by Saint-Laurent, and 1.134 specific gravity, sugar 26.35, as shown by Bramtot. Rousse falls but little below these. The above figures are, it is true, the maximum given, but the means for sugar of these varieties 16.51, 19.05, and IT. 19 grams per 100 cc (jf must are so far above the averages of American or German fruits that the comparison is equally striking. The mean acid content is very low, falling far below the German theoretical mean desired. In tannin these varieties exceed by far those of other countries, but yet rarely show a quantity sensibly above the theoretical minimum of 0.2 percent demanded by the French stand- ard, and only in one case, Bramtot, reaching a mean which approxi- mates the theoretical maximum quantity desired under the French standard. The varieties in the following table are arranged in accordance with the French seasons for cider apples: TABLE I. Maximum, minimum, and mean composition of 12 French cider apples, specially selected as standard sorts by the Association Franqaise Pomologique. Num- Vnripfv ber f Vanet> . analy- ses. Specific grav- ity. Grams per 100 cc of must. Season of maturity. Total sugar. Acid. Tan- nin. Muci- lage. Blanc-Mollet 13 [Maximum. < Minimum . (Mean [Maximum (Minimum [Mean [Maximum {Minimum [Mean {Maximum Minimum Mean 1.0740 1.0550 1.0637 1.0820 1.0510 1.0619 1.1330 1.0610 1.0800 1.1340 1.0500 1.0880 16.71 9.30 13.48 19.00 9.30 13.06 24.31 12.63 16.51 26.35 9.41 19.05 .970 .071 .240 .830 .044 .288 .730 .090 .276 .960 '.085 .219 .564 .065 .297 .415 .140 .254 .699 .096 .244 1.055 .133 .529 2.10 .20 .62 1.00 .25 .51 1.97 .04 .74 1.09 .01 .35 } First season Sept. 20 to Oct. 15. Do. Do. } Second season Oct 15 to Nov. 10. Reine des Hatives . . 10 Saint-Laurent 9 1 Bramtot . 58 17247 No. 7103- 34 TABLE I. Maximum, minimum, and mean composition of 12 French cider apples, specially selected as standard sorts by the Association Frangaise Pomologique Cont'd. Variety. Num- ber of analy- ses. Specific grav- ity. Grams per 100 cc of must. Season of maturity. Total sugar. Acid. Tan- nin. Muci- lage. Omont" 3 10 17 8 31 75 33 13 [Maximum, j Minimum . [Mean 1.0690 1.0630 1.0660 1. 1010 1. 0530 1. 0739 1.1050 1. 0580 1.0808 1.0860 1.0610 1.0695 1.0880 1.0600 1.0725 1.0936 1.0470 1.0685 1. 1070 1.0530 1. 0791 1.0870 1.0570 1.0670 14.92 12. 90 14.19 18. 32 11.27 14.80 24.00 10.81 17.19 19.00 12. 34 15.48 19.45 12.61 15.76 21.94 10.68 14.89 21.60 10.80 16.60 17.85 10.81 14.77 .370 .310 .330 .385 .080 .186 .810 .105 .282 .520 .079 .177 .480 .064 .177 .397 .015 .140 .740 .079 .233 .368 .082 .205 .300 .245 .266 .210 .061 .119 .395 .045 .200 .302 .079 .165 .524 .051 .176 .825 .008 .1% .866 .091 .407 .630 .092 .287 1.65 .62 1.04 1.12 .17 .51 1.45 [Second season Oct. 15 I to Nov. 10. [Third season Nov. 10 I to Dec. 1. Do. [Fourth season De- ) cember and January- Do. Do. Do. I Do. Doux-Normandie . . . Rousse (Maximum. Minimum . Mean [Maximum. { Minimum . Ambrette .61 .68 .10 .31 1.71 .02 .85 1.71 .02 .62 1.60 .12 .46 1.28 .20 .67 [Maximum. {Minimum . [Mean Argile [Maximum. [Minimum . [Mean Bedan [Maximum. I Minimum . [Mean Doux-Geslin [Maximum. i Minimum . 1 Mean Marabot [Maximum. (Minimum . [Mean Average of means 1.0725 15.98 .229 .262 .59 a Taken from Power, Vol. II, "Best cider fruits." In addition to the list of 12 varieties shown in this table there are 24 other varieties of apples already admitted to the standard list by the commission of the Association Francaise Pomologique, and 7 cider pears are provisionally admitted. Strange as it may seem, 2 of the varieties of apples admitted to the list (Frequin-Lacaille and Muscadet de la Sarthe) could not be identified in the present state of the nomen- clature so as to give the chemical composition of the must. Of the pears admitted provisional^ the analysis of but 4 could be ascertained with certainty from the literature examined. The chemical composition of varieties given in the subjoined Table II is largely taken from Volume II of Mr. G. Power's exhaustive treatise on the "Best cider fruits." In every case where more than one analysis is noted the average is given from Mr. Power's work. Where but one analysis is noted, the figures are in every case except one quoted from Messrs. Sequin and Pailheret, of the National School of Agriculture at Rennes. One analysis that of the variety Havar- dais is quoted from the work done by Mr. Pic at the Practical School of Agriculture of the Three Crosses near Rennes. These two schools just outside of Rennes are now doing an immense amount of work on the investigation of cider fruits. When possible, the average of analyses covering a period of years is quoted. 35 TABLE II. Composition of French cider fruits admitted to the provisional list of the Asso- ciation Franqaise Pomologique. Fruit and variety. Num- ber of anal- yses. Specific gravity. Grams per 100 cc of must. Reducing sugar, total. Acid, as sulph- uric. Tannin. Muci- lage. APPLES. Amere (petite) 1 5 3 2 4 3 1 1 6 2 1. 0860 1.0750 1. 0740 1. 0770 1.0680 1. 0850 1. 0873 1. 0572 1.0700 1.0600 19.09 17.13 15.30 14.00 14.60 18.64 18.30 11.69 15.10 12.80 0.114 .220 .236 .303 .227 .270 .123 .132 .230 .183 0.116 .188 .271 .276 .244 .419 .378 .110 .302 .376 0.450 .596 .827 1.755 .621 .347 1.392 .364 .678 .317 Binet Blanc ou Dor6 Binet Rouge Binet Violet Ch6ru bine Doux-Amer-Gris v Doux-Courcier Doux (petit) Fr^quin-Audievre . . Fr6quin-Lajoye Fr6quin-Lacaille a Gilet-Rouge. ... 7 5 1 1 5 4 6 4 9 5 1.0610 1. 0940 1.0508 1.0847 1.0650 1.0670 1.0900 1. 0710 1. 0730 1. 0710 12.29 20.24 11.76 15.74 13.42 14.34 18.60 35.92 16.57 15.16 .395 .118 .079 .164 .254 .185 .216 .183 .293 .228 .140 .368 .111 .089 .193 .212 1.107 .432 .350 .210 .558 1.130 .604 1.364 .690 .799 .524 .553 .758 .392 Grise-Dieppois Havardais Hommet Jambe-de-Lievre Jolv-Rouge Medaille-d'Or Michelin Moulin-a-Vent Muscadet (petit) Muscadet-ou-Antoinette'i Precoce-David 4 1 1. 0720 1.0710 16.28 15.21 .137 .141 .259 .213 .S04 .964 Tardive de la Sarthe Averages 1. 0732 15.55 .192 .289 .735 PEARS. Billea Carisiblanc . . 3 1 1 1.0540 1. 0742 1.0577 12.48 13.91 11.00 .303 .205 .338 .256 .034 .027 .283 .936 .246 Cheuneviere Crapaud Croixmare Navet a Souris 3 1.0650 15.00 .251 .666 Trace. Averages 1. 0627 13.09 .274 .245 .366 Analyses not found. GERMAN STANDARDS. The Germans do not appear to have attempted a study of varieties of apples and pears for cider purposes in anything like the compre- hensive manner of the French students. It seems that the German cultivators have worked on other lines than those of the French. To an American it appears that ordinary orcharding in Germany is about as far advanced as it was in the United States twenty or thirty years ago, before the wonderful development of commercial orcharding in this country. There are many good varieties of grafted fruit, and these are cultivated at times in considerable areas, but neither orchard- ing for table fruits nor for cider fruits is well developed in Germany, except where the dessert fruits are grown in what we would call gar- den culture on walls, trellises, etc. The German cider fruits, so far as they can be differentiated from dessert fruits, are occasional seedlings of no peculiar character or special value. There are certainly no varieties to compare with the special varieties recorded in the French literature and shown at the 36 French pomological congresses. In fact, the Germans use their chance seedlings and the refuse of their table fruits for cider about as we do in America. But the great manufacturing establishments draw sup- plies by rail from Russia, Austria, and Switzerland in large quantities, and much of this fruit may be of a more special grade for cider than that seen growing in the Taunus and Rhinegau regions of Germany. These establishments also draw supplies from western France when- ever crop failures in nearer regions render this necessary. The chemical data on German varieties are also meager, or at least so scattered that nothing approaching full data could be collected dur- ing the time of the visit. Later correspondence with very reliable book dealers has failed to develop this information as fully as could be desired. There are 53 different sorts or varieties of German-grown apples mentioned by Dr. Cluss" in his recent work on cider making in Ger- many. Of these 29 were anatyzed by Professor Kulisch at the Royal School of Pomology at Geisenheim. Out of 17 varieties anah-zed b} r Professor Behrend at Hohenheim, Wiirtemberg, 13 seern to be sorts not included among those examined at Geisenheim. These doubtless fairly represent Wurtemberg cider fruits. Dr. Kramer's analyses of cider fruits at Steiermark, quoted by Dr. Cluss, give 11 out of 15 varieties reported upon, which are not included in either of the above- cited lists. Thus we have 53 varieties represented in the following tables, which, from the German literature consulted, seem fairly to represent the range of German apples in the best cider districts. Director Goethe, of the Lehranstalt fur Obst-und Weinbau at Gei- senheim, says the Schafnase and Rhine Bohnapfel in Nassau, the White and Red Treierischer wine apples in the Rhine provinces, and the Luiken and little tangsteil in Wurtemberg are the best six Ger- man cider apples. TABLE III. Analyses of German cider-apple must made at Geisenheim, 1889-90, by Professor Kulisch. & Name of variety. Specific gravity. Grams per 100 cc of must. Grape and fruit sugars. Cane sugar. Total re- ducing sugar. Total solids. Acid, as sul- phuric, o Kostlicher 1.0451 1.0470 1.0496 1. 0532 1. 0533 1.0549 1.0591 1.0605 1.0642 1.0681 1.086y 1.0495 1. 0560 1.0538 1. 0540 1.0492 8.72 7.80 6.82 7.19 8.47 8.69 7.12 8.36 8.35 9.94 13.12 8.80 8.96 8.26 7.85 9.03 1.28 2.12 3.71 3.29 2.31 3.72 5.46 4.52 4.64 3.51 4.49 0.75 2.32 2.89 2.65 1.75 10.07 10.04 10.73 10.66 10.90 12.61 12. 87 13.12 13. 23 13.64 17.85 9.59 11.40 11.30 10.64 10.87 11.70 12. 20 12.86 13.80 13. 82 14. 24 15. 33 15. 69 16. 65 17.69 22. 61 12. 82 14. 53 13.96 14.02 12. 75 0.153 .241 .270 .716 .541 .087 .592 .138 .526 .665 .687 .592 .482 .351 .424 .409 Edelroter Kasseler Reinette Bohnapfel Giisdonker Reinette Winter-Rambour Schiebel-Taubenapfel Roter Eiserapf el Dunchapfel Graue Fr. Reinette Kaiser Alexander Burchardts Reinette Batullenapfel Schmidt-Reinette . . . "Die Apfelweinbereitung," Dr. Adolf Cluss, & Apfelweinbereitung. Dr. Clu?s, pp. 24-25. c Calculated at Blacksburg, Va. 1901. 37 TABLE III. Analyses of German cider-apple must made at Geisenheim, 1889-90, by Professor Kulisch Continued. Name of variety. Specific gravity. Grams per 100 cc of must. Grape and fruit sugars. Cane sugar. Total re- ducing sugar. Total solids. Acid, as sul- phuric. Gelber Bellefleur 1.0510 1. 0438 1.0535 1.0600 1.0639 1.0724 1. 0519 1.0654 1.0615 1. 0516 1. 0510 1. 0667 1.0507 7.38 7.77 8.62 10. 32 > 7.08 11.02 8.65 9.20 9.79 9.27 7.87 9.91 8.44 2.12 2.47 3.19 2.88 6.17 3.91 1.74 5.33 1.95 2.03 2.85 4.96 2.44 9.61 10.37 11.98 13. 35 13.58 15.14 10.48 14.81 11.84 11.40 10.87 15.16 11.01 13.24 12.66 13.87 15.58 16.58 18.82 13.46 16.89 15.97 13.37 13.24 17.32 13.15 .504 .255 .511 .482 .453 .372 .767 .402 .789 .402 .643 .555 .329 Fette Goldri'inette Langer Gr Gulderling Goldzeugapfel Muskat Reinette Ananas Reinette Griiner Fiirstenapfel Winter Gold Pannane .. .. Dunkapfel Leichter Matapfel Champagner Reinette . Canada Reinette Bauuianns Reinette . Averages 1. 0569 8.72 3.15 12.04 14.78 .460 TABLE IV. Analyses of German cider-apple must, 1890, by Professor Sehrend, Hohen- heim, Wiirtemberg. a Name of variety. Specific gravity. Grams per 100 cc of must. Grape and fruit sugars. Cane sugar. Total sugars. Rheinische Schafiiase 1.054 1.056 1.057 1.043 1.066 1.050 1.059 1.059 1.072 1. 059 1.068 1.054 1.063 1.059 1. 082 1.056 1.055 7.64 8.07 9.93 6.62 12.31 6.79 6.22 7.06 9.37 8.81 7.99 8.40 9.63 8.66 13.04 8.97 10.73 3.73 4.82 3.49 2.63 2.52 3.44 6.51 4.37 4.89 2.48 5.52 3.31 4.10 4.54 5.60 2.95 1.36 11.37 12.89 13. 42 9.25 14.83 10.23 12. 73 11.43 14.26 12.29 13.51 11.71 13.73 13.20 18.64 11.92 12.09 Goldparmine Rheinisches Bohnapfel Gelber engl. Gulderling Jane Hure Berner Grauchenapfel Pomemnzenapfel Rot her Kiserapfel Ensflischc Spitalreinette Kleiner Flemer Carpentinapfel Kugelapfel Glanzreinette . . Trierischer Weinapfel Koniglicher Kurtzstiel Kleiner Langstiel .' Casseler Reinette Average 1.059 8.89 3.89 13.38 Obstweinbereitung, Antonio dal. Piaz, p. TABLE V. Analyses of German cider-apple must, 1892, by Dr. Kramer, Steiermark. a Name of variety. Specific gravity. Grams per 100 cc of must. Total sugars. Acid. Muskatellerapfel -. 1.047 1.052 1.053 1. 054 1.067 1.050 1.043 1.050 1.044 1.055 1.051 1.049 1.068 1.055 1. 061 10.00 10.50 10.70 11.00 13.60 10.10 9.40 10.10 8.85 11.10 10.20 11.10 13.80 11.10 12.60 0.54 .75 .45 .36 .20 .55 .81 .64 .72 .54 .70 1.20 .80 .61 .72 Holzapfel, Spitz Holzapfel, rothgestrieft Holzapfel, rothgestrieft Hanapfel Steierischer Maschauzker Champagner Reinette Canada Reinette Weiser-Winter Taffctapfel Englische Winter Gold Parmane ' Rother Streifling Heiderapfel Damason Reinette Edelborsdorfer Gelber Weinapfel Average 1.053 10.94 .64 a Obstweinbereitung, Antonio dal. Piaz, p. 89. 38 Pyrus (/Sorbus) domestica. Strange to say, no modern German writer on cider making appears to notice this very important fruit, so largely used to tone German ciders. It is known popularly as the Speierling, Speierlingbaum, Speierling crab, etc., and is a native forest tree of central Europe, but was not observed in France. Whether it has been always intentionally planted in the orchards of the Taunus or is partly wild is doubtful, for it is not usually seen in the regular rows, but in odd nooks here and there. On the borders of mountain ravines it is a most beautiful and luxuriant tree 20 to 40 feet high and loaded in the fall with small pyriform fruits about half the size of Seckel pears. These become yellowish in color and fall to the, ground late in autumn, where, after some days, one can pick them up and eat them with considerable relish; but if plucked from the tree or eaten before they become mellow, the result on the mucous mem- branes is about the same as that of biting a green persimmon. This fruit is gathered in quantity just at maturity and before ripen- ing begins, and it is then used to fortify the best grades of ciders. Either the fruits are crushed with the apples in certain proportions or are ground separately and the must added to apple must in definite proportions. The latter is believed to be the better mode of blending, and it is the one pursued in the large establishments of Freyeisen Brothers at Frankfort. They had great casks of this must in reserve in a very cool cellar more than 50 feet below the surface of the earth, which they were using to blend with the finest apple juice to make the high-grade " Speierling apfel wein." J As nearly as could be deter- mined about 1 part in 20 of this must from Sorbus fruits was added to the apple juice. It seems astonishing, considering the great importance of this fruit, that no recent writer should have treated it in the German literature and that not a single analysis of the fruit or juice could be found. About a century ago J. L. Crist wrote quite comprehensively of its use in making wine and in blending with apple juice, but gave no chemical data. It is supposedly used at present to tone up German ciders in tannin, thus adding piquancy and flavor to the product. The sugar content of the fruit could not be ascertained. Director Goethe, of Geisenheim, kindly furnished an article written by G. W. Eiche- nauer, of Cronberg, Taunus, in which he discusses this fruit from a gardener's standpoint, but does not give critical data on its composition. He states that cider made by properly blending it with ordinary stock is worth twice as much as it would have been otherwise and will keep much longer. If it is the tannin principle alone which makes this fruit so valuable, certainly it is time we in the United States looked more to the selection of varieties rich in this substance or resorted to wild fruits, such as the native persimmon, Dyos})yrus virginiana, to obtain it. 39 ENGLISH STANDARDS. Any attempt to study the cider apples of England, or table varieties for that matter, is greatly complicated by the endless maze of names of similar orthography which have been given to apples, both cider and table varieties, and by the fact that there is no recognized authority on the nomenclature of orchard fruits in the entire country. Every local community appears to delight in applying names of its own choosing to the fruits grown, and there seems to be no general dis- position to reduce the nomenclature to a system under some competent authority, as for instance, a national committee on pomological nomen- clature. Of recent writers on pomolog}^ in its broader sense, there are very few, but the older works, as' those of Knight, Marshall, Evelyn, and others are classics of their time. The best modern treatment of the subject of pomology, in a some- what limited sense, which was secured is The Apple and Pear as Vin- tage Fruits, by Robert Hogg, LL. D., and Henry Graves Bull, M. D., a charmingly prepared general dissertation upon the subject of cider and perry making, with critical notes and cuts showing many varieties of cider fruits. In the way of recent literature, the Bath and West Society deserves great praise for the efforts it is making to develop a reliable literature on modern cider making. In fact, it is putting forth an effort to arouse the popular interest so necessary to the future progress in pomology as an art, and more specifically as it relates to cider making as an important industry. However, in this literature it does not appear that a successful attempt has been made to establish a standard toward which the grow- ers of cider fruits should direct their attention. The nearest approach to a standard as to quality of cider fruits which was found in the works mentioned is in the report of the committee of the Woolhope Club, which visited the congress of the pomological societies of France, at Rouen, in October, 1884. When this committee determined to select a set of French varieties of apples for introduction into Here fordshire they laid down the following rules: a (1) The fruit must possess the very best quality of juice. (2) The trees must be hardy, vigorous, and fertile. (3) They must bloom at varying intervals. (4) The fruit must attain maturity in late autumn or winter. (5) The varieties must have obtained the highest reputation in the Norman orchards. The fact that these gentlemen from Herefordshire recognized the importance of securing some of the best Norman varieties of cider apples for introduction into England indicates that some of the best English growers are alive to the importance of producing fruit of high quality for the upbuilding of the cider industry. But such apples are already very common in England. The oldest English writers tell Hogg and Bull, Vintage Fruits, p. 88. 40 us of fruits yielding 1 must of 1.091 specific gravity, which, if correct, is hardly surpassed in our day in any country. There is a large group of varieties of apples cultivated in England chiefly for cider, the names of which are made up of some English word prefixed to the word Norman or Jerse} T , as Cherry Norman, Broad-leaf Norman, Chisel Jersey, lied Jersey, etc. These apples all possess the peculiar bitter-sweet taste which characterizes so distinctly many of the most famous French cider apples. An interesting ques- tion arises in this connection as to whether these apples are ancient importations from Normandy and the Channel Islands. In the work on Vintage Fruits, quoted above, the opinion is given that they are not. This is based on comparisons made in 1884: at the congress of Rouen; which really prove nothing further than that they are not recent importations. It appears, after extensive comparisons, that this peculiar race of apples so common in Normandy has had a common origin, either in England or in France, indications all pointing to the latter country. Interchanges between England and the mainland have been such for man} T centuries that the parent stocks of the present race of bitter-sweet apples in England may very easily have been derived from French sources. Then there is the other argument, that all the historically old English cider apples, like Foxwhelp and Red Streak, which go back some two centuries in the literature, give no hint, either in chemical composition or quality, of common origin with the bitter-sweet varieties of France. From what was seen of these fruits in" England it appears that if seedlings had been freely grown from them and well selected, as in France, England would to-day have as good a race of cider apples as France has. But are the bitter-sweets so essential? This question is not settled. In Germany scarcely a trace of thiy peculiar quality was found in the cider fruits, yet they make most excellent cider in Germany. Also in Gloucestershire and Herefordshire, England, most excellent ciders were sampled, in whose making no particular attention, was paid to the using of bitter-sweet fruit. The question is an important one, and, with a view of giving it ample study, the writer has procured and is growing a collection of French and English cider apples representing the bitter-sweet and other old types. It has been necessary to examine a considerable mass of data in the attempt to select a representative list of English cider fruits. Mr. F. J. Lloyd has examined and reported upon such a large number of varieties in his work for the Bath and West Society that it is possible to use but a small fraction of his data. Hence an attempt has been made to select a set of varieties which shall represent the old renowned cider fruits and the more recent sorts which are coming prominently into notice. Among the varieties selected, the Blenheim Orange, which is an old popular variet} 7 grown for general purposes, and used 41 as a cider fruit also, has been selected for special presentation. Fox- whelp is the oldest, historically, of famous English cider apples, and Kingston Black is a very prominent recent variety. The others rep- resent the English-grown bitter-sweet apples, and a number of them are given because of their present prominence. However, no variety known to be of recent French introduction is used in the table, though several of these recent introductions are now beginning to figure in the English cider factories. The chemical data are taken wholly from Mr. F. J. Lloyd's analyses, published in the reports of the Bath and West Society. The writer has compiled from his data analyses covering as many years as could be obtained for each of those varieties selected to represent English cider fruit. TABLE VI. Analyses of English cider apples by Mr. F. J. Lloyd. Variety. Year. Specific gravity. Grams per 100 cc. Total solid.s. Total sugars. Fruit sugars. Cane sugar. Acid, as sul- phuric.o Taimiii. 1897 1898 1.0683 1.0674 16.64 15.66 14.35 14.04 10.00 10.64 4.14 3.24 0.577 .424 0.140 .078 1.0678 16.15 14.19 10.32 3.69 .500 .109 Broadleaf . 1897 1898 1.0578 1.0612 14.22 14. 62 12.50 13.25 ,( b ) 10.64 ( b ) 2.51 .172 i .300 . 234 . 302 Average 1. 0595 14.42 12. 87 (") ( 6 ) .203 .301 Cherrv Norman 1898 1897 1898 1899 1. 0636 15. 82 13.26 11.11 2. 05 .277 .310 Chisel Jer-;ev 1.0542 1. 068'2 1.0611 13.50 17.06 15.68 12. 90 15.96 14.84 11.11 14.08 11.90 1.71 1.79 2.80 .226 . 226 .234 .264 .370 .174 Average 1.0612 15.41 14.57 12.36 2.10 .228 .269 Foxwhelp 1895 1897 1898 1899 1. 0565 13.84 12. 98 W ( b ) . .146 .230 Kingston Black 1.0606 1. 0691 1.0667 14.86 16.90 16.64 14.06 15.37 14.84 10.64 10.84 11.90 3.24 4.31 2.80 .351 .416 .446 .126 .182 .110 Average 1. 0654 16.13 14. 75 11.12 3.45 .404 .139 New Cadburv 1897 1898 1899 1. 0539 1.0642 1.0601 12.68 15. 68 14.00 10.82 14.81 12. 66 9.06 12. 50 8.76 1.68 2.20 3.74 .702 .226 .174 .174 .232 .122 Average 1.0594 14.12 12.76 10.77 2.54 .367 .176 Red Jersey 1897 1898 1899 1.0596 1. 0611 1.0667 14.50 14.98 16.76 14.03 13.94 13.46 10.87 12. 04 12.18 3.01 1.85 1.22 .219 .226 .204 .124 .314 .230 Average 1.0625 15.41 13.81 11.70 2.03 .216 .223 White Jersev. .1 18% 1897 1898 1. 0581 1. 0519 1. 0642 14.68 12. 68 15. 74 13.25 12. 26 14.00 w 8.65 11. 62 CO 3.43 2.26 .160 .190 .307 .150 .210 .114 Average 1. 0580 14.36 13.17 10.13 2.84 .219 .158 Butleigh No. 14 .... 1897 1898 1899 1. 0790 1.0933 1.0925 20. 24 23.22 24.34 18.58 20.51 23. 32 13.18 18.18 18.88 4.94 2.22 4.22 .153 .292 .351 .300 .380 .206 Average 1.0883 22.59 20.73 16.75 3.79 .265 .296 General average 1.0642 15.82 14.30 11.65 2.77 .282 .221 a Calculated at Blacksburg, Va. 6 Only total sugars given. 42 AMERICAN* STANDARDS. Early in the nineteenth centuiy much interest was manifested in the United States in the culture of cider apples, and in the manufacture of this beverage at a few points. Perhaps Newark, N. J.. , was one of the most noted centers of this infant industry. In New England, how- ever, the cider fruits were cultivated, and the Massachusetts Agricul- tural Societ} 7 showed considerable interest in encouraging these efforts. From scraps of information and brief references, it also appears that Virginia planters were interested, and rated good cider highly. William Coxe was one of the first to write on this subject, so far as the early literature available shows. His treatise on Fruit Trees is dated 1817, and 1 in it he speaks of the high quality of Hewes Virginia Crab and the Harrison apple for cider making. The latter is of New Jersey origin, and helped to make the quality of New Jersey ciders recognized in the early days of our history. Coxe also mentions the Newtown Pippin and Winesap, both well recognized to-day as yielding cider of high quality, but lacking in the element of tannin. The Hagloe Crab, an old English cider crab, is constantly mentioned in the early literature, and the Vandevere is also spoken of as a cider fruit. In the change of habits which came over our people about the mid- dle of the past century, cider gradually lost its place as a beverage, used alike by the well-to-do and the laboring classes, and the art of making it seemed to fall into desuetude. The country people and a number of large commercial establishments have continued to make a beverage from apple must, but, in the main, it is very inferior in quality. Even the varieties of fruit best suited for making this bev- erage have almost been lost to our pomology, and later writers rarely mention them. Yet it can scarcely be contended that our people use less fermented beverages or less ardent spirits than formerly. The early American writers of consequence are Coxe and Thatcher, and these gentlemen did little more than copy the best English and French writers of their time, weaving in some local experience. Of real technical study there was none. The writings of Thomas Andrew Knight, and articles in Willich's Domestick Encyclopedia, furnished the basis of these early dissertations. Many of the principles laid down by these old writers contain the germ of the best practice of the present day. Strangely enough, the new encyclopedia of horticulture (Bailey's) does not contain the word cider as a subject. It has already been stated that we have not at present in the United States a distinct industry in the growing of cider fruits. Yet it is true that some of our crab apples, and some varieties of apples also, have been cultivated to a limited extent for cider and are considered valuable for this purpose, but it is seldom that they are grown to any large extent. 43 So far as the writer has learned there is no technical literature deal- ing especially with the chemistry of American apples, either for cider production or the manufacture of other products. Hence, at present it is not possible even to suggest a standard composition for American fruits used in making cider. Even partial analyses of the old fruits mentioned above could not be found, save of Hewes crab. Such anal' 3 7 ses as have been made, up to a very recent date, are fragmentary and incomplete, and little attempt has been made to collect them. In 1886 Mr. Edgar Richards, then an assistant chemist of the United States Department of Agriculture, made analyses of the whole fruits of 16 varieties of apples, and the results of his analyses are given below, so far as they concern this inquiry. These results can not be incorpo- rated in the tables of average composition of must from American apples because the fruit and not the expressed juice was analyzed: TABLE VII. Analyses of whole fruits of apples by Edgar Richards, Division of Chemistry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1886. Variety. Total solids. Total sugar. Reducing sugar. Sucrose. Acid as sul- phuric. Ash. Fall pippin Per cent. 12.81 Per cent. 10.14 Per cent. 7.40 Per cent. 2.60 Per cent. 0.577 Per cent. 0.354 Smokehouse 12.26 10.72 10.30 .40 .468 .262 Maiden Blush 12.00 9.79 8.80 .94 .767 .245 Northern Spy 13.43 10.41 10.25 .15 .395 .291 14.14 10.63 8.00 2.50 .395 .283 King 14.11 8.55 7.55 .95 .314 .231 Smith Cider 13.49 8.99 8.32 .64 .453 .275 Rambo 15.40 11.75 9.67 1.98 .292 .295 Blush pippin . 13.17 8.66 8.43 .22 .863 .353 Paradise Sweet 14.68 10.61 7.52 2.94 .138 .235 13.43 11.04 8.63 2.29 .395 .325 16. 55 11.90 9.40 2.38 .490 .279 14 58 12 02 10.80 1.16 .228 Golden pippin 12.95 10.03 7.69 2.23 .607 .249 Lobster White 10.60 9.84 6.89 2.81 .285 .255 Virginia crab 13.65 12.90 10.24 2.63 .409 .240 Averages 13.57 10.49 8.74 1.67 .457 .274 1 Recently, however, the Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Sta- tion has taken up this line of work, and during 1899 Mr. C. A. Browne, jr., made a fairly complete study of 25 varieties of apples grown mostly upon the agricultural college farm. Center County, Pa. His work was first published as Bulletin No. 58, Pennsylvania department of agriculture, December, 1899. From this source are quoted the data derived from Mr. Browne's analyses as to the average composition of the whole fruit of these 25 varieties of apples: Inorganic matter: Percent. Water : 83. 57 Ash : 27 Organic matter: Total solids 16.43 Invert sugar (grape and fruit sugar) 7. 92 Cane sugar (sucrose) 3. 99 Total reducing sugar (after inversion) - 12. 12 Acid, as malic (free) , 61 44 The points in the above which interest cider makers are the total sugars, which, when the cane sugar is converted into reducing sugar, show an average of 12.12 per cent of fermentable sugar. This is undoubtedly a high average for American apples. The free acid, 0. 61 grams per 100 grams of fruit, is also high, nearly reaching that of the German apples and being 0.2 to 0.4 grams above that of the French. The tannin was not determined. On page 29 of the same bulletin Mr. Browne gives the analyses of the fresh must as expressed from the fruit of 10 varieties of apples, including a number of the best-known summer and winter sorts. This table is quoted in part below. TABLE VIII. Analyses of must of American apples by C. A. Browne, jr., Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station, 1899. Variety. Season. Specific gravity." Per cent solids. Grams in 100 cc of must. Per cent of ash. Total reduc- ing sugar. Invert sugar. Cane sugar. Acid as sul- phu- ric. 6 Red Astrachan Summer.. do 1.05177 1.05382 1. 04880 1.04809 1.04839 1.07222 1.05249 1.06130 1.05587 1.05761 12.78 13.29 11.71 11.81 11.87 16.82 12. 77 14.90 13.94 13.75 10.69 11.67 10.24 9.90 10.85 15.39 11.16 13.61 12.95 12.95 6.87 7.49 8.03 5.47 7.61 7.97 7.11 9.06 9.68 10.62 3.63 3.97 2.10 4.21 3.08 7.05 3.85 4.32 3.11 2.31 0.833 .658 .628 .570 .073 .487 .336 .424 .190 .321 0.37 .28 .27 .24 !26 .28 .28 .24 .26 Early Harvest ... Yellow Transparent do Early Strawberry ...do... Sweet Bough do.... Baldwin Winter ... do Ben Davis . . . Belleflower . ...do Talpahocken ...do ... Unknown variety Averages do.... 1. 05523 13.36 11.94 7.78 3.76 .453 .27 a Corrected by author's request factor, 0.0014. b Calculated at Blacksburg, \*a. The average sugar content in 100 cc of apple must for the 10 vari- eties given, as shown by Browne's table, is 11.94 grams reducing sugars, which for practical purposes may be read per cent. This is a low sugar content even compared with German averages. The average acid, 0.62 grams in 100 cc of must, is high. From must of this aver- age composition one might expect to produce a cider of 5 per cent alcohol, with still a little sugar left unfermented. With such must undiluted, there is no reason to say that a cider of proper strength can not be produced. In the department of horticulture of the Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station the writer has for the past fourteen years been bringing together a large collection of pome fruit trees, more espe- cially of apples. This collection now contains 375 varieties of apples, including crabs, collected from various portions of America and Europe. Many of these are now coming into full bearing, and Prof. R. J. Davidson, chemist of the station, has begun an exhaustive investigation of the chemical composition of the fruits. This inves- tigation is not undertaken solely with a view to studying cider making, but for the general purpose of accumulating scientific data for our studies of these fruits in all lines as commercial fruits and as raw 45 material for the manufacture of various products. The following tabular statement furnished by Professor Davidson is useful here for the further consideration of American standards and for comparison of foreign and American varieties: TABLE IX. Analyses of apple must b>/ R. J. Davidson, Virginia Agricultural Experi- ment Station, Blacksburg, 1901. CRAB APPLES. Variety. Specific gravity. Grams per 100 cc of must. Total solids. Total sugar. Redu- cing sugar. Cane sugar. Acid, as sul- phuric. Tan- nin. English crab .... 1.053 1.065 1.066 1.066 1.045 12.68 14.88 15.42 16.03 10.90 9.60 11.84 12.25 12. 63 8.09 6.31 6.80 8.75 7.85 5.31 3.14 4.78 3.33 4.54 2.64 0.31 0.59 0.52 0.33 0.35 0.018 0.098 0.023 0.083 0.070 Hvslop Kentucky Cider crab Maiden Blush Montreal Beautv Averages 1.059 13.98 10.88 7.00 3.68 0.42 0.060 APPLES. Albemarlc pippin 1. 062 11.48 9.40 6.14 3.10 0.30 0.022 A kansas (Black Twig). .. 1.051 12.05 10.86 7 00 3.67 0.30 0.021 Baltzby , 1.046 10.76 8.76 5.23 3.35 0.47 0.015 Ben Davis 1.046 10.69 6.74 5.06 1.60 0.32" 0.022 Bonum . . 1. 060 14.23 11 37 7.72 3.47 0.27 002 Emperor Alexander 1.060 13.78 10.52 9.24 1.22 0.46 0.030 Eureka 1. 057 13.19 10.00 7.10 2.76 0.61 0.030 Gano 1 046 10 16 8 61 5.53 2 93 30 026 La \vver 1 049 11.96 9.91 8.05 1.76 0.34 032 Lov 1.052 11.76 7.08 5.43 1.57 0.37 0.017 Mann 1.061 14.08 10.35 7.43 2.77 0.42 0.016 Nero 1.046 10 61 8.58 6. 77 1.72 0.26 030 Northern Spv 1.053 11.73 8.82 5.36 3.29 0.50 0.026 Peck Pleasant 1.054 12. 60 10.23 5.32 4.66 0.35 0.016 Ridge pippin 1 051 11.73 8 66 4.69 3.77 0.32 030 Rome Beauty 1.048 11.37 8.70 6.24 2.17 0.27 0.030 Sharp 1.051 11.96 10.00 8.09 1.81 0.50 0.018 Smith Cider 1.062 13.31 9.93 8.63 1.24 0.48 0.026 Stark 1.058 15.05 13.31 9.26 3.85 0.42 0.013 Tolman Sweet .. . 1.055 12.42 9.76 5.98 3.59 0.15 0.024 Walbridge 1.051 11.57 9.18 7.94 1.18 0.44 0.022 Willow Twig 1.053 12.11 9 12 6.87 2.14 0.53 0.028 Yates 1. 052 12.33 10.00 6.79 3.05 0.34 0.018 York Imperial 1.050 11.91 10. 12 7.08 2.89 0.22 0.018 Averages 1.053 12.19 9.58 6.78 2.65 0.35 0.022 These analyses are the results of but one season's work, and hence do not warrant extended discussion or comparisons with the analyses of fruits from other sections of this country or from foreign countries. It is distinctly noticeable that the crabs show a better analysis as cider fruits than the apples. In this latter list, however, there are no dis- tinctly cider varieties. While there are a large number of these special sorts in our plantations, none have yet fruited. A number of analyses of fruits from the station orchard were made at the Bureau of Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture, and these are here inserted, forming Table X. The averages of specific gravity readings at the two places are remarkably close, but in other points there are differences to be accounted for, partially at least, by the fact that the varieties examined in the two laboratories were only in part the same. 46 TABLE X. Analyses of apple must by J. S. Kurd, Bureau of Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture, 1901. Variety. Specific gravity. Grams per 100 cc of must. Per cent of ash. Total solids. Total sugar. Redu- cing sugar. Cane sugar. Acid, as sul- phuric. Baldwin 1. 0514 1. 0585 1.0534 1.0594 1.0561 1. 0424 1.0704 1.0504 1.0506 1.0489 1.0510 1.0462 1. 0519 1.0529 1. 0574 1. 0589 1.0527 1.0445 1. 0527 1. 0521 1.0519 13.64 14.93 14.72 15.27 14.35 10.97 18.81 13.18 13.42 12. 08 13.18 12.00 13.77 14.05 12.87 13.08 14.60 11.74 12.75 12.37 12.55 11.72 11.36 11.35 11.12 11.61 8.12 14. 05 9.52 10.10 9.77 10.09 9.09 9.77 10.18 10.84 10.73 10.29 8.41 10.86 10.21 10.34 5.40 9.46 6.25 7.22 7.16 5.72 7.33 6.76 7.93 5.57 7.15 7.63 6.10 6.18 5.15 7.77 6.33 7.14 6.91 7.65 6.89 6.01 1.81 4.84 3.71 4.23 2.28 6.39 2.63 2.07 3.99 2.80 1.39 3.50 3.80 5.41 2.82 3.77 1.21 3.76 2.53 3.28 0.45 0.38 0.31 0.54 0.68 0.29 0.54 0.19 0.36 0.44 0.47 0.29 0.51 0.35 0.46 0.48 0.16 0.18 0.28 0.44 0.33 0.25 0.26 0.25 0.87 0.37 0.24 0.30 0.87 0.25 0.31 0.33 0.24 0.32 0.24 0.25 0.37 0.28 0.24 0.28 0.24 0.26 Bonum Bullock's pippin Emperor Alexander Eureka : Gano Grimes Golden .. . .... Jonathan Lankford Missouri pippin Nansemond Beauty Nero Northern Spy Peck Pleasant. Roxbury Russett Smith Cider Tolman Sweet Via White Winter Pearmain World's Wonder Yates Averages 1.0535 13.39 10.45 6.84 3.48 0.37 0.33 EAR VESTING,, TRANSPORTATION, AND STORAGE OF CIDER FRUIT. If quality in cider fruit is such a prime consideration, then any- thing which acts either to enhance or to deteriorate the same must receive attention. There is much discussion of this point going on in foreign journals, and the standard literature of this subject contains many notes thereon. The discussion hinges about certain principal questions, as: (1) What is the proper season to gather the fruit? (2) Shall it be hand picked or shaken ? (3) Shall it be kept in piles out of doors on the ground ? or (4) shall it be kept on raised temporary struc- tures, so as to protect the fruit entirely from contact with the earth? or (5) should it be removed at as early a date as possible into storage buildings ? Because of the fact that general culture of orchards for dessert fruit has not reached that stage of development in Europe which it has in the United States, they seem not to have worked out a sj^stem of harvesting fruit at all comparable to ours, nor does it appear that the harvesting and handling of cider fruits require such a system. Yet there are some important considerations to be observed. The early fruit which is turned into cider is generally treated with very little consideration. It is allowed to fall to the ground from the effect of natural ripening, and is either worked up from time to time or allowed to lie until such a time as it is convenient to whip off that which still hangs on the trees, and all is then worked together. This gives an uneven condition of fruit, and produces a poor product, which is fermented rapidly and used for a cheap trade. Such fruit appears 47 to be handled in most countries just as we ordinarily handle our entire crop of cider apples in this country. The fruit lies in heaps on the earth, quite regardless of unclean conditions, and is then ground with- out regard to uniformity of ripeness or blending for quality. The following discussion relates to observations made on the main cider crop. The practice of different countries varies much on some points and will be noticed separately so far as there is ground for so doing. Considerable importance is attached to observing the maturity of the fruit. The French especially argue that both the sugar content and the quality of the product are affected thereby. The first will doubt- less be readily admitted by all, and the second in part, but further investigation is needed before all that is claimed can be admitted. While the fruit should certainly be mature that is, it should have reached the perfection of its growth it should not be allowed to ripen and fall from the tree, as this will lead to very irregular ripening and yield at no time a satisfactory amount of evenly ripened fruit in proper condition for grinding. The French lay great stress upon gathering and ripening in bulk, as they claim in this manner to secure the most perfect development of the delicate aroma which is such a marked characteristic of the best Normandy varieties. Their method is generally to dislodge the fruit by shaking and by the use of poles at about the stage of maturity which in America we recognize as right for gathering and barreling. In many places this fruit is left in huge piles under the trees until late in the season, though this is not considered the best practice. The better method, which seems to be quite well observed by larger growers, and especially by those concerns which manufacture large quantities of cider, is to bring the fruit quite promptly into the lofts over the cider mills. This was the only house-storage method observed in France. It is well to explain here that the small cider apples grown in France bear shaking and beating off far better than would the large apples in our country, and further, the orchards are almost invariably set in heavy sod, which is an advantage in this method of harvesting. Their apples are often very firm at maturity, and some of them have a tough texture which resists rough handling well. It was surprising to see how little inclined the fruit is to decay from the effect of bruises and other slight injuries. The storage lofts in France were ordinarily fitted with bins or par- titions for the separation of apples of various qualities, so that they could be properly blended in grinding. Here were seen great struc- tures 100 feet long or more and 30 or 40 feet wide piled with apples to a depth of 4 to 6 feet, and such a loft in late November filled with this ripening fruit is pervaded by an aroma sometimes quite oppres 48 sive and not easily characterized. When the room is not too close the odor is decidedly pleasant. Some makers are very careful to store the fruit only a foot or two deep, but this is the exception. The invariable custom, so far as observed, was to run the fruit by gravity from the loft storerooms into the grinders, whence the pomace falls into vats before going to the presses. The fruit is ground from these upper-floor storerooms as it ripens some varieties not coming to their best until Januaiy or February. In the peculiar climate of Nor- mandy and Brittan}^ there seems to be very little danger of the weather becoming sufficiently severe to harm the fruit materially. The growers of this fruit are very largely the small peasant pro- prietors and small tenants, with here and there a large estate. The small growers are referred to in French literature as "-rocoltants.'' Often these peasant proprietors make up their own fruit and that of neighbors; hence the cider houses of these small makers are very common in some parts. But there is a tendency to commercialize, and more and more the fruit goes to the large manufacturer. To these it is hauled in carts (PI. V, fig. 2) loose or in sacks, the latter being the most popular method. These sacks are hoisted to the upper floor of the factories and distributed to the proper storerooms. There is also in France another class of cider makers, who buy the partly fermented juice from the small growers and blend and work it up to suit the trade they wish to supply. These are known as "commercants." They often make an excellent article, but they are also charged with a vast amount of trickery in the production of sophisticated goods. There is, in the great crop years, an extensive railway commerce in cider apples, both to local points and to the near or distant states. The shipments are made loose in what we call box cars, and also loose or in sacks on flat cars (PI. V, fig. 1). The method of shipping in sacks seems to be preferred in France and might well be copied in this country. The Germans appear to prefer handling the fruit loose. No railway commerce in cider apples was seen in England. In 1900 such an immense crop was harvested in Normandy that the local rail- ways were literally blocked with fruit, as is sometimes the case on American roads when great quantities of coal are carried. At the local factories visited in France great stress seems to be laid upon gathering the late fruit when perfectly dry and storing at once in the bins, where more or less of it lies until January and February. There appears to be very little tendency to decay. The cider maker judges the ripeness of the fruit, or its fitness for grinding, by pressing with the thumb until the juice exudes or by breaking the fruit in half and crushing one portion in his hand with a wringing motion. Great stress is laid upon grinding at the best period of ripeness in order to secure all the juice possible by expressing. Cleanliness is the rule in the handling of fruit in France, yet some dirty bad work was seen, Bui. 71, Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Dept. Agr. FIG. 1 .TRAIN LOADED WITH CIDER APPLES IN SACKS, FRANCE. FIG. 2. Ox CART USED FOR HAULING APPLES IN GERMANY. 49 the fruit being- dumped into filthy receptacles, and ground and pressed in a very unsanitary condition. In Germany there is, in the first place, much less specialization in the growing and handling of cider fruits, and there appears to be much less manufacturing of cider by small landed proprietors. There were, however, small makers everywhere, but they ordinarily purchased their fruit as miscellaneous stock from various sources, and paid no attention to storing and maturing the same by a definite system, but ground it up as needed. The large factories, as far as observed, also handled the fruit less carefully than in France. It was purchased in wagonloads and car- loads and dumped into great bins on the ground, covered or uncovered. While, on the whole, it was handled in a cleanly manner, no attention seemed to be paid to keeping it dry, or to the fine points of ripening the fruit. At one large factory 100,000 kilos (100 tons) of fruit arrived daily, mostly by carloads, and was dumped into a great open bin, where the fruit lay in the open from a few inches to several feet deep until wanted for grinding. As cider apples are an incidental and not a special crop in Germany, it will be understood that harvesting is largely a matter of convenience rather than s} T stem. The refuse of dessert fruit, together with the inferior varieties and purely cider fruits, are collected as suits the growers' convenience, and disposed of at the factories or manufactured at home if the grower is also a cider maker. Cider making in Ger- man}^ shows a strong tendency toward the factory system, and the makers have the technique of fermentation well worked out, but that they handle a fruit inferior to that of the French and with much less care is certainly true. In England the manufacture of cider is very largely in the hands of the farmers, though the factory idea is developing. One sees chiefly the same old customs of harvesting and handling the fruit that have prevailed for centuries. There is in general.no attempt at storage. The low-grade fruit (refuse from what the English call " pot fruit," i. e., dessert and cooking grades) is gathered in miscellaneous piles in the orchard, and either ground from these piles or drawn away and sold to the factories. At the best mills the fruit is graded somewhat, so as to properly blend the same at grinding, but even at these the fruit may be seen lying in heaps on the sod in the orchard or near-by lots until late in November. This practice gives to this fruit a very decided earthy flavor and odor, and in some cases it is largeh r dam- aged by decay. At Butleigh Court the fruit is stored in a loft over the press-room, and is kept in clean, dry condition. A method advocated by some in England is to make temporary bins in the field by using hurdles for sides and bottom, the bottom piece being elevated somewhat from the ground and all lashed together as 17247 No. 7103 4 50 shown in the illustration (fig. 1). This temporary rack is matted on the bottom and sides with straw and the fruit is then poured in. Such an arrangement permits of holding the fruit quite clean, and it can be covered with straw to protect from early freezes. ""'AjHW- \b,";'.M$ ..,*<.) is provided for the maceration of pomace after it has been through the press. When the pulp is thought to be in condition for the press a small car is run alongside and the pulp is laid up in cheeses on a form, using coarsely woven press cloths just as is done in the best American fac- tories. When this car is loaded it is run onto the press (D 1 ', tigs. 11 and 12), and the hydraulic pump is put in motion, the car and its load of pulp being lifted by the upward thrust of a hydraulic piston after the manner so common in this country. In this factor} r the hydraulic presses were rated at 200,000 pounds direct pressure. While this load of pulp is under pressure another car is loaded ready to take its place. On being released from the press the car is run alongside the large vat and the pressed pomace is discharged into it, carefully cut up with a shovel and wet with weak must or water, the amount of liquor added being about equal to the pure juice expressed. This round of operations is repeated until the day's grind- ing is exhausted, and the pomace from the first pressing then rests in the large vat macerating in water or weak must until thought ready for pressing a second time. The must from the fresh pulp in the vats and cistern is united in the great casks of the fermentation room as pure juice. This is destined for the highest grade cider. After eight to ten or twelve hours maceration the pomace is again subjected to pressure on a different press (D, fig. 11) from that used for pure juice, and the must is received in another cistern near by and pumped into another set of casks. This must is used to make a second grade of cider, the "boisson" of the laborers. But this does not complete the operation. Again the pomace undergoes maceration with water or weak must, being then pressed a third time. The must from this pressing is very weak, its specific gravity being 1.010 to 1.016. This must is used to macerate the pomace after the first press- ing, thus adding very materially to the quality of the must derived from the second pressing. The pomace is no longer of any value for cider purposes. It may, therefore, be discharged by running the car outside the factoiy, or it may be ground anew and washed to separate the seeds, which return no small income, as they are in great demand by nurserymen for growing stocks. These seeds are known in commerce in this country as French "crab seed," but they are really seeds of the cultivated apple and not of crabs. A second method of extracting the juice from the apple pulp is also employed in this factory, viz, diffusion. The diffusion battery (6r, fig. 12) is located at the extreme left of the main operating room. It consists of 6 tanks, about 3 to -4 feet high, mounted on a turntable. 17247 No. 7103 5 66 Immediately at one side and just above the level of the tanks is a res- ervoir for water. This may be supplied warm or cold. To put this apparatus in operation, 5 of the tanks are filled with cut or pulped fruit. These are so connected that the fluid will circulate from one tank to another by means of a tube connected at the bottom of the first and delivering the flow near the top of the second, and so on around the circle. By the time the fluid flows out from the bottom of the fifth tub it is well charged with the soluble matters contained in the fruit, i. e., sugars, acid, tannin, mucilage, etc. But it can never be made to equal in richness the product of the first pressing from the same fruit. As soon as the fruit in the first tank is exhausted by this washing with water, the stream is turned into the second, and the sixth tank, now freshly filled with pulp, is put in service as the final member of the battery. Then the first tank is emptied and refilled with fresh fruit to take the last place in the series, when the third tank becomes the first cell in the battery. Thus the operation proceeds indefinitely. It should be said that the richness of the must delivered at the exit from the fifth cell always determines when a fresh tub or cell must be "cut in, "as the flow through the last tub of fresh fruit strengthens the must very much. The strength or richness is taken by specific gravity very readily. The manufacture of cider by the diffusion method is carried on in France to a considerable extent, but its present importance does not appear to warrant extended discussion here. It may be worthy of study, but all the indications seem to point to its failure to produce a genuine high-grade cider. In the factory at St. Ouen-de-Thouberville two hand presses were provided as a reserve to be used in case of accident to the hydraulic presses. The main operations prior to fermentation have now been outlined. The must of the several grades has been delivered by pumps to the large casks in the fermentation room (figs. 11 and 12). Through each section of this part of the building runs a main brass pipe connecting with the pumps. The flow is readily turned into the desired section by valve cut-offs, and in each section the must is delivered to the receptacles by rubber tubes which can be attached to the " main" at convenient points. Each cask as filled is marked with the date and such other data as are necessary to guide the operator in the details of the fermentation. At the same time proper entries are made in the factory journal for future reference. The technique of fermentation is not discussed here, as it will be treated further on in this report. It should be added, however, that Mr. Power was using casks usually of 600 liters capacity or larger, open vats made of slate, and great tanks b}^ way of experiment during the first fermentation; but his preference was for the casks. 67 From the upper room, where the first fermentation occurs, the cider runs by gravity at first racking to the room below, which is a sort of half cellar. Here it usually rests until it is finished cider. The rail- ways shown on the ground plan are in this lower room and serve to carry the finished cider in casks of proper size for transportation to a platform at the lower side of the factory, from which they are rolled onto the great carts without lifting, an advantage of considerable importance. The space shown in the illustration, however, is not sufficient for the product of this factory, and five cisterns adjoining the lower store- room augment the storage capacity by 60,000 gallons. These are made of slate laid in cement, and the cider stored in them keeps per- fectly. When it is necessary to bring them into use, the cider flows by gravity to them from the lower storeroom. They are carefully closed as filled, and only opened as it becomes necessary to pump the cider out for commerce. This factory has a total annual capacity of about 350,000 gallons. The laboratory is of very great importance, and here Mr. Power makes analyses of fruits and of the product at various stages of manufacture so that all may be well governed. GERMAN FACTORIES. Among German cider makers of the Taunus and Rhinegau districts to propose fermenting the must in other than good cellars would be heretical. The cellar is here the first essential. Everywhere the small proprietor and the great manufacturer work on essentially the same principles. These cellars are most excellently built of good masonry, the walls being finished in hard mortar and the floors in cement, as though they were intended to endure for ages. Drainage, ventilation, hoists, and the like are carefully looked after. Dr. Cluss, in his recent work on cider making, bemoans the careless- ness and lack of method observed in some parts of Germany, but in the districts visited by the writer the people have the details well in hand. Only a few types of factories which illustrate those seen can be taken up in this report. The mills most generally in use in Germany for grinding or crushing the fruit are either single-cylinder rasping or grating mills or two- cylinder crushers ("greif " mills.) The simple grater mill serves its purpose very well, but the consensus of opinion seems to be decidedly in favor of the stone cylinder crusher (figs. 6-9). This mill, in dif- fferent sizes, was found in use, some being driven by small steam or gasoline engines. In fact small factories with good appliances and good cellars are quite common in the territory visited. The German cider maker may have a building devoted entirely to that purpose, as the large makers invariably do, or, as in the case of farmers and other small makers, he may use only a portion of a build- ing, the balance being used for other purposes. The grinding and 68 pressing rooms may be additions built onto another structure, the cellar extending under the whole.' In no case was fruit seen stored in upper rooms or lofts, but usually on the floor of the operating room or in bins adjacent. The small makers seem to make little or no provision for storage, and the grinding and pressing, so far as observed, were con- ducted on the ground floor. In the small plants this requires only a moderate amount of floor space, the power plant and grinder being near each other and the presses adjacent. The pulp was almost invari- ably allowed to stand for some hours before pressing. The Germans usually have large tubs, holding, say, 10 hectoliters (264 gallons) of fruit pulp, and into these the crushed fruit is at once placed as soon as it falls from the mill. Even the largest factory visited, having an annual output of over 500,000 gallons of cider, pursues this rather cum- bersome method. In large factories this requires a great amount of floor space and seems to necessitate an enormous waste of labor, but it is thought satisfactory by the proprietors. Small plants usually grind only enough fruit to make one or two cheeses at a time, and hence proceed at a rate which, in this country, would be considered wasteful of time. The manner of laying up the cheese is in the main the same as in our best appointed mills in which cribs are still used to hold the pulp during pressing. The cheese cloth has not made headway in Germany. The cribs, usually circular, are very well made. After maceration for a period varying from twelve to twenty-four hours, the pulp is brought to the press and submitted to as heavy pressure as possible by hand power, the drop screw press being largely used, but also those with the screw on a central stern. The pressure is applied for a considerable period until the cheese is carefully drained; then the pomace is thrown up and finely broken, and either macerated with water, as in France, or allowed to rest for a period when it is pressed a second time in a stronger press. The Germans do not use much water in macerating pomace for repressing; in fact, a very small amount was used where the operations were observed. The best German factories inspected did not use water at all, but these were equipped with hydraulic as well as hand presses, and the press- ing was completed at a pressure of 250 atmospheres on the hydraulic presses. The differences between French and German fruit in sugar content have some bearing on the use of water in macerating. At no time was must observed flowing from the press in German mills which was above 50 Ochsle (1.050 specific gravity), and if, after watering slightly, a second pressing of 40 to 45 Ochsle (1.040-1.045 specific gravity) could be obtained, the two runs were united and fermented together. This was the practice in small factories. The largest German factory visited, that of the Freyeisen Brothers, Frankfort, is possibly the largest in the world. Its annual output is 69 about 25,000 hectoliters (660,000 gallons). Unfortunately plans of this building were not to be had, and it was too extensive for the writer to attempt making drawings. The working equipment consists of one grinder, a large number of mash tubs in which the pulp is macerated, 22 presses (6 of these hydraulic), teams, tools, etc. A force of 160 laborers is emplo} T ed. In this factory, and also in most of the smaller German factories visited, the fruit is washed before grinding, usually in the manner already described, namely, by dumping it into a great vat of water and elevating it from this to the grinder by a screw rotating in a half cylinder. The workmen carry the apples from the bins in wooden vessels resem- bling tubs, holding about a bushel, and dump them into the washing vat. The pulp is taken in like vessels as it falls from the grinder and carried by the workmen to the macerating vats. From these, after maceration for about twenty-four hours, it is again filled into .the tubs and carried to the presses. The pressure is applied slowly, and the pulp is allowed to drain a long time. Then the pomace is cut up fine, put into another press, and re-pressed without addition of water. The third and last pressing is accomplished at 250 atmospheres. No further use is made of the pomace. The must averages about 1.050 specific gravity. To an American the work of this factory seems to be conducted on an exceedingly laborious plan. The impression obtained was that this old firm, which had been in business about a century, had at various times grafted on new ideas and appliances, without at any time really reconstructing and modernizing the plant. In like manner, the cel- lars appeared to have been added to until they honeycombed the earth, and extended vault below vault to a depth of 17i meters (56 feet) below the surface of the factory yard. This bewildering maze of cellar vaults, full of great casks, each holding 2,000 liters (528 gallons) or more, over 900 in all, served to store the product; but a great quan- tity of cider is sold while still in first fermentation for use in the res- taurants of Frankfort as sweet or smoking cider. The methods of handling the must are now to be considered. The pressing of the pomace, as explained above, generally occurs on the ground floor immediately over the cellar. To this first cellar the fresh must is conducted through rubber pipes, either by gravity or by pumping, and is put directly into the great casks in the fermentation room. It is the German custom not to fill the casks so full that there will be any discharge of froth or top lees through the bunghole, 6 or 8 inches of clear space being left in the top of each cask. As soon as a cask in the fermentation room is filled, it is fitted with the ventilating funnel (fig. 16). Nearly all good cider factories are provided with cellars at least two stories in depth, so that the room for final fermen- tation and storage is immediately below the first cellar. 70 The construction and arrangement of typical German cellars are shown in figures 13 and 14. The most ordinary place visited had one good cellar, and places of the next higher grade uniformly had two- story cellars. The great factories have still deeper cellars, as that of the Freyeisen Brothers already mentioned. The chief advantage of the cellar is the ease with which temperature can be controlled. For instance, in the upper cellar, by introducing air through ventilating flues (fig. 13 h), it is possible to raise or lower the temperature in accordance with the condition of the atmosphere, and once the proper temperature is reached its maintenance is fairly FIG. 13. Vertical cross section of small German cider factory with arched cellars. easy. However, in the cold season, if the temperature falls too low, resort is had to a heating apparatus. The temperature which the Ger- mans seem to prefer for the fermentation room (B, figs. 13 and 14) is 15 to 18 C. (59 to 65 F.), the lower figure being preferred if active fermentation starts promptly at this temperature. In the lower cellar ( (7, fig. 14) or finishing room a temperature of 8 to 10 C. (45 to 50 F.) is preferred. Still lower temperatures are obtained in late fall and winter. The comparative ease with which the cider can be piped from one cellar room to another under this German system is very apparent. 71 The liquor must, in the course of its progress to a finished product, pass from a warmer to a colder temperature, and this is here accom- plished by gravitation. The hoist (fig 14, . Solids. Sugar. Alcohol. Degrees. Degrees. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. 1.040 40 5.7 10.0 8.00 4.0 1.041 41 5.8 10.3 8.21 4.105 1.042 42 5.9 10.5 8.42 4.21 1.043 43 6.1 10.7 8.63 4.315 1.044 44 6.2 11.0 8.84 4.42 1.045 45 6.3 11.2 9.05 4. 525 1.046 46 6.5 11.5 9.27 4.635 1.047 47 6.6 11.7 9.49 4. 745 1.048 48 6.7 11.9 9.71 4.855 1.049 49 6.9 12.2 9.93 4.965 1. 050 50 7.0 12.4 10.15 5.075 1.051 51 7.1 12.6 10.38 5.19 1.052 52 7.3 12.9 10.61 5.305 1.053 53 7.4 13.1 10.84 5.42 1.054 54 7.5 13.3 11.07 5.535 1.055 55 7. 7 13. 6 11.30 5.65 1.056 56 7. 8 13. 8 11.54 5.77 1.057 57 7.9 14.0 11.78 5.89 1.058 58 8.1 14.3 12.02 6.01 1.059 59 8.2 14.5 12.26 6.13 1.060 60 8.3 14.7 12.50 6.25 1.061 61 8.5 15.0 12.75 6.375 1.062 62 8.55 15.2 13.00 6.50 1.063 63 8.7 15.4 13.25 6. 625 1.064 64 8.9 15.7 13.50 6.75 1.065 65 9.0 15.9 13.75 6.875 1.066 66 9.1 16.1 14.01 7.005 1.067 67 9.2 16.3 14.27 7.135 1.068 68 9.4 16.6 14.53 7.265 1.069 69 9.5 16.8 14.79 7.395 1.070 70 9.6 17.0 15.05 7.525 1.071 71 9.8 17.3 15.32 7.66 1.072 72 9.9 17.5 15.59 7. 795 1.073 73 10.0 17.7 15.96 7.98 1.074 74 10.1 17.9 16.23 8.115 1.075 75 10.3 18.2 16.50 8.25 WHAT IS A STANDARD MUST? To this query the investigations made have given no answer, nor does the literature materially aid one. There have been presented in some of the preceding sections many analyses of apple must made in different countries, and hundreds more could be quoted. These analy- ses differ widely from the standards of the tables arranged by differ- ent authors to show the saccharine content of a fruit juice in comparison with specific gravity. Unfortunately, the methods and the instruments used are far from uniform in the various laboratories where these determinations have been made, and the chemists making them must necessarily vary in skill and precision; hence a mere inspection and comparison of these data do not lead to a true conclusion in regard to the composition of apple must. But this is the best that can be done at present, and the averages of the data previously presented are assembled in Table XII to serve our purpose in discussing the prob- able standard sugar content of a must: 88 TABLE XII. Average composition of apple must for different countries. Countries. Number of varie- ties. Number of analyses. Specific gravity. Total sugar. Average total sugar. Acid. Tannin. French standard list 12 292 1.0725 Per cent. 15.98 Per cent. Per cent. 0.229 Per cent. 0. 262 24 79 1.0732 15.55 0.192 0. 2H9 German (Kulisch) 29 29 1.0569 12.04 0.460 17 17 1 0590 13 38 12.12 15 15 1 0530 10.94 0.64 English (Lloyd) 10 24 1.0652 14.56 14.30 0.303 0.220 10 10 1 0552 11.94 10.453 24 24 1. 0530 9.58 0.35 0. 022 American (Department of Ag- 21 21 1 0535 10. 45 10.66 0.37 From a comparison of the analyses given it is evident that the juice of the apple varies in average sugar content in relation to specific gravity in the different countries and in different parts of the same country. In fact a wide variation may be found in comparing differ- ent varieties of apples from the same orchard. This is a matter not yet properly investigated, but the existence of such variation must be conceded. Hence no strictly standard table of sugar contents in rela- tion to specific gravity is possible. Careful inspection of the published tables on specific gravity and relative sugar content, and a study of the actual analyses of apple must available, lead one to believe that the theoretical sugar content usually given is too high. In Table No. XI, there is given for com- parison the approximate sugar content which, in the writer's opinion, is likely to be found in normal apple must at the different densities indicated. True, the sugar percentages adopted in this table are empir- ical, but they are such probable averages within a small percentage of error that they are used to construct a table (No. XIII) to be used as a cellar guide in fermenting cider. This table appears to serve a very definite purpose, first, as a guide in the technique of fermentation, and, second, to assist in some measure in elucidating the further discussion. Table No. XI aids the manipulator of the must to estimate with con- siderable accuracy the sugar in the fresh must, and Table No. XIII assists him in watching intelligently the progress of fermentation. Thus, by the latter table, he is able to ascertain quickly the approxi- mate quantities of sugar and alcohol in a fermenting must of known original density. Attention was called to the presentation of these data in this form by the work of Mr. F. J. Lloyd, consulting chemist on cider experi- ments of the Bath and West of England Society. The work done under his direction on cellar records and technique was observed care- fully, and the ideas presented in his table and remarks in the journal of the above society for 1896 (pp. 139-164) are considered as very important. The same may be said of his other papers. The writer was .not able, however, to adopt the figures of Mr. Lloyd's table for deter- mining the percentages of sugar and alcohol in fermenting must of a 89 ^ 8 e 1 fe IS ^ & ^ 11 COCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOMCOCOeOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCO'>J' O ' ' ' i-I r-1 1-! i-i rH rH i-i rH rH rH CM' C^l CM' O) ^ 'O *5 o s '3 i so Source and remarks. o 0, o 9 g "3 a 1 _o fl 1 1 '3 V h o o 3 o "3 "o 5 o E A Si cc ^ H ** W ^ 1 Common apfel 1.0023 5.93 4.71 0.2954 0.0864 0.1286 2. 2140 0. 2636 C. A. Smith, Schier- wein. stein. Dry cider, 1 year old. 2 Speierling apfel wein. 1.0002 7.15 5.68 .2867 .0696 .1272 2. 3186 . 2539 Same source. Said to be made from Speier- ling and apple. 3 Common apfel 1.0032 4.94 3.92 .4018 .0552 .1234 2. 4110 .2812 Friedrich Groll, Weis- wein. baden. Low grade dry cider, 1 year old. 4 do 1.0027 5.83 4.63 .3553 .0108 .3062 2. 7722 .2306 Heinrich Merten, Er- benheim. Standard dry cider, new made. 5 do.... 1.0003 5.97 4.74 .3224 .0564 .0211 2.2142 .2834 Fritz Btitz, Xeuenhain. Standard dry cider, 1 year old. 6 Export apfel wein .9997 6.30 5.00 .2254 .0360 .0435 2.2333 .2544 Same source. Export special stock, 1 year old. 7 Schaume apfel 1.0221 10.67 8.47 .3773 .1068 7.9104 9.2274 .2106 Same source. Cham- wein. pagne cider, heavily sugared, 1 year old. 9 Export apfel wein .9997 5.70 4.52 .2254 .0576 . 0524 2.0201 .2236 Gebriider Freveisen, Frankfort. Select dry cider, 1 year old. 10 Speierling apfel 1.0004 5.85 4.64 .2631 .0396 .0187 1.9158 .2352 Same source. Dry ci- wein. der from Sorbus do- mestica and apples, 1 year old. 11 Borsdorfer apfel 1.0000 5.81 4.61 .2548 .0360 .1221 1.9438 .2346 Same source. From wein-. German Borsdorfer apple, 1 vear old. 12 Champagner ap- 1.0178 8.03 6.37 .2573 .0420 5.6544 7.3464 .1842 Same source. A su- fel wein. gared champagne ci- der, 1 year old. Averages . . . 1.0044 6.56 5.21 .2968 .0597 1. 3189 3. 3288 .2414 TABLE XVI. Composition of ciders: Analyses of English samples by Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1901. Per Grams per 100 cc. Source and remarks. Sam- Spe- cent alco- Re- [Nos. 22 to 31 from Bath ple No. Name or brand. cine grav- ity. hol by vol- Alco- hol. Total acids. Vola- tile acids. duc- ing su- Ex- tract. Ash. and West Show, 1900; Nos. 55 to 61 from Bath and West Show, ume. gar. 1901.J 22 Devonshire cider, 1.0222 4.16 3.30 0.2548 0.0672 4. 7414 7. 2136 0. 2420 Rated by official chem- first prize. ist of Bath and West Society above 4 per cent alcohol. 23 Devonshire small cider, second I.OLV: 3.14 2.50 .3822 .1356 5. 1895 7.6544 .3080 Rated below 4 per cent alcohol. prize. 24 Devonshire small 1. 0312 2.76 2.19 .3283 .0588 6.5366 9.2004 .2500 Do. cider, first prize. 25 Herefordshire 1.0304 1.72 1.37 .2377 .0840 6.1282 8. 5132 .2852 Do. small cider, sec- ond prize. 26 Herefordshire ci- der, first prize. 1.0325 2.75 2.18 .2989 .0780 6.3584 9. 3126 .2708 Rated above 4 percent alcohol. Champion prizecider, 1900, Bath and West Show. 27 Somersetshire ci- der, second 1.0266 3.85 3.06 .2107 .0504 5.2148 8. 1472 .3152 Rated above 4 per cent alcohol. prize. Ill TABLE XVI. Composition of ciders: Analyses of English samples^ by Bureau of Chemistry, V. >V. Department of Agriculture, 1901 Continued. Per Grams per 100 cc. Source and remarks. Sam- ple No. Name or brand. Spe- cific grav- ity. alco- hol by vol- Alco- hol. Total acids. Vola- tile acids. Re- duc- ing su- Ex- tract. Ash. [Nos. 22 to 31 from Bath and West Show, 1900; Nos. 65 to 61 from Bath and West Show, ume. gar. 1901.] 28 Somersetshire ci- 1.0307 4.25 3.38 .3185 .1116 5. 7760 9. 9912 .3886 Do. der, first prize. 29 Somersetshire ' small cider, first 1.0371 2.86 2.27 . 2597 .0768 7. 4659 10. 8164 .3116 Rated below 4 per cent alcohol. prize. 30 Somersets hire 1. 0220 3.37 2.68 .2407 .0828 4.5548 6. 9672 .3040 Do. small cider, sec- ond prize. 31 Somersetshire 1.0367 2.75 2.18 .3259 .0402 7. 6946 10. 5228 .2856 Do. small cider, re- serve. 32 Standard still ci- .9997 6.83 5.47 .2818 .1020 .0325 2.1458 .2666 H. P. Bulmer & Co., der from cask. Hereford. A very good dry cider, 1 year old. 33 Cherry Pearmain 1.0251 5.87 4.65 .2391 .0756 3. 3121 5. 9816 .2450 Same source. In grade cider, sparkling. is equal to best French moussenx or champagne cider; 1 year old. 34 H o 1 m e r Perry, 1. 0167 6.11 4.85 .2999 .1630 3. 4064 6.4502 .2772 Same source. Very good sparkling. champagne Perry, doubtless sugared, 1 year old. 35 F o x w help and 1.0206 4.85 3.85 .2867 .0636 4. 5392 6.9924 .2680 Same source. A special Kingston Black brand of sweet cider, cider. 1 year old. 36 Standard spark- 1.0152 4.93 3.91 .5366 . 3228 1.3488 6.0354 3.666 Toddingtoii Orchard ling cider. Co., Winchecombe, Gloucestershire. Nearly dry mousseux or champagne cider, 37 Standard dry cider 1.0065 4.93 3.91 .3112 .0768 .9200 3.2532 .3146 very good, Syearsold. Same source. Good still, dry cider,2vears old. 38 Champagne Perry 1.0129 6.01 4.77 .3577 .1296 .8768 4. 8166 .3928 Same source. Fine grade of champagne Perry, probably su- gared, 2 years old. 39 Standard new 1.0185 4.19 3.33 .3627 .1218 3. 2416 6. 0570 .3238 Same source. Newly cider. bottled cider, would become sparkling. 55 Herefordshire small cider, sec- 1.0292 3.15 2.50 .2568 .0610 5.5000 9. 0200 .2230 Bath and West Show, 1901. Rated below 4 56 ond prize. Herefordshire 1.0304 1.60 1.27 .3567 .0640 4.4200 8.5500 .3050 per cent alcohol. Do. small cider, re- serve. 57 Somersetshire ci- der, first prize. 1.0380 4.55 3.62 .3862 .0530 7.1300 12. 1200 .3250 Rated above 4 per cent alcohol. 58 Somersetshire ci- 1.0244 3.80 3.02 .2823 .0950 3.5600 7.9800 .2580 Do. der, second prize. 59 Somersetshire ci- 1. 0304 4.15 3.30 .3371 .0480 4.4000 9.3800 .3390 Do. der, reserve. 60 Som ersetshire small cider, first 1. 0398 2.55 2.02 .4704 .0520 5.7800 11.4900 .1980 Rated below 4 percent alcohol. prize. 61 Somersetshire 1. 0172 3.60 2.86 .2803 .0620 2.7700 6.1900 .2870 Do. small cider, sec- ond prize. Average .... 1.0249 4.11 3.14 .3161 .0910 4. 4375 7. 7920 .2940 112 TABLE XVII. Composition of ciders: Analyses of American samples by Bureau of Chemistry, U. 8. Department of Agriculture, 1901, Per Grams per 100 cc. Sam- Spe- cent alco- Re- ple No. Name or brand. cine grav- ity. hol by vol- Alco- hol. Total acids. Vola- tile acids. duc- ing su- Ex- tract. Ash. Source and remarks. ume. gar. 49 Sparkling draft 1.0053 5.87 4.66 .2979 .0890 1.1500 3.3900 .2830 Genesee Fruit Co., cider, extra dry. Rochester, N. Y. A fair, slightly gaseous cider, 1 year old. 50 Sparkling draft... 1.0101 5.57 4.42 .3508 .1340 2.1100 4.6700 .28HO Same source. More cider. sparkling than above; 1 year old. 61 Plain fermented .9987 7.83 6.22 .3626 .0860 .0000 2.3600 .2920 Same source. Perfect- cider. ly dry, still cider, 1 year old. 52 Crab-apple cider.. 1.W78 5.51 4.37 .2372 .0490 3.3400 6.7000 .2770 Same source. A spark- ling cider of mous- seux or champagne grade, 1 year old. 63a Paulding Pippin 1.0289 2.16 1.71 .4567 .0250 5.9900 8.2300 .2410 H. Paulding, jr., Hun- cider, 1900. tington. L. I., N. Y. A sweet mousseux cider, 1 year old. 53 Same 1899 . 1.0292 3.92 3.12 .0220 5.1700 9.0300 .2830 Same source. Almost identical in charac- ter, but greater al- coholic strength; 2 years old. Average 1. 0150 5.14 4.08 .3410 .0590 2.9600 5.7300 .2770 Sauternesti 1.0040 5.54 4.43 .3500 9800 finnn Made with pure yeast culture by Professor Alwood. "A fine dry champagne cider. Valise d'Augea... 1.0030 6.51 5.20 .4800 .2000 2. 2400 Made with pure yeast, as above. A* very dry sparkling cider. a Samples of cider made at Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station; analyses made by Professor Davidson. Discussion of these tables is hardly necessary further than to call attention to salient facts relating to the specific gravity, alcohol, and sugar content. The French and German ciders are remarkably alike in regard to specific gravity and the indications are that these ciders are fermented practically dry. The analyses show this to be the case. There are two German samples Nos. 7 and 12 with comparatively high specific gravity, and these show a considerable percentage of sugar still unfermented, in fact a very much larger percentage than is necessary to produce the desired result, namely, to champagnize the cider. The French cider, No. 40, is a champagne cider with a much smaller sugar content. It is a question of the taste of one's customers whether such highly sugared champagne ciders as these two German samples should be made. In the writer's opinion the French sample is better; and it has been definitely proved at Blacksburg that a tine gaseous or champagne cider can be made without the addition of sugar. The French samples are strikingly high in volatile acids, which would indicate the presence of acetic acid. The cellar methods may account for this. The two analyses given at the bottom of the table of American sam- ples are ciders made at the experiment station at Blacksburg, Va. Both were prepared from samples of the same must, handled side by 113 side, until finished. Each was sown with a culture of pure yeast, the one a yeast isolated from a French Sauterne wine, the other from a Normandy cider of the Vallee d'Auge district. The first resulted in a tine cider of beautiful color, gaseous, and with flavor like cham- pagne, the other in a very fine, dry cider, sparkling and gaseous. Sugaring ciders for champagnizing is a doubtful practice, and the best-posted makers abroad insist that the true future of cider making lies along the line of fully fermented dry ciders. The analyses of English ciders show wide variations in their compo- sition. The samples Nos. 22 to 31 and 55 to 61, inclusive, were taken at the Bath and West Show, the first set in 1900 and the second in 1901. Both sets of samples reveal similar characteristics high specific gravity and in the main low alcohol and high sugar content. These are simply incompletely fermented ciders, either filtered as clear as possible of yeasts and held in highly sulphured casks, or treated with chemicals to check fermentation. Nos. 32 to 39 are samples taken at factories, as revealed by the notes, and are among the very best ciders collected, and show the possibilities of English cider fruits. WORKS OF REFERENCE. As mentioned previously in the discussion, the French literature on cider making is very voluminous, but it can not be said that it is all of great value. In fact there is an enormous literature on every phase of the subject, expressing ever} 7 shade of opinion, so that one is at great loss what to commend. Consequently there is given in the subjoined list only a few references, and these are to those sources which were found to be most useful and reliable. The first work is now out of print and can rarely be found. The others are mostly easy to obtain. Of the German literature it must be said that it is not abundant nor very rich in actual observations made on growing the fruit and making the cider, nor in technical investigations of a chemical nature or other- wise. The books presented in the list are mostly compilations by persons more or less familiar with the actual practice of cider or wine making. The recent English literature is practically all found in the Journal of the Bath and West of England Society and the other two works named. There is an older English literature on the subject, which is practically inaccessible. FRENCH WORKS. L. de Boutteville et A. Hauchecorne. Le Cidre. A treatise based upon the papers and discussions delivered before the Cider Congresses held at Rouen 1864 to 1875. This is perhaps one of the most important papers in the French literature, com- prising the most -elaborate notes upon varieties and their chemical composition. A. Truelle. Guide pratique des meilleurs fruits de pressoir, employes dans le pays d'Auge. L'enseignement de la pomiculture et de Pindustrie cidriere en France 17247 No. 7103 8 114 et a 1'etranger. (Congres international pour 1' etude des fruits de pressoir et de 1'industrie du cidre, Paris, 1900, pp. 127-326.) (In this treatise the author gives the most elaborate bibliography extant of works in all languages on cider making and related subjects.) Dr. Dennis-Dumont. Proprietes medicales et hygieniques du cidre. Caen. With- out date. (In this Dr. Dumont presents a considerable array of facts concerning the healthfulness of cider as a common beverage. ) Bulletin de 1'Association pomologique de 1'ouest. (This is the publication of a society organized in 1883 under above title, which continued up to 1897, during which time it published annual volumes containing many papers of value.) Bulletin de 1'Association francaise pomologique pour 1'etude des fruits de pres- soir et 1'industrie du cidre. (This is the proceedings of a society organized in 1897, which continues to meet annually and publishes a journal containing papers by the best investigators, practitioners, and writers on this subject. ) G. Power. Traite de la culture du pommier et de la fabrication du cidre. Tome 1. Monographic des meilleures varietes de pommes a cidre. Tome II. (These two vol- umes constitute the best work on this subject in the French language, considered as a text-book. ) G. Jacquemin. Les fermentations rationnelles. (In this large work M. Jacque- min deals extensively with the employment of pure yeast in the manufacture of wines and ciders, and summarizes much of the best literature on the subject.) L. Seguin et F. Pailheret. Etudes sur le cidre. (This work gives an account of the studies made by the authors on the manufacture of cider by diffusion, at the national school of agriculture at Rennes, France, and as an appendix, the most com- plete table of the analyses of cider fruits that the writer has yet seen. ) Bulletin du Ministere de 1' Agriculture. (This publication is issued in serial num- bers from the ministry and contains many important articles, among others all of Professor Kayser's work. ) Le Cidre. (A monthly review devoted to the industry of cider making.) Le Cidre et le Poire. (A monthly revieWsimilar to the last named.) GERMAN WORKS. Dr. A. Graeger. Die Obstweinkunde, oder Bereitung aller Arten Wein aus Beeren Stein und Kernobst, als auch aus den Bliiten, Bliittern und Wurzeln einiger Pflanzen. Johannes Bottner. Die Obstweinbereitung. Anleitung zum Keltern des Apfel- weins und der andern Obst, etc. Sechste Auflage. Prof. Dr. Behrend. Untersuchung von in Wiirttemberg produzirten Obstweinen. (Mittheilungen aus Hohenheim.) Obstweine aus reinen Obst-Arten, ausgestellt von dem Technologischen Institut der Koniglichen wiirttembergischen landwirth- schaftlichen Akademie in Hohenheim, etc. Prof. Dr. Julius Wortmann. Anwendung und Wirkung reiner Hefen in der Weinbereitung. (Studies from the Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Geisenheim.) Dr. Adolf Cluss. Die Apfelweinbereitung. (A general treatise on cider making, written in a plain style. ) Antonio dal Piaz. Die Obstweinbereitung nebst Obst- und Beerenwein-Brennerei. (A compilation.) ENGLISH WORKS. E. Hogg and H. Graves Bull. The Apple and Pear as Vintage Fruits. (The best recent English work, which treats both of cider fruits and cider making. ) Journal of the Bath and West of England Society, established 1777, and Southern Counties Association. Vol. IV, 1894, and subsequent numbers. Cooke, C. W. Kadcliffe. Lecture on Cider before the Society of Arts. A Book about Cider and Perry. 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