r> 
 
THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 PRESENTED BY 
 
 PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND 
 MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID 
 
 

PLATE I. 
 
 WHALES, SEALS, AND WALRUS. 
 
TRESPASSERS. 
 
 SHOWING HOW THE INHABITANTS OF EARTH, AIR, AND WATER 
 ARE ENABLED TO TRESPASS ON DOMAINS NOT THEIR OWN. 
 
 BY THE 
 
 KEY. J. a. WOOD, M.A., F.L.S., 
 
 AUTHOR OF "THE ILLUSTRATED NATURAL HISTORY," 
 
 " HOMES WITHOUT HANDS," 
 
 ETC. ETC. 
 
 WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 SEELEY, JACKSON, AND HALLIDAY, 54, FLEET STREET, 
 LONDON. MDCCCLXXV. 
 
V/7 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 IN almost every large group of animal life there is a 
 curious tendency towards usurping the domain which 
 is usually occupied by other groups. 
 
 Taking, for example, the Fishes as typical occu- 
 piers of the water, we find that there are various 
 groups of Mammalia, Birds, Reptiles, Insects, etc., 
 which live almost as much in the water as do the 
 Fishes themselves. Such, for example, are the 
 Whales and Dolphins among the Mammalia, the 
 Penguins among the Birds, the Turtles, Water Snakes 
 and Newts among the Reptiles, and the Water Beetles 
 among the Insects. 
 
 Then, we have the Bats as examples of mammalia 
 which trespass on the domain of the birds j while the 
 Flying Monkey or Colugo, the Flying Squirrels of 
 the Old World, and the Flying Phalangists of Aus- 
 tralasia, are examples of partial Trespassers in the 
 same direction. With regard to reptiles (putting 
 aside the extinct Pterodactyls) we have the Flying 
 
 si 
 
IT PREFACE. 
 
 Dragons and the Flying Frog. Even in the fishes 
 and the molluscs we find examples of Trespassers on 
 the domain of air, such as the Flying Fishes, Flying 
 Gurnards, and Flying Squids. 
 
 Lastly, we find that some of the fishes, such as 
 the Climbing Perch, and several marine Crustacea, 
 such as the Land Crabs, the Kobber Crabs, and the 
 Hermit Crabs, are able to leave the water and to 
 trespass on the domain of the mammalia. 
 
 It has been my endeavour, in the course of this 
 work, to show how simple, and yet how effectual, 
 are the modifications of structure by which a mammal, 
 ordinarily an inhabitant of earth, is enabled to tres- 
 pass upon the domains of the Fishes and the Birds 
 a bird or reptile to trespass upon the realm which 
 belongs to the Fishes, and a fish to trespass upon 
 that of the Mammal. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PAGB 
 
 INTRODUCTION... 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 MARINE AND AQUATIC TRESPASSERS : THE WHALES 12 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 DOLPHINS AND SIRENS 43 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 SEALS 55 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 REPTILIAN WATER TRESPASSERS 76 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 PARTIAL WATER TRESPASSERS: CARNIVOHA 120 
 
VI CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 RODENT WATER TRESPASSERS : THE BEAVEE 143 
 
 CHAPTER VIIT. 
 PACHYDERMATOUS WATER TRESPASSERS : THE HIPPOPOTAMUS 171 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 MARSUPIAL AND MONOTREMATOUS WATEB TRESPASSEES 192 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 BIRD WATEE TEESPASSEES 209 
 
 '< 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 INSECT WATEE TEESPASSEES 238 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 TRESPASSERS UPON THE AlB 277 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 FLYING REPTILES, FISHES, AND MOLLUSCS 301 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 EARTH TRESPASSERS.., .. 322 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Plate ^.. Whales, Seals, and "Walrus Frontispiece. 
 
 II. Crocodile, Hippopotamus, and Water Hog 94 
 
 III. Tapirs and Capybara 184 
 
 IV. Cormorant, Puffin, and Penguin 210 
 
 V. Vampire Bat, Kalong, Opossum Mouse, Hepoona Roo, 
 
 and Sugar Squirrel 288 
 
 VI. Fox, Badger, Rabbit, and Field Mouse 348 
 
 Cut 1. Dolphin and Porpoise 44 
 
 ,, 2. Manatee and Dugong 52 
 
 3. Toad, Newt, and Frog 78 
 
 4. Snake and Axolotl.... 82 
 
 5. Hawkbill Turtle, Snapping Turtle, Chelodyne, and 
 
 Alligator Terrapin 102 
 
 6. Otters 122 
 
 7. Beaver 144 
 
 8. Water Vole and Water Shrew 154 
 
 9. Duckbill 196 
 
 10. Waterhen and Dabchick 226 
 
 11. Water Boatman, Water Scorpion, Swimming Ichneu- 
 mon, Larva of Gnat, and Whirl wig Beetle 245 
 
 12. Colugo 292 
 
 13. Flying Dragon and Flying Frog 304 
 
 14. Flying Fishes, Flying Gurnard, and Flying Squid 310 
 
 15. Climbing Perch and Walking Fish 324 
 
 16. Robber Crab, Land Crab, and Four Eyes 330 
 
 17. Eels and Conger 338 
 
 18. Mole and Slepez 342 
 
 19, Termites 348 
 
 20. Travelling Ants f 350 
 
TRESPASSERS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 TRESPASSING seerns to exert a strange fascination over 
 most animated beings. There are many, like the sea- 
 anemone and the barnacle, which are fixed to one spot, 
 and cannot trespass even if they wished to do so. In 
 the latter case, however, the creature has led a roving 
 life before it finally settled upon a resting-place, and had 
 every opportunity of gratifying a restless disposition. 
 The very existence of a boundary seems to create a 
 desire to pass it, no matter what may be its nature or 
 extent. 
 
 Any one who has seen a goat fastened by a cord, 
 will have remarked that the animal is always at the full 
 extent of the rope. And if its position has not been 
 changed for a day or two, there is always a ring of short 
 grass round the edges of the circle which the goat has 
 described by walking round and round at the extent of 
 its tether. The grass which is near the peg is quite 
 as good as that near the circumference ; but, whereas 
 the former is almost untouched, the latter is so closely 
 nibbled by the animal's teeth, and so trodden down by 
 
 OL 
 
2 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 its hoofs, that it looks just like the spot which a 
 travelling circus has recently vacated. 
 
 Horses and cows act in very much the same man- 
 ner. They will stand for hours close to the boundary, 
 and be quite grateful to any one who will pluck them 
 some of the grass that grows without their limits, even 
 though it be inferior to that within them. A gate is a 
 favourite resting-place, both with horses and cows ; 
 and they often press so heavily against it, that they 
 injure the fastenings. 
 
 The late Charles Waterton pointed out to me a 
 device which he had put in practice on his estate at 
 Walton Hall, near Wakefield. He found that when 
 the cattle were on the side towards which the gate 
 opened, they did no great harm, because they only 
 pushed it against the post ; but that, when they were 
 on the opposite side, all the strain came against the 
 hinges and latch. So on the inside of every gate he 
 had a strong chain fastened to the left gate-post by a 
 staple, and to the right by a stout iron hook. 
 
 The chain was set at the average height at which 
 the breast of a horse or cow would press against it, and, 
 by means of the hook, it could be unhitched whenever 
 the animals had to be moved. By means of this 
 ingenious device, it is impossible for the cattle to 
 damage the fastenings of the gate, as in the one case 
 the pressure was against the posts, and in the other 
 against the chains. 
 
 Close to my house there is a ludicrous example of 
 the trespassing instinct. 
 
 There is a stable, with an open yard attached to it, 
 and surrounded by a high park fence. The owner of 
 
INTRODUCTION. 6 
 
 the stable, being of a humane disposition, allows his 
 horse to roam at large in the yard. Not content with 
 this amount of liberty, the animal is always trying to 
 cross the barrier that separates him from the rest of 
 the world, and has contrived, in some way or other, to 
 get his head over the fence, so as to enable him to 
 survey the country at large. Many a lady has been 
 frightened, when walking along the path, to see his 
 great head flung suddenly over the fence ; and even 
 to those who know the animal and his ways, the sight 
 is rather startling on a dusky evening. 
 
 The same feeling holds good with human, beings. 
 I suppose that there never yet was a schoolboy who 
 did not always experience a burning desire to cross 
 he legitimate bounds of the school, no matter whether 
 they be far or near. Indeed, so well is this feeling 
 known, that in more than one school all bounds have 
 been abolished, and in others a quaint sort of com- 
 promise has been virtually agreed upon between the 
 boys and the master. 
 
 If a master happen to meet a boy out of bounds, 
 and the latter conceals himself, even though by pre- 
 tending to hide behind a sapling not an inch thick, or, 
 in default of any such advantage, by turning his back, 
 and making believe not to see the master, the latter 
 also pretends not to see the boy, though they may be 
 close to each other. Should, however, the boy give any 
 recognition of the master, or even look him in the 
 face, he is considered to be in open defiance of the 
 rules, and punished accordingly. 
 
 Men act in just the same manner. All those who 
 have read history, whether ancient or modern, must be 
 
4 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 familiar with many instances where persons who had 
 been banished from their country, on pain of death, 
 have been irresistibly drawn towards the frontiers ; 
 and though they knew that their lives would be for- 
 feited if they were captured, have been unable to 
 resist the impulse that urged them to trespass across 
 the forbidden line. 
 
 Not many years ago, there existed in the vicinity 
 of certain prisons a few streets, technically named the 
 " Rules " of the prison. In these " Rules " any one 
 imprisoned for debt might live, without being actually 
 within the walls of the prison, provided that he could 
 pay the high rental demanded. 
 
 If he ventured across the boundary of. the " Rules/' 
 were ib but by a foot, he might be captured, and then 
 would be strictly confined within the walls of the prison. 
 This partial liberty was certainly a considerable privi- 
 lege, though, in fact, it was more apparent than 
 real. For, so deeply does human nature resent the 
 existence of any boundaries, that the residents within 
 the Rules found them scarcely less galling than the 
 prison itself. They would come to the entrance of the 
 street, stand as close as they could to the line of 
 separation, and gaze wistfully at the world with which 
 they might not mix. 
 
 Sometimes, after watching carefully so that no 
 enemy might be in sight, they would jump across the 
 boundary ; and occasionally one of them, bolder or 
 more active than the rest, would run fairly across 
 the street, touch the opposite wall, and dart back 
 again, amid the envious congratulations of his com- 
 panions. He really felt much better after an exploit 
 
INTRODUCTION. 5 
 
 of this kind, which was a brief taste of the sweets 
 of liberty. 
 
 Perhaps the spice of danger added to the enjoy- 
 ment of the trespass. For there have been instances 
 where spiteful creditors, baffled by the debtor's refuge 
 in the Rules, have placed cunning officers within 
 hiding, and so have captured their unfortunate debtors, 
 and deprived them even of the small modicum of 
 liberty which they had been permitted to enjoy. 
 
 Even where man is not a prisoner in this sense of 
 the word, he feels himself a prisoner in many others, 
 and is always trying to pass the boundary. Pent by 
 the sea within an island, no matter how large, he is 
 sure to break through the boundary by artificial means, 
 and by a vessel, a boat, a raft, or even a log of wood, 
 to trespass beyond his original domains. 
 
 Viewing the birds, insects, and other winged crea- 
 tures disporting themselves in the air, man at once 
 repines at his imprisonment upon earth, and longs to 
 follow them in their aerial flights. " Oh, that I had 
 wings like a dove ! " is the natural cry of man ; and 
 from the time of Icarus to the present day, he has 
 never ceased from the attempt to make himself wings, 
 and to launch himself boldly into the regions of air. 
 
 By means of the balloon, he has succeeded in sus- 
 taining himself for a certain time above the earth, and 
 has risen to an elevation far higher than any which a 
 bird has as yet been known to attain. In fact, pigeons, 
 when thrown out of the car of a balloon, have been 
 seen to fall perpendicularly for a considerable depth, 
 before they found the air sufficiently dense to support 
 them. 
 
6 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Man is not, however, satisfied with the balloon. 
 In the first place, he wishes to be perfectly independent 
 of a huge machine like a balloon, to be able to rise in 
 the air at will, and, as do the birds, to guide his own 
 course on his own wings. 
 
 There is, perhaps, no one who does not feel an 
 innate yearning after such a capability. It even visits 
 us in our dreams; and there are very few who, in 
 dreamland, have not soared at will through the air, 
 serenely conscious that at last they had attained the 
 fruition of their long-delayed ambition. 
 
 Will man ever succeed in this object ? I am in- 
 clined to think that he will, and that he will do so by 
 means which have escaped us from their very sim- 
 plicity. To fly through the air is really no more diffi- 
 cult a task than the practical annihilation of space and 
 time by the electric telegraph, of which Puck's forty 
 minutes' journey round the earth was but an imperfect 
 prophecy. 
 
 I am inclined to think that the very fact that the 
 idea has for so many centuries existed in the mind of 
 man, and that so many attempts have been made to 
 convert the idea into a practical reality, is, if not a 
 proof, yet an indication, that such a result will be, 
 sooner or later, attained. 
 
 There has been much verbal wit wasted on the 
 many failures, and much pictorial wit is displayed by 
 caricatures. These, however, rather tend to counteract 
 themselves ; for there is no great discovery which has 
 not been preceded by similar caricatures, whether of 
 pen, pencil, or both. For example, I have before me 
 a caricature of a steam- carriage, drawn but a very few 
 
INTRODUCTION. 7 
 
 years before the introduction of the railway system. 
 Of course, the engine is in the act of bursting ; the 
 artist intending to convey the idea that locomotion by 
 steam is too dangerous to be attempted. 
 
 Perhaps some of my readers may have Gilray's 
 caricature of vaccination. The scene is laid in the 
 inventor's opera tin g-rcom, and Jenner is engaged in 
 vaccinating a number of patients, from all parts of 
 whose bodies miniature cows, calves, and bulls are 
 protruding themselves. Yet neither of these sciences 
 was hindered by caricatures, though they created, or 
 rather increased, the popular prejudice which is sure 
 to be aroused against any great advance or improve- 
 ment. 
 
 In Miss Eden's charming work, " Up the Country," 
 which is a description of her travels with her brother, 
 Lord Auckland, in India, where he was Governor- 
 General, there is a most singular instance of ridicule 
 cast on a noble invention, through simple want of 
 appreciation or foresight. 
 
 They were halting at TTmreepore, and went to visit 
 a certain physician, who had the reputation of being 
 very scientific, though slightly insane. So he was ; 
 but, in the present instance, the very facts that showed 
 his real scientific powers were accepted as proofs of 
 his insanity. 
 
 Magnetism and electricity were his special hobbies, 
 and in his case madness was certainly allied to genius. 
 He had some fantastic notions about Solomon's 
 Temple, which he asserted to have been made by the 
 magnetic angles of a stone brought from Egypt. He 
 had found stones with similar properties at Gwalior, 
 
8 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 and with their aid had constructed a model of the 
 Temple, which he presented to Miss Edeu. 
 
 This was bad enough ; but the worst was to come. 
 Not only had he discovered the principle of Solomon's 
 Temple, and enabled any one to reproduce it, but he 
 had invented a plan of instantaneous communication be- 
 tween distant places, by means of electricity and wires. 
 " So then he showed us that experiment ; and a great 
 many of the galvanic tricks were very amusing/' 
 
 The man had actually discovered the electric 
 telegraph, and this invention which has well-nigh 
 changed the aspect of civilization, was only taken as a 
 proof of insanity. The experiment was shown to 
 Miss Eden in 1838. 
 
 Afterwards when the invention was comparatively 
 perfected, it was offered to the Government, in order 
 to supplant the clumsy semaphore, which some of my 
 readers may remember on the roof of the Admiralty, 
 and which was absolutely useless in foggy weather. 
 Let there be but a fog, and an enemy's fleet might 
 effect a landing long before their approach could be 
 known. Then as the signs had to be repeated through 
 a succession of stations, the process was very slow, 
 when compared to the instantaneous communication of 
 electricity. Yet " My Lords " rejected the invention 
 on the ground that no other mode of telegraphy, 
 except that in use was advisable or necessary. 
 
 As we all know, gas had to fight its way against 
 the theorists and alarmists, the latter showing that any 
 town lighted by gas must inevitably be blown up. 
 Satirists and alarmists have never succeeded in ar- 
 resting, though they may have delayed, the pro- 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 9 
 
 gress of science, and I cannot but think that our 
 yearnings for aerial travelling will one day be satisfied, 
 and that railways will be to the aerial carriages what 
 waggons are to railways. 
 
 We pass to another element namely, the water, 
 in which man also becomes a trespasser. 
 
 The simplest and most natural mode of trespassing 
 in this element is by swimming ; and every swimmer 
 knows the exultant delight with which he lies rocked 
 in the heaving waves, or dives through the curling, 
 white-topped breakers with as much security as if he 
 were reclining on a feather-bed at home. Still further 
 does he trespass by the act of diving, and exults in his 
 power of penetrating into the depths of the sea, and 
 defying, though for a short time, the power of the 
 water. 
 
 As he progresses in civilization, he is propor- 
 tionately dissatisfied with his natural powers of 
 trespassing, and resorts to art, The log becomes a 
 raft, is modified into a boat, and soon is magnified into 
 a vessel. The wind is pressed into the service of man, 
 and aids him to propel his vessel by means of sails. 
 At last, dissatisfied with a vessel that is dependent 
 upon the wind, and anxious to be able to trespass upon 
 the ocean at his own will, man applies the power of 
 steam to his ship, and so becomes independent of 
 wind, tide, or any other obstacle to his progress- 
 
 Nor is he yet satisfied. It is not enough to 
 trespass upon the surface of the water. He wishes to 
 emulate those air-breathing creatures which are enabled 
 to spend most of their time beneath the surface, and 
 contrives, by means of diving-bells and diving- dresses, 
 
10 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 to remain beneath the water much longer than those 
 creatures whom he imitates. 
 
 This dress, by the way, is not so modern an inven- 
 tion as is generally thought, although its present state of 
 perfection is necessarily owing to the modern improve- 
 ments in machinery. In the Ambras Collection there 
 is a manuscript of the fifteenth century in which are 
 represented several men in diving dresses, and fur- 
 nished with stoppered vessels of air, which they can 
 breathe when needed. It is true that the value of 
 compressed air for respiratory purposes was not known 
 at the time, and that a single vessel could only contain 
 air sufficient for two or three respirations. The 
 principle, however, had been recognized, and its 
 further development was only a work of time. 
 
 As to fire, it has at present baffled us, and all 
 that we can do is to delay its conquering powers. 
 
 There still remains the Earth, into which man is 
 becoming daily a more accomplished trespasser, his 
 powers in this respect increasing, together with his 
 civilization. The savage never troubles himself about 
 penetrating into the earth any more than he does 
 about rising into the air. He may make use of a cave 
 by way of a habitation ; but there he stops. Whereas 
 civilized man must needs act the trespasser in the 
 domains of earth, as he does in those of air and 
 water. He digs mines, which descend to vast depths, 
 and traverses the earth with a network of subterranean 
 galleries. 
 
 Or, dissatisfied with the mountains that divide 
 one district from another, just as he is dissatisfied 
 with separating seas, he drives his tunnels through 
 
INTRODUCTION. 11 
 
 them, and so renders himself independent of the 
 barriers which formerly hindered his progress. Should 
 the proposed tunnels succeed in connecting Southamp- 
 ton and the Isle of Wight, or, as is hoped, England 
 and France, the power of man as an earth trespasser, 
 will, at all events for a while, have attained its acme 
 of perfection. 
 
 But however great his power, he has been anti- 
 cipated by creatures which are still lesser than himself 
 in the scale of creation, and at present he can but offer 
 an humble rivalry to many, while he is infinitely 
 surpassed by others. Some of these I will now lay 
 before the reader, for the purpose of showing the 
 wonderful, though simply-planned modifications of 
 structure which permit them to trespass, and which 
 may, perhaps, give to us some hints for furthering our 
 own progress in the conquest of Nature. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 intf and M}uatir 
 
 THE WHALES. 
 
 As those animals which trespass upon the domains 
 of water are far more numerous than* those which 
 trespass upon air or earth, we will take them first in 
 order. 
 
 It is a very remarkable fact that among the 
 mammalia, which are all breathers of atmospheric air 
 and are hot-blooded, so as to be incapable of existing 
 without frequent and thorough respiration, there 
 should be a vast number which are either totally or 
 partially, inhabitants of the water. There is a regu- 
 larly graduated series of them representing almost 
 every known group of mammalia. 
 
 Some live entirely in the water, and are quite as 
 dependent on it for existence as if they were fishes ; 
 some pass more of their time in the water than on the 
 land; some divide their time totally equally; while 
 others live chiefly on land, but resort to the water 
 either for food or shelter. 
 
 At present no aquatic representation of the monkey 
 
THE WHALES. 13 
 
 tribe has been known, and there are not wanting 
 persons who aver that even if none are known to 
 exist at present,, some have existed, and have been the 
 cause of the legends respecting mermaids and mermen, 
 which have been current in every part of the world 
 where there is a sea coast, and where a written lan- 
 guage exists. It is worthy of notice that in Japan, 
 as well as in England, the legendary mermaid is 
 quite familiar to the popular mind, and that it is from 
 Japan that have been procured those ingenious com- 
 positions of skin, papier-mache, membranes, hair, 
 teeth, bones, and scales, which have been palmed off 
 upon the public as genuine mermaids. 
 
 In one sense they are very unlike the mermaid of 
 romance. She was always represented as a veritable 
 human being in size, as well as in shape, as far as 
 the waist, while the rest of the body was that of a 
 fish. She was also held to be superbly beautiful, and, 
 by means of that beauty, to have decoyed many a 
 heedless lover beneath the waves. 
 
 Now the Japanese mermaids are little more than 
 mere dolls in point of size. The celebrated specimen 
 of which Barnum made such a speculation, was not 
 quite three feet in length I speak from memory 
 because, though I saw it repeatedly, I did not measure 
 it. The thing was hideously ugly, with the head 
 drawn on one side, and the features contorted, as if it 
 had died in fearful agonies. It was a mean, wizened, 
 mummified, and most repulsive object, and except that 
 it exhibited the junction of a mammal with a fish, had 
 nothing in common with the mermaid of tradition. I 
 have seen many specimens of Japanese mermaids, and 
 
14 MARINE AND AQUATIC TRESPASSERS. 
 
 this is by far the largest, the generality seldom exceed- 
 ing eighteen inches in length. 
 
 Yet, utterly absurd as they are, there are many 
 persons who firmly believe in them. I once had a 
 narrow escape from a personal assault at the hands of 
 an owner of a Japanese mermaid. I saw it in his 
 shop a fishmonger's; stepped in to look at it, and 
 made some remarks upon the ingenuity with which 
 wire had been made to imitate ribs and other bones. 
 I thought that I was paying a compliment, but very 
 soon found that the sooner I was out of the shop the 
 better it would be. I have even seen one of these 
 objects in which the artist had been audacious enough 
 to fasten a great pair of bat-like wings to the 
 shoulders. * 
 
 The origin of the mermaid is utterly obscure, and 
 is lost in the mists of antiquity. Horace, in his " Ars 
 Poetica," treats the popular idea of the mermaid as 
 represented by modern artists 
 
 "Desinit in piscem mulier formosa superne;" 
 which may be translated 
 
 "A lovely woman with a fish's tail." 
 
 But the idea is far older than Horace. We find it 
 in Dagon, the Fish God of the Philistines a deity 
 who is even at the present time worshipped in the same 
 shape throughout Burmah, and whose gigantic images 
 stand, all glittering with their golden scales, in the 
 Burmese temples, exactly as they did in the time 
 when Dagon fell prostrate before the Ark in Philistia. 
 
 *We see the same idea of the union of the man and 
 the fish in the ancient Assyrian sculptures. This idea 
 
THE WHALES. 15 
 
 is not carried out in precisely the same manner, but it 
 is nevertheless the same idea. 
 
 I need scarcely mention the absolute physical 
 impossibility of such a being. In the fish and the 
 mammal even the very blood is different, the mode of 
 circulation is different, and the respiration is different. 
 Had such beings really existed, they must have been 
 not only seen, but secured. They could not have 
 breathed without coming to the surface in order to 
 obtain atmospheric air, and must have done so at such 
 short intervals that they could not have escaped ob- 
 servation. 
 
 If, then, any aquatic representatives of the monkey 
 tribe have ever existed, they must have been formed 
 in a very different manner from those fabricated ob- 
 jects which have been put forward as mermaids, or 
 from the conventional and poetical idea of such beings. 
 When combs and mirrors grow wild in the sea, then 
 will mermaids be found to use them. 
 
 Yet, although no such beings as mermaids exist, 
 or have existed, the ocean holds creatures which are 
 every whit as wonderful. It contains mammalia of such 
 dimensions that the largest elephant is, in proportion 
 to them, but as a cat beside an ox. Indeed, none but 
 those who have seen them can have the least idea of a 
 mammal which is more than ninety feet long, and so 
 thick that if it were laid on the ground, the body 
 would reach half-way from the first to the second floor 
 of an ordinary London house. 
 
 I have only seen a few specimens which have been 
 accidentally thrown on the shore, but even in these 
 cases was greatly struck with the very great bulk of 
 
16 MARINE AND AQUATIC TEESPASSERS. 
 
 the animals when compared with their measurement in 
 feet and inches. A foot more or less, either in length 
 or thickness, does not seem very much on paper, but 
 in actual bulk a foot short makes the difference be- 
 tween a giant and a dwarf. 
 
 Take ourselves for example. A man of five feet six 
 inches high is looked upon not to say down upon 
 almost as a dwarf, while a man of six feet six inches 
 is nearly a giant. Indeed, a man who measures six 
 feet in height looks like a little boy when standing by 
 the side of a man who is only three inches taller, and 
 it may easily be seen that when bulk as well as height 
 have to be taken into consideration, the difference in 
 size is really astounding. 
 
 As a general rule, all the gigantic mammalia of the 
 present day are exclusively vegetarian, such as the 
 elephant, the hippopotamus, the rhinoceros, and the 
 giraffe ; not to mention the various species of buffalo, 
 some of which are but little inferior in bulk to an 
 ordinary elephant. 
 
 Here, however, we have the curious fact that the 
 largest of living mammals are predacious, and that in 
 order to supply their enormous bodies with sufficient 
 food, they must either prey upon a few animals nearly 
 as large as themselves, or upon vast numbers of 
 smaller animals. The former alternative is clearly 
 out of the question, and so they have to fall back upon 
 the latter. 
 
 Some, such as the Greenland Whale, feed upon 
 small molluscs, which they catch in the natural 
 net which fringes their vast mouths. Some, such 
 as the Spermaceti Whale, live mostly on the 
 
THE WHALES. 17 
 
 cuttles and other large molluscs, while others are 
 almost entirely fish-eaters. Now, the earth does not 
 supply animal life in the teeming abundance which is 
 required in order to supply these vast beings with 
 food, and their lot is, in consequence, cast in the 
 sea, which absolutely swarms with animal life in many 
 forms. 
 
 When, therefore, one of the whale tribe happens to 
 be stranded, it is sure to die, as does a fish when 
 thrown ashore, though from different causes. The fist 
 dies because it is nearly as incapable of breathing 
 atmospheric air as is a man of breathing under water, 
 whereas the whale dies for want of food. These 
 animals act towards the small creatures which consti- 
 tute their food much as do the vegetable- eating mam- 
 mals of the land towards the leaves and herbage on 
 which they feed. 
 
 They do not seem to ha ye any particular time for 
 feeding ; but during all their waking hours are almost 
 constantly engaged in taking food. A short sojourn 
 on shore, therefore, is fatal to them, because they are 
 deprived of the food supply which is absolutely neces- 
 sary to their existence. Indeed, there are many true 
 fishes, some of which will be mentioned in their places, 
 which can live upon land very much longer than can a 
 whale, or even a porpoise, and which are quite at 
 home on the land, where they can not only breathe, 
 but even obtain food. 
 
 It is no wonder that creatures which are so fish- 
 like in their habits that they die like fish when taken 
 from the water, should be mistaken for fish. Indeed, 
 so deeply rooted is this idea, that many persons flatly 
 
18 MARINE AND AQUATIC TRESPASSERS. 
 
 refuse to believe that whales are not fish. " They 
 live in the water/' say they, " like fish, they feed like 
 fish, they die like fish when out of the water, and there- 
 fore fish they must be." 
 
 Now let us proceed to sum up the details of 
 structure which enable these enormous mammals to 
 take possession of the seas, and so to trespass upon 
 the domains of the fish. 
 
 The power of respiration is necessarily the first 
 requisite for a habitation in the water. Mammals, being 
 hot-blooded creatures, require a constant supply of 
 oxygenated blood, so that whales, being mammals, 
 must have this first necessity of existence. The 
 amount of blood which is poured through the system 
 of a whale is perfectly astonishing. I never appre- 
 ciated it until, while engaged in the Anatomical School 
 at Oxford, I assisted in preparing a section of an 
 aorta (i.e., principal artery of the heart) that had been 
 taken from a whale of moderate size. It looks some- 
 thing like a child's hoop, or a section of the main pipe 
 of some large waterworks. 
 
 But I am quite sure that no one who was not 
 previously acquainted with the subject would ever 
 guess its real nature. Indeed, all those to whom I 
 have showed it have experienced some difficulty in 
 believing me, and have acknowledged that, without 
 having seen it, they never could have formed the least 
 conception of the gigantic proportions of the whale, 
 and of the vast torrent of blood that is driven through 
 its body. 
 
 Three problems now present themselves. 
 
 The first is this : The blood being there, how is a 
 
THE WHALES. 19 
 
 creature which leads an aquatic life to keep such an 
 enormous quantity of the vital fluid aerated. The 
 second is this : How is the animal to obtain sufficient 
 food to keep up the supply of blood, and to com- 
 pensate for the waste that must be caused by the 
 violent exertions that are inseparably connected with 
 its aquatic life. The third problem is this : How to 
 prevent the vital heat from being absorbed in the ice- 
 cold water in which so many whales pass the whole of 
 their lives ? 
 
 These problems are by no means easy of solution, 
 and it is really wonderful to see how beautifully and 
 yet simply are they treated in the structure of the 
 whale tribe. We will take them in order, and begin 
 with Eespiration. 
 
 Here, at the very outset, we are met by another 
 problem. It is manifestly impossible that the animal 
 should always remain at the surface of the water. In 
 the first place, it would be unable to procure its food ; 
 in the second place, it would be exposed to the 
 assaults of various enemies ; and in the third place, 
 it would be at the mercy of the storms. 
 
 For the largest whale that ever lived is powerless 
 against a storm, which hurls its huge body about like 
 a cork. Indeed, when the whale has been overtaken 
 by a storm in comparatively still water, it is tolerably 
 certain to be stranded, and it has sometimes happened 
 that a whole " school^ of whales have been flung 
 ashore by a single gale. Now, as all good swimmers 
 know, the power of the waves is quite superficial, and 
 even a human being can set them at defiance by 
 meeting them, diving just before they reach 
 
20 MARINE AND AQUATIC TRESPASSERS. 
 
 and so allowing them to roll harmlessly over his 
 head. 
 
 It is therefore absolutely necessary that the whale 
 should be able to pass a considerable time beneath the 
 surface, and be for that time deprived of the power of 
 respiration. How can we reconcile these conflicting 
 necessities ? 
 
 The first and most obvious suggestion is, that the 
 animal should be supplied with an internal apparatus, 
 by means of which it can take down with it a supply 
 of air that will suffice for respiration during the time 
 of submergence. But, considering that the ordinary 
 time during which the animal is under water is about 
 an hour, and that it must be capable of extending that 
 time if needful, it is evident that the air-vessel would 
 be so large that the whale would be absolutely incap- 
 able of sinking at all. 
 
 This plan, therefore, is not feasible, and we must 
 look for one which will give a supply of arterialized 
 blood while the whale is under water. Suppose that, 
 instead of giving to the whale a supply of air which 
 will oxygenate the blood, it should have a reserved 
 supply of already oxygenated blood, which can be 
 passed into the system when required. 
 
 In fact, suppose that the whale has the power of 
 acting, with regard to respiration, as the camel does 
 with drink, and is enabled in a few minutes to oxyge- 
 nate as much blood as will serve the purpose of life 
 for an hour or more. If this can be done, the problem 
 is at once solved, for the blood-reservoir will be very 
 small when compared with the air-reservoir, and, not 
 being lighter than the rest of the body, will not 
 
THE WHALES. 21 
 
 interfere with the power of sinking or rising at 
 will. 
 
 This latter condition is an extremely important 
 one. As all human swimmers know, they can only 
 keep themselves below water by continuous exertion,, 
 and as soon as it ceases they float to the surface. This 
 is all well enough for man, but would be practically 
 fatal to the whales, who ought to possess the power of 
 rising or sinking without any such violent movements. 
 They can compass this end by contracting the muscles 
 of the body so as to lessen their size and make them 
 rather heavier than an equal bulk of water, while as 
 soon as the muscles are relaxed the animal becomes, 
 bulk for bulk, lighter than water, and will float on it? 
 surface without effort. 
 
 Such a blood-reservoir as has been mentioned 
 would fulfil the above-mentioned conditions, and it 
 is just such a reservoir which is possessed by the 
 whale. 
 
 The discovery of this reservoir was, I believe, 
 made by William Hunter. At all events, the first 
 description of it was published by him in the " Philo- 
 sophical Transactions " for 1787. 
 
 The greater part of the cavity of the chest is lined 
 with a vast mass of blood-vessels, forming a com- 
 plete maze of tubes. On a small scale, the arrange- 
 ment of these arteries can be tolerably imitated by 
 taking a large quantity of macaroni, boiling it, and 
 then plastering it in a thick layer against the ribs, 
 making it thicker towards the spine than towards the 
 ends of the ribs. These vessels take their origin from 
 the " intercostal " arteries i.e., those which suppl 
 
22 MAEINE AND AQUATIC TRESPASSERS. 
 
 the region of the chest. They are twenty in number, 
 ten on either side, and in the whale they are enor- 
 mously developed, so as to produce the remarkable 
 appendage to respiration which has been mentioned. 
 
 This, however, is not all. Beside this enormous 
 mass of arteries, there is a corresponding network of 
 veins, which appear to form reservoirs for the blood 
 which has been passed through the system and 
 become useless. 
 
 Even in these veins there is a difference in struc- 
 ture. In most veins there is a series of valves, which 
 allow the blood to pass forward but not backward ; so 
 that, no matter how rapidly the heart may beat, the 
 blood is propelled forward with corresponding force. 
 
 Any of my readers, who have been accustomed to 
 running, or have subjected themselves to training, are 
 familiar with the phenomenon called " second wind." 
 When the first half mile or so has been passed, the 
 action of the heart seems to be so much in advance of 
 that of the lungs that the runner feels half-choked, 
 gasps, and is almost unable to proceed. If, however, 
 he doggedly perseveres, the feeling of oppression soon 
 goes off, and he can then run for almost any distance 
 without distress, as far as respiration goes. His legs 
 may fail him, but his lungs will not. 
 
 The fact is, that after a little time, the blood that 
 has been violently forced through the system, has had 
 time to equalize its rate of progress with the increased 
 pressure, and breathing becomes as easy as if the 
 runner were seated at rest. 
 
 In the reserved vein-system of the whale tribe, 
 however, there are scarcely any valves, so that the 
 
THE WHALES. 23 
 
 blood moves but slowly through them, and can 
 wait until the time comes for aerating the whole 
 mass. 
 
 It will be seen, therefore, from this brief sketch, 
 that the whales have, even in proportion to their vast 
 bodies, far more blood than any other animals ; the 
 additional reservoirs containing blood enough to supply 
 the enormous creature for more than one hour. 
 
 We have not yet come to the end of this subject. 
 This enormous mass of reserved blood would be per- 
 fectly useless, unless the respiration were modified so 
 as to enable it to be oxygenated in a short time. We 
 will take as an example the adult male spermaceti 
 whale, and see how he manages his respiration. 
 
 When the whale comes to the surface for the 
 purpose of breathing, he lies nearly motionless, and 
 then goes through a series of enormous respirations, 
 called by the whalers, " spoutings." On the average, 
 he makes some sixty of these respirations in regular 
 succession, each occupying, as nearly as possible, ten 
 seconds; so that the whole time employed in this 
 operation is ten or eleven minutes. 
 
 The act of expiration is very violent, and as the 
 animal always has the nostrils which are technically 
 named the " blow-holes " situated on the upper 
 part of the extremity of the head, filled with water, 
 this water is ejected in a jet of thick, dense, white 
 spray. The mode of respiration is very curious. 
 First, the animal ejects the consumed air in "spouts;" 
 the spouts occupying about three seconds. It then 
 draws one rapid breath, of about a second in duration, 
 and then sinks its nostrils beneath the water for about 
 
24 MARINE AND AQUATIC TEESPASSERS. 
 
 six seconds, during which the respired air is employed 
 in oxygenating the blood. 
 
 All these movements are made with the regularity 
 of machinery, and each individual whale has its own 
 particular number of respirations. This is known so 
 well, that the whalers have only to watch one of these 
 animals going through its spoutings, to know how long 
 it will remain at the surface when it again makes its 
 appearance. Should the creature be disturbed before 
 it has " had its spoutings out/' and dive, it is sure to 
 return to the surface for a few minutes and finish 
 them, when it will generally sink itself by " settling " 
 down in the water, without performing the usual 
 diving movement. 
 
 The same regularity extends to the duration of the 
 animal's sojourn beneath the water, so that the whalers 
 can always make their calculations as to the time 
 when a whale that has dived will again make its 
 appearance. 
 
 The reader will probably have observed that the 
 respiration of the whale differs from that of ordinary 
 mammalia in one important respect. Terrestrial 
 mammalia do not make their respiration a separate 
 business of their life, but breathe as they go about 
 their ordinary duties, and without interrupting them. 
 Whereas the whales are obliged to set aside a certain 
 portion of their time for respiration, during which 
 they are perfectly quiescent, and only think about 
 oxygenating the vast storage of blood which is to 
 supply them during their sojourn under water. 
 
 So we see that at least one-seventh of the whole time 
 of the creature is occupied in respiration. This 
 
THE WHALES. 25 
 
 applies to the male. The females seldom remain 
 submerged for more than twenty minutes, and they 
 occupy about four minutes in having their spoutings 
 out ; so that, in their case, one-fifth of their time is 
 taken up by respiration. 
 
 Even we ourselves in, a small way, can imitate the 
 whale in their mode of respiration, and produce a 
 similar result. 
 
 Any one who wishes to hold his breath for a con- 
 siderable time, can do so by preparing himself much 
 as the whales do. Let him first expel, as far as he 
 can, every particle of air from the lungs, and then 
 take as deep an inspiration as possible. Let this be 
 repeated for some twenty times, and the blood will be 
 so completely oxygenated that another respiration is 
 not needed for some little time. I have often been 
 thus enabled to hold my breath for a minute and a 
 half, and have found it a very useful accomplishment 
 in diving matches, where a second more or less means 
 winning or losing them. 
 
 Another important aid to respiration is found in 
 the substance from which the spermaceti whale derives 
 its name. The skull is comparatively small, the 
 greater part of the enormous head being composed of 
 a very light oily substance, enclosed in a thin mem- 
 braneous case. It is this oil which, when purified by 
 pressure, and treatment with successive washings in 
 alkaline solutions, crystallizes into the well-known 
 spermaceti. 
 
 The object of this substance is evident enough 
 when we consider the habits of the animal. On 
 account of its lightness, it very much increases the 
 
26 MARINE AND AQUATIC TRESPASSERS. 
 
 bulk of the head, without adding much to its weight, 
 and so renders it lighter than water. In consequence 
 of this structure, when the whale rises to the surface 
 of the water for the purpose of respiration, the head 
 floats as easily as a cork ; and without any exertion on 
 the part of the animal, the nostrils are kept well above 
 the water. 
 
 So much for respiration, as the act by which the 
 whale purifies its blood. We will now proceed to 
 Feeding, as the act by which the animal keeps up the 
 supply of the vital fluid. 
 
 As examples of the same end attained by different 
 means, we cannot do better than take the Cachalot, 
 being a toothed whale of the Southern Seas, and 
 the Greenland whale being the toothless whale of 
 the Northern Seas. There are plenty of others, but 
 these afford the best types of the mollusc-feeding 
 whales, the former living on the large, and the latter 
 on the small molluscs. 
 
 The jaws of these animals are beautifully adapted 
 for the purposes which they have to fulfil. In the 
 former, the upper jaw is nearly toothless ; whereas 
 the lower jaw is furnished on each side with a row of 
 large conical teeth, set at some distance from each 
 other, and fitting into cavities in the upper jaw. 
 
 These teeth, by the way, were at one time the most 
 cherished and valued objects that could be possessed 
 by Fiji or Friendly Islander, some peculiarly sacred 
 character being attached to them. None but a chief 
 could possess so coveted an article ; and many dis- 
 astrous wars have taken place because the principal 
 chief of one island had obtained possession of a whale's 
 
THE WHALES. 27 
 
 tooth, and would not give it up to the principal chief 
 of another island. 
 
 A singular example of the passion for whale's teeth 
 is given in Mariner's account of the Tonga Islands. A 
 whale had been thrown on a small island, inhabited 
 only by a man and his wife, and the king came, accord- 
 ing to custom, to take the teeth. Finding only two, 
 he demanded the others from the man, who produced 
 two more from a basket, and declared that there were 
 no more. His wife, however, confessed that she had 
 secreted one, which she gave up. Nothing could 
 induce either of them to acknowledge that they knew 
 of any more teeth ; and first the man and then the 
 woman were killed with clubs. 
 
 Some years afterwards the missing teeth were dis- 
 covered on the island, carefully buried, so that these 
 extraordinary people actually preferred to lose their 
 lives rather than their treasure. 
 
 With these teeth the spermaceti whale seizes its 
 prey, which consists almost exclusively of cuttle-fish of 
 various species, mostly those which are called "squids;" 
 Mr. Bennett asserting that he has often seen large 
 limbs of the squid floating on the water, having evi- 
 dently been bitten off. He always used in such cases 
 to look out for spermaceti whales, and never failed to 
 find them. 
 
 It seems rather strange that such creatures should 
 form the food of the whale. In the first place, the 
 suckers with which their arms are thickly set can cling 
 so tightly to any object, that it is a wonder how the 
 whale can manage to get them down its throat ; an din 
 the second place, they are so active that the narrow 
 
28 MARINE AND AQUATIC TRESPASS EES. 
 
 jaw of the whale seems quite inadequate to their 
 capture. Many species can even shoot through the air 
 to a considerable distance, if hard pressed. 
 
 Yet the whale never seems to be in any distress for 
 food, an emaciated one never having been found. Nor 
 is sight required for the capture, as whales have been 
 taken which have been absolutely blind, and yet were 
 in as good condition as their fellows who had the use 
 of their eyes. Sometimes the whale contrives to 
 capture an enormously gigantic cuttle, large enough, 
 one would think, to defy even the whale itself. Dr. 
 Schwediawer mentions, in a letter published in the 
 ' ' Philosophical Transactions," that a spermaceti whale 
 was captured, in whose mouth was a tentacle of a squid 
 that measured twenty- seven feet in length. This, more- 
 over, was not the complete length, as one end of it was 
 wanting. 
 
 It is believed that the mode by which the whale 
 catches the squids is by rushing through the water 
 with open mouth, and taking its chance as to finding 
 prey. This theory is strengthened by the fact that the 
 remains of fishes, generally the rock cod, are some- 
 times found in the stomach of the whale, though, as a 
 general rule, there is nothing but mangled cuttle-fish, 
 whose horny beaks defy the digestive powers of the 
 captor. Once, part of a dolphin's tail was found within 
 a whale, but such an occurrence as this is not likely to 
 happen again. In a future page, we shall see how the 
 Greenland, or oil-whale, manages to find its food in 
 the northern seas, where there are but few large 
 molluscs. 
 
 I may here observe, casually, that ambergris is 
 
THE WHALES. 29 
 
 almost entirely composed of partially-digested cuttles, 
 their beaks being often found embedded in the mass. 
 There was for many years an utter ignorance of the 
 real origin of ambergris, but, as it has been taken from 
 the interior of the spermaceti whale, and the remains 
 of cuttle can be recognized in it, there is no longer any 
 doubt on the subject. 
 
 We have now seen how this mammalian trespasser in 
 the water is able to support its existence in that 
 element ; we have seen the remarkable modification of 
 the blood-vessels, which enable it to aerate the blood, 
 and the mode by which the volume of that vast blood- 
 supply is preserved undiminished. We have now to 
 see how the whale, being a hot-blooded animal, is able 
 to pass its whole existence in water, which, especially 
 in the cold seas in which so many of them live, would 
 rob them of the heat which is so needful for them. 
 This point is very well put by Mr. Rymer Jones in 
 his " General Structure of the Animal Kingdom," a 
 book through which I had the pleasure of dissecting 
 my way : 
 
 " The Cetacea form a very remarkable group of hot- 
 blooded Mammifers, as related to the external covering 
 of their bodies. No covering of hair or wool would 
 have been efficient in retaining the vital heat under the 
 circumstances in which these creatures live ; and, even 
 if such clothing could have been made available, it 
 would seriously have impeded their progress through 
 the water. 
 
 " Another kind of blanket has, therefore, been 
 adopted. The cuticle is left perfectly smooth and 
 polished, without any vestige of hair upon its surface. 
 
30 MARINE AND AQCTATIC TEESPASSEES. 
 
 Bat, beneath the skin, fat has been accumulated in 
 prodigious quantities ; and, enveloped in this non-con- 
 ducting material, the whales are fully prepared to 
 inhabit an aquatic medium, and to maintain their tem- 
 perature even in the Polar seas." 
 
 This structure, which is appropriately called by 
 sailors the "blanket," is of a very remarkable cha- 
 racter. There are plenty of animals, notably the swine, 
 the hippopotamus, and the like, which, when in good 
 condition, have a thick layer of fat beneath the skin. 
 
 In all these animals the skin can be removed, 
 leaving the fatty layer in its place. This, however, is 
 not the case with the whale tribes, in which the 
 blubber, as this peculiarly fatty substance is called, is 
 really but a modification of the skin itself, and is com- 
 posed of a mass of interlacing fibres, the spaces between 
 which are filled with oil. A good idea of this structure 
 can be formed by comparing it with that of an orange, 
 the juice of the fruit taking the place of the oil, and 
 the sponge-like cells in which it is held representing 
 the tissues of the skin. Consequently, the skin and 
 the blubber have to be separated by the whaler's 
 <{ spade," before the oil can be expressed from the 
 labyrinthine fibres among which it is entangled. 
 
 Such a substance as this is of necessity exceedingly 
 elastic, and Sir W. Jardine has happily compared it to 
 India-rubber, " possessing a density and resistance 
 which, the more it is pressed, it resists the more.''' The 
 reader will see, therefore, that this wonderful structure 
 fulfils a double duty. In the first place, it acts as a 
 non-conducting layer between the vital parts and the 
 water, thus preserving the animal heat ; and, in the 
 
THE WHALES. 31 
 
 second place, it acts as a safeguard against the tre- 
 mendous pressure of the water at the depths to which 
 the whale descends. 
 
 Whales have been known to dive perpendicularly, 
 carrying with them such a length of line that if a bottle 
 had been sunk to the same depth, corked, sealed, and 
 closed in every way, the water would have forced its 
 way through everything, and filled the bottle. Pieces 
 of wood that have been sunk to such depths are found 
 to have the water driven into every pore, so that they 
 can no longer float, but sink as if they were bars of 
 iron. 
 
 Such a pressure as this, if exercised directly upon 
 the body of the animal, would be fatal, but the thick 
 elastic coat of blubber yields to the weight of water, 
 and is itself compressed without transmitting the 
 pressure to the vital organs. 
 
 The reader may, perhaps, ask how it is that the 
 aperture of the nostrils can be sufficiently closed to 
 keep the water from forcing its way into the lungs. 
 This is done by means of a beautifully-formed valve, 
 which can only be opened by force applied from below, 
 and is spontaneously closed by force applied from 
 above, fitting more and more tightly in proportion as 
 the pressure increases. 
 
 Thus we see that although we cannot, without her- 
 metically sealing it (i.e., fusing the glass together), 
 close a bottle so tightly that the water cannot force its 
 way through the obstacles, the living whales possess a 
 self-acting valve through which they can respire when 
 at the surface, but which is absolutely impervious to 
 the water, no matter at what depth the animal may be. 
 
32 MARINE AND AQUATIC TRESPASSERS. 
 
 In fact, even supposing that the whale were to attempt 
 to expel the air from its lungs when below the surface, 
 it would be unable to open the valve, the pressure from 
 above being too strong to yield to any force that the 
 animal could apply from below. 
 
 All the whale tribes possess this structure, but it is 
 developed to the fullest extent in those animals which 
 are obliged to descend to considerable depths below 
 the surface of the water. This valve is formed much 
 after the fashion which is adopted in the heart and 
 veins namely, it is composed of elastic bags, which, 
 when filled, press firmly against each other, but, when 
 empty, fall into wrinkled folds, leaving a clear passage 
 between them. 
 
 A few words as to the general form of the whale 
 tribe. 
 
 It is almost exactly the same as that of the fish, 
 inasmuch as the movements must necessarily be of a 
 similar character. As the whole body is sustained in 
 the water, the limbs are not required for support, and 
 are modified to suit the peculiar life which the animal 
 leads. The fore limbs are very short, very wide, and 
 very flat, so as to act as fins, and are apparently used 
 for the purpose of balancing the animal rather than 
 aiding or even directing its course. 
 
 As to the hinder limbs, they are not needed ; and 
 in some are altogether absent. There is not even a 
 rudiment of them, and the pelvis itself is wanting, 
 being only represented by a small bone lying loose in 
 the tissues. 
 
 Thus, the whole of the body behind the thorax 
 is flexible ; and, unlike that of fishes in general, can 
 
THE WHALES. 33 
 
 be moved from side to side, or up and down, accord- 
 ing to the will of the animal. The end of the body is 
 flattened out into a broad and powerful tail, popularly 
 called the "flukes/' This tail, though shaped like 
 that of a fish, is differently set. When a fish is in its 
 natural position, the tail is perpendicular, and a for- 
 ward movement is obtained by moving it from side to 
 side ; but, in the whales, the tail is set horizontally, 
 so that when the animal is at rest, it lies flatly upon 
 the surface of the water. The forward movement is 
 therefore obtained, not by sweeping the tail from side 
 to side, but by moving it up and down. It is believed 
 that this modification of structure is due to the habits 
 of the whale, which must possess the power of diving 
 rapidly. In so doing, it strikes the water with its tail, 
 so as to throw itself partly into the air, and then dives 
 almost perpendicularly, the flukes waving in the air as 
 it descends. So powerful is this instrument of pro- 
 pulsion, that in spite of its enormous weight, a whale 
 measuring a hundred feet in length can throw itself 
 completely out of the water, and can urge itself along 
 the surface at a rate of some fifteen miles an hour. 
 
 The organs of hearing are curiously modified when 
 compared with those of the terrestrial mammalia. 
 Water is a much better conductor of sound than air ; 
 and, if the ear of the whale were constructed like that 
 of a land animal, a single blow struck on the water 
 by the flukes of one whale, would stun all the rest in 
 the immediate neighbourhood. 
 
 This transmissive power of water is utilized by 
 beaver-hunters. In the winter-time a hunter some- 
 times sees a beaver attempting to escape by swimming 
 
 3 
 
34 MARINE AND AQUATIC TRESPASSERS. 
 
 under the ice. He instantly strikes a heavy blow on 
 the ice with the back of his axe, which stuns the animal 
 almost as effectually as if the blow had been dealt 
 directly ; so that a hole can be cut in the ice, and the 
 lifeless body lifted out. 
 
 Now with the whales, a very difficult problem has 
 to be solved namely, to make a mammalian ear that 
 is capable of hearing sounds below the surface, and 
 yet will not be too sensitive, and will not admit water. 
 The first difficulty is solved by the manner in which 
 the internal ear is constructed. That portion of the 
 temporal bone in which the organ of hearing is placed 
 does not form part of the skull, but is quite separate, 
 and only held in its place by ligaments. Next, the 
 orifice of the ear is exceedingly small ; so tiny, indeed, 
 as almost to escape observation. In spite of the 
 enormous size of the whale, the external aperture is 
 so small that a crow-quill can hardly be introduced 
 into it. 
 
 The most remarkable part of the organ is yet to 
 come. 
 
 We have seen how the animal is enabled to hear 
 sounds which are transmitted through the water, and 
 the wonderful manner in which the auditory organs 
 are modified for that purpose. 
 
 But another problem now arises. As the animal 
 spends a considerable portion of its time on the 
 surface, it must also be able to hear sounds which are 
 transmitted through the air, lest it should be surprised 
 by foes which are out of the range of its vision, and 
 which it is unable to detect by hearing. The tiny 
 apertures which serve perfectly well for the trans- 
 
THE WHALES. 35 
 
 mission of sound through water, would be absolutely 
 useless when air is to be the transmitting medium. 
 
 The manner in which this most difficult problem 
 not to say paradox is solved, is singularly beautiful, 
 and is simple as it is effective. It is done by a sort of 
 reversal of the ear. 
 
 Perhaps the reader may not be aware that there 
 are two opposite openings in the ear namely, the 
 external opening, which we all know, and the internal 
 opening, called the eustachian tube, which passes 
 from the internal auditory organs to the back of the 
 mouth, just where the nostrils open into it. Some- 
 times this tube becomes choked; and in that case, 
 deafness often incurable is the result. 
 
 Although so few persons, except those who have 
 studied anatomy, are aware of the existence of this 
 tube, we all unconsciously make use of it. For ex- 
 ample, if human beings are earnestly endeavouring to 
 catch sounds, and are forgetful of everything but 
 those sounds, they instinctively open the mouth, so as 
 to hear with the eustachian tube as well as with the 
 external orifices. Shakespeare, who seems to have 
 noticed everything, has not allowed this instructive 
 action to escape his observation. Speaking of the 
 rumours concerning Arthur's death, he writes as 
 follows : 
 
 "I saw a smith stand with his hammer, thus, 
 The whilst his iron did on the anvil cool, 
 With open mouth swallowing a tailor's news." 
 
 Now, in the human ear, the eustachian tube is 
 very small in proportion to the external orifice; but 
 
36 MARINE AND AQUATfC TRESPASSERS. 
 
 with the whale the case is exactly reversed. The 
 external orifice is, as we have seen, extremely small ; 
 but the eustachian tube is very large. This tube 
 opens into the nostrils, or blow-holes, just behind the 
 valve that keeps out the water; so that when the 
 animal rises to the surface, and the passage of the 
 nostrils is opened, the whale is able to hear atmo- 
 spheric sounds through the eustachian tube. Thus, 
 the creature is doubly armed : its tiny external ear 
 conveying sounds that are transmitted through the 
 water ; and its large eustachian tube receiving those 
 that are conveyed through the air. 
 
 As for the sense of smell, it appears to be totally 
 absent, and this for two reasons. In the first place, it 
 would be impossible for the animal to use the sense of 
 smell while below the surface, unless, as Mr. R. Jones 
 tersely puts the case, " it had the nose of a fish, which 
 could not be granted without infringing upon the laws 
 that regulate the progression of animal organization." 
 When the creature is at the surface of the water, the 
 sense of smell is not needed, and, as has been men- 
 tioned, the nostrils are required for another purpose 
 namely, that of respiration, and are so filled with water 
 that no scent could reach them through the air. 
 
 The foregoing remarks have been based upon one 
 species, the Spermaceti Whale. Reverting for a short 
 time to some of the structures which have been briefly 
 sketched, we shall see how they are further modified 
 in another species of the cetacea, a perfect water tres- 
 passer. 
 
 The great Greenland, or right whale, which in- 
 habits the Northern seas, has most of the habits which 
 
THE WHALES. 37 
 
 distinguish the Spermaceti Whale of the South. The 
 general form is much the same, but there are one or 
 two important distinctions. 
 
 In the first place, the animal feeds almost wholly 
 upon small shell-less molluscs, usually those which are 
 known under the name of Clio borealis, and are about 
 as large as the common white slug of our gardens. The 
 great brown slug which is so often found by entomo- 
 logists when " sugaring " at night for moths, would 
 make three or four of the clio. These little creatures 
 are soft-bodied, about an inch in length, and rather 
 conical in form, the broader end of the cone being in 
 front. No one who was not acquainted with the real 
 facts would ever think that so small a creature could 
 supply food for the vast bulk of the Greenland Whale. 
 
 Yet it is from these little molluscs that the animal 
 derives almost the whole of its food ; and, indeed, the 
 gullet is so small that it could not, by any manner of 
 means, admit the passage of any large morsel of food. 
 It has been said that a penny loaf will choke a Green- 
 land Whale, so that, although the Spermaceti Whale can 
 swallow large fishes on occasion, and even accommo- 
 date a dolphin, the Greenland Whale would not be able 
 to eat a common carp of a couple of pounds' weight. 
 
 In this animal the teeth are modified into the re- 
 markable substance which is called by the popular but 
 absurd name of whalebone. It is, like the horns and 
 hoofs of the cow, the horn of the rhinoceros, the 
 spur of the cock, the nails of the human being, and 
 the claws of the predacious animals, a production of the 
 skin exactly analogous to hair and feathers. 
 
 There is a second modification also, which is worthy 
 
38 MARINE AND AQUATIC TEE8PASSERS. 
 
 of notice. In the Spermaceti Whale the teeth are 
 almost entirely confined to the lower jaw, whereas, in 
 the Greenland Whale, the substitute for teeth is en- 
 tirely confined to the upper jaw. Each structure 
 answers the same purpose, but is altered to suit the 
 material on which it has to work. 
 
 From the upper jaw start some six hundred plates 
 of whalebone, or " baleen/' as it is more properly 
 called. In one species, the Rorqual, there are no less 
 than five thousand of these plates. They vary in size 
 according to the size of the individual, and the position 
 which they occupy in the mouth ; but in a full-grown 
 whale, the largest plates will measure some thirteen 
 feet in length, and nearly a foot wide at the base. 
 They become rather narrower towards the point, but 
 are there split up into fan-like sprays of hair-like 
 fibres. The plates of baleen vary much in length, 
 those at the tip of the jaw being the longest, and those 
 at the base the shortest, so that when the mouth is 
 partly opened, the baleen forms a sort of cage all 
 round it. 
 
 The mode in which these plates enclose the opened 
 mouth may be seen from the accompanying illustra- 
 tion. Some years ago, when I was living in Paris, I 
 was greatly struck with the fine skeleton of the Green- 
 land Whale that is kept in the Museum of Comparative 
 Anatomy in the Jar din des Plantes. In this admirable 
 specimen, the baleen has been retained in its natural 
 position, and as the mouth has been shown as it ap- 
 pears when open, the beautiful arrangement of the 
 plates is far better seen than would have been the case 
 with the jaws closed. 
 
THE WHALES. 39 
 
 I at once purchased a photograph of the jaw, and 
 had it engraved for my "Illustrated Natural History/' 
 published by Messrs. Routledge and Sons, by whose 
 kindness the illustration is permitted to appear in the 
 present work. 
 
 In keeping this illustration in his mind, the reader 
 may easily comprehend the manner in which the 
 Greenland Whale obtains its food. The Northern seas 
 absolutely swarm with the clio, and other small 
 marine beings. The whale, when it wishes to feed, 
 
 SKULL OF GREENLAND WHALE. 
 
 opens its mouth, and drives through the sea at its best 
 speed. As it passes along, the water through which it 
 rushes is enabled to escape between the narrow inter- 
 stices of the baleen plates, while the inhabitants of 
 the water are intercepted as if by the gratings of a 
 sieve. When the whale has obtained a fair mouthful, 
 it expels the rest of the water from its mouth, swallows 
 the enclosed prey, and then sets off again for another 
 mouthful. 
 
40 MARINE AND AQUATIC TRESPASSERS. 
 
 It has been thought that the spoutings of the 
 whale are due to food rather than respiration, and are 
 produced by driving the water from the mouth through 
 the nostrils. This, however, is not the case the whale- 
 bone acting as strainers at the sides of the mouth, and 
 not across the nostrils. There is not the least neces- 
 sity for blowing off the water in order to swallow, for 
 the mere act of closing the mouth will drive the water 
 through the plates of baleen, while the mass of little 
 molluscs and Crustacea is left behind. 
 
 It is probable that in this operation the tongue is 
 of great service. I never saw but one whalebone 
 whale, but in that instance I was much struck with the 
 size of the tongue. It seemed to be little more than a 
 large mass of blubber, and, on pressing upon it in the 
 middle, a deep hollow was formed, which slowly filled 
 with oil. 
 
 As is the case with most animal structures which 
 are much exposed to wear and tear, the whalebone has 
 the power of self-renewal from the waste that occurs 
 by the friction of the water that is perpetually rushing 
 between the plates, and, like the teeth of the rodent 
 animals, it is renewed as fast as it is worn away. 
 
 Perhaps the reader may have wondered at the 
 enormous size to which the head attains in the whale 
 tribe, and especially in the two species which have been 
 taken as examples. That an animal of ninety feet in 
 length should have a head measuring thirty feet, does 
 seem almost incredible, but, from the description which 
 has been given of the animal's habits, the reader will 
 see that with a smaller head neither creature could 
 live. The head is, in fact, a sort of trap, in which is 
 
THE WHALES. 41 
 
 caught the food which is necessary to support life, and 
 if that trap were smaller the whale could not procure 
 sufficient food to maintain itself. 
 
 From the very nature of their food, it is evident 
 that they cannot chase it as do those animals which 
 hunt their prey either by the eye or the nostril. The 
 latter sense would be, as we have seen, absolutely use- 
 less in an animal that lives in the sea and procures all 
 its living from submarine creatures. The former sense 
 would be equally useless, as, in the first place, scarcely 
 any light can penetrate to the depths into which the 
 whale descends ; and, in the next place, the animal 
 would be in a very bad way if the Greenland Whale had 
 to chase the tiny molluscs, or the Spermaceti Whale 
 the cuttles, as swallows chase flies. 
 
 In point of fact, even if there were sufficient light 
 to enable the whale to see its prey, the eyes of the 
 animal are so situated that they are unable to see any 
 object directly in its front, so that they are utterly use- 
 less in the chase of prey. Indeed, as we have already 
 seen, a whale is quite as able to procure its food when 
 blind, as if it possessed its full visual powers. The 
 whalers are perfectly aware of this fact, and always try 
 to approach a whale either directly in front or in rear, 
 knowing that the animal is equally unable to see in 
 either direction, although it has a wide range of vision 
 on either side. 
 
 Before we leave the whales proper, there is just one 
 point to be noticed as a distinction between the Sper- 
 maceti Whale and its Greenland relative. Both, as we 
 have seen, are constructed in much the same way, the 
 whalebone of one being, in fact, only a modification of 
 
42 MARINE AND AQUATIC TRESPASSERS. 
 
 the other's teeth. Both are encased in blubber, but in 
 the Greenland Whale this coating is very much thicker 
 than in the Spermaceti Whale. The reason is simply 
 this, that the seas in which the former animal lives are 
 colder than those of the southern seas, and that, there- 
 fore, it must be protected by a thicker blanket of non- 
 conducting material. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 DOLPHINS AND SIEENS. 
 
 WE now pass from the whales to another group of 
 mammalian trespassers, which are called by the popular 
 names of Porpoise and Dolphin. 
 
 With regard to the former of the two words, there 
 is a difference of opinion with regard to its ortho- 
 graphy, some persons spelling it as porpoise, and others 
 as porpesse. Personally, I incline to the former of the 
 two arrangements, because the word porpoise is clearly 
 a slight corruption of the French name, porc-poisson, 
 i.e., swine-fish. 
 
 In many respects the Porpoise agrees with the 
 whales, but in others it widely differs from them. It 
 agrees with them in the peculiar mode of respiration, 
 although, as it has not to remain below the surface of 
 the water for so long a period, the blood-reservoir 
 is not nearly so large. Like the whales, its body 
 is encased in a layer of fat, but, as it inhabits 
 the more temperate waters, the " blanket " is com- 
 paratively thin, and scarcely more than an inch in 
 thickness. 
 
 One of the principal differences lies in the size of 
 
44 MAEBTE AXD AQUATIC 
 
 the head, which is comparatively small, and is nod 
 with a row of sharply-pointed teeth in each jaw. The 
 Itatpoise, in feet, is essentially a fish-eater, and thia 
 fact explains its habitual liking for waters which are 
 within easy reach of some coast. As is well known by 
 aU seamen, there are very few fish to be taken in the 
 open sea, and even where fish are found under rorfc 
 circumstances, their presence is generally the indication 
 of some sunken rock which has hitherto v^p^ the 
 observation of marine surveyors. 
 
 Now, as the fish ding to the shores, and as tike 
 Porpoise feeds on fish, it is evident that the 
 must remain in the vicinity of its food. The 
 do sometimes make their way up tidal rivers, and so 
 |inntiair to a considerable distance inland ; but I do 
 not know of any instance where a Porpoise has been 
 observed on the high seam. .: 
 
 As the Porpoise feeds upon the active fish, and 
 can chase and capture even the swift and powerful 
 salmon, it k evident that the structure of the head 
 must be very different from that of the whale. Ac- 
 cordingly, we find that the head is much advanced in 
 front, so as to allow of vision in a sinful line. The 
 jaws and teeth, also, must be very diflerenk 
 
 The fish being comparatively of large raze, when 
 compared with the molloaci on which the whales feed, 
 there is no necessity for so large a head; and accord- 
 ingly we find that it is not larger, in proportion 
 to the size of the body than is that of the lion, the 
 bear, or any other predacious atiinuJ. The m trait 
 lias certainly a wider gape, but nothing like that of the 
 

DOLPHINS AND SIRENS. 45 
 
 The teeth are modified in accordance with the task 
 which they have to perform. They are very nume- 
 rous, some forty or fifty on each side, and are so 
 arranged that when the jaw is closed, they interlock 
 with each other. This is needful, on account of 
 the nature of their prey. The fish on which it 
 feeds are not only active; but, as a rule, are de- 
 fended with a scaly armour, which would enable 
 them to slip out of the grasp of a mouth less formid- 
 ably armed. 
 
 The teeth are rather long, sharply pointed, and 
 are all alike; there being no distinction between 
 incisors, canines, and molars. If a section is made 
 of them, they are seen to be hollow cones, supplied 
 with fresh substance of a soft pulp which fills the 
 interior. They are exceedingly variable in number, 
 some falling off in front, while others are developed 
 behind, their number apparently depending on the 
 size of the jaw. 
 
 One main point in the economy of the Porpoise is 
 the flexibility of the body. This is absolutely neces- 
 sary in order to enable the animal to turn and twist 
 in the water with sufficient activity to take its prey. 
 Sometimes it is able to come upon a shoal of herrings, 
 pilchard, mackerel, or other fish ; and works frightful 
 havoc among them, driving into the shoal, and 
 snapping up the fish as they are crowded together 
 and hampered in their movements. But these are 
 exceptional pieces of good fortune ; and when the 
 Porpoise has to match itself against such a fish as a 
 salmon, it needs agility as well as speed ; and those 
 who have seen it while engaged in salmon hunting, 
 
46 MARINE AND AQUATIC TRESPASSERS. 
 
 have been very much struck with the exceeding grace 
 of its swift movements, as it twists and turns in the 
 water, following and often anticipating every move- 
 ment of its agile prey. 
 
 There are many of these creatures, some of which, 
 as they attain a large size, are properly known as 
 whales. Such, for example, is the Beluga, commonly 
 called the White Whale, on account of its creamy 
 white colour. It sometimes attains to the length of 
 twenty feet, and is therefore so large an animal that 
 the popular title of whale is a very natural one. It is 
 however, simply a very large Dolphin ; and has all the 
 characteristics of its tribe, including the extreme 
 agility which is necessary in capturing prey. Whalers, 
 therefore, seldom attempt its capture, for, in the 
 first place, its exceeding activity makes it a diffi- 
 cult mark for the harpooner; and in the next 
 place, even if the harpoon be successfully thrown, 
 the beluga can generally manage to shake it out 
 again. 
 
 The Greenlanders, however, in their light canoes, 
 manage to capture it; and in many parts of North 
 America, where it enters the tidal rivers in search of 
 fish, it is captured by means of nets, which are spread 
 across the river, and intercept its progress sufficiently 
 to render it a mark for various missiles. The St. 
 Lawrence river is a favourite resort of the beluga, 
 where it is regularly hunted, the skin and oil being 
 very valuable, and the flesh being in some esteem 
 when salted. 
 
 Another well-known trespasser on the sea is the 
 Dolphin. 
 
DOLPHINS AND SIRENS. 47 
 
 The chief peculiarity of this animal is the elongated 
 head, and especially the manner in which the lower 
 jaw is prolonged beyond the upper. Like the Porpoise, 
 it has its teeth interlocking with each other so per- 
 fectly, that when the jaws are closed, the blade of a 
 penknife can scarcely be passed between the teeth ; 
 sharp, and slightly curved backwards. As there are 
 nearly two hundred teeth in the jaws, the whole appa- 
 ratus forms a trap from which scarcely any fish is 
 likely to escape. 
 
 On looking at these jaws, we may well ask our- 
 selves the reason why they differ so much in shape 
 from those of the Porpoise, although they are evidently 
 intended for the same object. The reason is evident 
 when we inquire into the manner in which it 
 feeds. 
 
 Like the Porpoise, it is fond of pursuing shoals of 
 fish whenever it can find them. But its principal 
 food consists of various flat fish. These creatures, as 
 all know who have visited any large aquarium, gene- 
 rally lie flat on the sand, with their heads a little 
 raised above it, and their bodies often covered with a 
 thin layer of sand which has been raised while the 
 fish is settling down. The rounded jaws of the Por- 
 poise would find great difficulty in capturing one of 
 these fish ; but the Dolphin, when it sees a sole, a 
 plaice, or similar fish lying on its sandy bed, shoots 
 rapidly towards it, drives its long under-jaw beneath 
 it, and so scoops it up before it has time to escape. 
 It is remarkable that some of the diving birds use 
 their beaks in exactly the same manner. 
 
 One of the strangest of these animals is the Narwhal, 
 
48 MAEINE AND AQUATIC TRESPASSERS. 
 
 in which the development of the teeth is extraordinary, 
 and, at present, unexplained. 
 
 Both sexes have in youth a few teeth which soon 
 fall out, but in the upper-jaw of the male are two teeth 
 which are capable of enormous development. In the 
 female these teeth, or tusks, as they may be called, 
 remain, as a rule, undeveloped, and are not seen exter- 
 nally ; but in the male, one of them, usually the left, 
 is developed into a long horn-like tusk, sometimes 
 reaching to the length of ten feet, and containing an 
 enormous mass of ivory. 
 
 The power of the animal may be inferred by lifting 
 one of these large horns, which, as the animal seldom 
 exceeds twelve or thirteen feet in length, is very nearly 
 as long as itself. The tusks are supposed to be develop- 
 ments of the canine teeth. They are smooth externally, 
 gradually tapering, and spirally grooved in so perfect 
 a manner that they seem to be beautifully carved in the 
 lathe. The ivory is of good quality. 
 
 The question now arises, What can be the use of 
 the tusk, and how can it aid the animal in its course of 
 life ? This question is at present unsettled, and it is 
 not easy to frame any hypothesis which will account 
 for it. 
 
 Some persons have thought that it was used in 
 order to pierce the fish on which it feeds, much after 
 the same manner that the saw-fish dashes among its 
 prey, and disables them with its tremendous beak before 
 seizing them in its mouth. If both sexes of the narwhal 
 were armed with the horn, as both sexes of the saw-fish 
 are armed with a beak, this theory might have some 
 grounds of probability. 
 
DOLPHINS AND SIRENS. 49 
 
 But, inasmuch as only the male possesses the horn, 
 and the female needs food quite as much as the other 
 sex, it is evident that she would die of starvation if the 
 horn were necessary in procuring food. Another theory 
 is, that when the narwhal gets below an ice-field, and 
 wishes to breathe, it bores holes through the ice with 
 its horn. But this theory is open to the same objection 
 as the former, the females wanting to breathe as well 
 as the males, and yet having no horn. Moreover, I do 
 not think that any narwhal could drive its tusk through 
 the enormously thick and hard-frozen ice of the 
 Northern waters in which it lives. It would be 
 much more likely to break the tusk than to pierce 
 the ice. 
 
 No use has been observed for this extraordinary 
 appendage, but the very fact that it exists is a proof 
 that it must serve some definite and important purpose, 
 It has already been mentioned that, as a rule, only one 
 tusk is developed. Several specimens have been dis- 
 covered, in which both have been developed. It is 
 remarkable that in each case the animal was a 
 female. 
 
 A very remarkable instance of a mammalian Water 
 Trespasser occurs in India. It inhabits the Ganges, 
 and is called the Susue,or Soosoo (Platanista Gangetica). 
 Perhaps the reader may remember that the same river 
 is also inhabited by a peculiar crocodile, which has a very 
 long, narrow snout, widened and flattened at the end. 
 The susue imitates this lizard in the most singular 
 manner. Like the crocodile, the susue has a very long 
 and narrow snout, on account of which some zoologists 
 have called it Delphinus restrains. 
 
 4 
 
50 MARINE AND AQUATIC TRESPASSERS. 
 
 It also imitates the crocodile in its habits. The 
 lizards are remarkable for their singular alternations 
 between absolutely sluggish apathy and the wildest 
 excitement. Perhaps my readers may remember the 
 character of Mrs. Leslie in Lord Lytton's "My Novel." 
 The worthy lady was descended from two ancient 
 families, the Saxon Daudlers, of Daudle Place, and the 
 Norman Montfydgets, and inherited the f ' musing do- 
 nothingness of the Daudlers, and the reckless have-at- 
 everythingness of the Montfydgets." 
 
 Now, this is exactly the reptilian character. As a 
 rule, a reptile will lie or stand for hours, without 
 moving a muscle, but, if excited, will fly about with 
 such speed that the eye can scarcely follow its move- 
 ments. It is, however, very remarkable that an aquatic 
 mammal should so closely resemble the aquatic lizard 
 of the same river, and that the two are marvellously 
 similar both in form and constitution. 
 
 When we mention the word Siren, the reader must 
 not imagine that there is any connection between the 
 Sirens of zoology and the sweet-voiced sirens of my- 
 thology, who inveigled sailors to the shore by their 
 melody and beauty, and then treacherously devoured 
 them. The Sirens of zoology are large, unwieldy, 
 thick-skinned mammalia, which inhabit the brackish 
 waters of tidal rivers, and have not the least claim to 
 beauty of any kind. 
 
 Like the whales, the fore limbs are modified into 
 nippers, and with their aid the animal can raise itself 
 partly out of the water, though it is not able to venture 
 entirely upon land. It has a curious habit of coming 
 
DOLPHINS AND S1EENS. 51 
 
 to the river-bank, raising itself by means of the flippers, 
 and resting with the head and upper part of the body 
 on the shore, while the rest is in the water. 
 
 Having somewhat of the whale tribe in their 
 general form, they have little of the whale's habits. In 
 the first place, they are vegetable feeders, living almost 
 entirely on sea-weed and such like vegetation. Conse- 
 quently, they are obliged to remain close to the land, 
 whereas the whales are uneasy unless they are at some 
 distance from it. 
 
 The structure of the teeth is also different, as they 
 are intended for the mastication of vegetable food, and 
 not for the capture of living animals. There is a dis- 
 tinction between the character of the teeth, the animals 
 having incisors in both jaws, one molar in the upper 
 side of the upper jaw, but no canines ; whereas in the 
 porpoise and dolphin, all the teeth look like canines, 
 and, indeed, are used for the same purpose namely, 
 securing the prey. 
 
 Respiration and circulation are in the Sirens diffe- 
 rent from the same functions in the whales. Living in 
 comparatively shallow waters, and feeding upon a 
 vegetation that never grows at any great depth, the 
 animal does not require to possess the power of 
 remaining under water for any lengthened period. 
 
 Consequently, it does not possess the great sub- 
 sidiary mass of blood-vessels which play so important 
 a part in the economy of the whale, and the nostrils 
 are placed at the end of the muzzle, like those of most 
 mammals. The peculiar " blowing " of the whale tribe 
 is not found in the Sirens, as they are not obliged to 
 aerate the vast supply of blood which is needful in 
 
52 MARINE AND AQUATIC TRESPASSERS. 
 
 order to keep the whales from being drowned during 
 their long sojourn beneath the water. 
 
 Such are the general characteristics of these re- 
 markable animals, and it only remains to give examples 
 of them. 
 
 The first is the Dugong, which is represented in 
 the lower part of the illustration on Cut 2. There 
 are several species of this animal, the longest being 
 known to reach the length of twenty- six feet, though 
 the average length is only about eight feet. These 
 animals are found in the rivers that run into the Indian 
 seas, where they may be seen in numbers, feeding on 
 the algae at the bottom of the river, and every now and 
 then coming to the surface to breathe. When feeding, 
 the Dugong has been observed to seize the plants with 
 its singularly shaped jaws, the upper of which con- 
 siderably overhangs the lower, drag them from their 
 attachments, and then quietly eat them at the surface 
 of the water. In consequence of the general structure 
 and the vegetable-feeding habits, some zoologists have 
 considered the Siren as the aquatic type of the pachy- 
 dermatous animals. 
 
 The natives of Australasia prize the Dugong almost 
 beyond the power of expression. They use the layer 
 of fat which lies just under the skin as a cosmetic, 
 with which they plentifully besmear the whole of their 
 bodies. As to the flesh, it is perhaps the greatest 
 dainty which an Australian savage knows. He will 
 make a journey of several days in order to partake of 
 it, caring very little whether the meat be fresh or far 
 gone in putrefaction ; and, after every available 
 morsel has been eaten, his memory always recalls him 
 
DOLPHINS AND SIRENS. 53 
 
 to the remembrance of the feast, and affords him a 
 subject of conversation. 
 
 As is the case with most of these animals, the skin 
 is very thick and tough, and can be manufactured into 
 various articles. 
 
 Much the same can be said of the Manatees, one 
 of which is represented in the upper portion of the illus- 
 tration. There are several species which inhabit Soufch 
 America and Africa, the former being the best known. 
 The average length is nine or ten feet. Like the 
 Dugong, the Manatees are useful to mankind, furnish- 
 ing excellent food, a delicate oil, and a very tough skin 
 that is invaluable for many purposes. 
 
 In consequence of its value, and of the necessity 
 for inhabiting the shallow waters, where it must be 
 within easy reach of man, it is greatly persecuted, and 
 even now its numbers are sensibly diminished. 
 
 It is much to be feared, indeed, that these singular 
 beings, which form a link between existing and fossil 
 mammalia, may be, before very long, as utterly extinct 
 as the dodo and the great auk, and from the same 
 reason i.e., their helplessness to protect themselves 
 from mankind. Indeed, one species, the Rytina, 
 has been erased from the earth almost within the 
 memory of living men. It was discovered on an 
 island in Behring's Straits in 1741, and in 1768 
 not a single specimen was left alive. It was an enor- 
 mous animal, quite as bulky as a full-sized elephant, 
 though not of the same shape, for its average length 
 was some twenty-five feet, and its thickness rather 
 more than eight feet. If the reader will measure off 
 twenty feet in length on the side of a room, and place 
 
54 MARINE AND AQUATIC TRESPASSERS. 
 
 a mark at eight feet in height, he can appreciate the 
 gigantic size of this trespasser upon the domain of 
 water. 
 
 It is rather a remarkable fact that the Rytina did 
 not possess any true teeth, those organs being modified 
 into two bony plates, one in each jaw. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 SEALS. 
 
 HAVING now given this brief sketch of those mammalian 
 water trespassers which pass the whole of their lives 
 in the water, we proceed to those mammalia which 
 pass the greater part of their life in the water, procure 
 their food in it, and fly to it for safety, though they 
 produce and nurture their young on the shore. 
 
 These animals we know by the popular name of 
 Seals, scientifically termed Phocidse. They are distri- 
 buted over the greater part of the world, and are never 
 found at any distance from the shore. They cannot 
 be called amphibious that being a term, indeed, to 
 which no creature can fairly lay a claim. 
 
 But in one respect they are superior to the whale 
 namely, that although they procure their food in the 
 water, they are capable of leaving that element for the 
 land, and progressing upon it. Moreover, they are 
 able to live on the shore, many specimens having been 
 kept for years far away from the sea, and without 
 having even access to water in which to disport them- 
 selves. No whale could live for any time under such 
 circumstances, and when one of these huge animals is 
 driven ashore, it soon dies of hunger. 
 
 The method in which the structure of fche body is 
 
56 MARINE AND AQUATIC TRESPASSERS. 
 
 modified, so as to allow the Seal a perfect freedom of 
 action in the water and a tolerable power of locomo- 
 tion on land, is very beautiful. 
 
 The fore limbs are much more developed than 
 those of the whale, and project so far from the body 
 that they can serve the double purpose of fins and 
 feet. With their aid the animal can scramble along 
 upon land, or even ice, and there are some species 
 which are fond of climbing rocks, and will ascend to a 
 considerable height. 
 
 How such apparently clumsy limbs can be used 
 with such effect seems almost incredible. Yet I have 
 often seen the sea-bear climb a high pair of wooden 
 steps, sit comfortably on the top, and then descend 
 with perfect ease. It also clambered on a common 
 Windsor chair, stood on the back, supported by its 
 master's hand, and went through a variety of per- 
 formances by his orders. 
 
 To see the creature mount the chair was really a 
 remarkable sight. First, it raised itself up on its 
 hinder feet, with its fore feet resting on the chair, one 
 on the seat and the other on the back. It then con- 
 trived to jerk one of the hind feet on the seat of the 
 chair, and slowly pulled itself up. When it wished to 
 climb on the back of the chair, it took advantage of 
 its master's hand, until it could get both feet on the 
 back, when it placed its fore paws on his shoulders, 
 and looked out for the little piece of raw fish with 
 which it was always rewarded when it had accom- 
 plished a task properly. As to the steps, the Seal 
 scrambled up and down them with perfect ease and 
 considerable speed. 
 
SEALS. 57 
 
 These performances are the more wonderful be- 
 cause the long limbs of the Seal are so feeble in com- 
 parison with the size of the body that they bend under 
 its weight, and the animal is compelled to advance by 
 swinging the legs under it by way of making bteps, 
 and at the same time swaying its body from side to 
 side so as to allow the legs to pass beneath. 
 
 Judging from its slow and awkward movements 
 when it is not hurried, a Seal when on land appears as 
 if it could not proceed at any great pace, and, indeed, 
 it looks so helpless that progression appears to be 
 absolutely painful as well as difficult. But when it 
 is actuated by fear, anger, or expectation, it can propel 
 itself at a wonderful rate. This it does by a series of 
 rapid leaps, the body undulating violently, and looking 
 like a large fat caterpillar working its way along. 
 
 The body is never raised more than a few inches 
 from the ground during these leaps, but the rate of 
 speed is very great, as is often experienced by 
 hunters who have surprised a party of Seals on shore, 
 and are trying to intercept them in their passage 
 towards the water, to which they rush at the least 
 alarm. Should the beach be a stony one, the pebbles 
 are flnng back in showers by the action of the hind 
 feet, so that the course of the pursuers is often mate- 
 rially checked by them. The missiles are not, 
 however, flung intentionally, as some persons have 
 thought, but are thrown by the natural action of the 
 animal, just as a horse at full gallop flings mud or 
 stones from its hind feet. 
 
 Any one who wishes to see the curious galloping 
 movement of the Seal has only to go to the Zoological 
 
58 MARINE AND AQUATIC TRESPASSERS. 
 
 Gardens, and induce the keeper to bring some fish. 
 The intelligent animals know his step as well as pos- 
 sible, and as soon as they hear it will scuttle over the 
 pavement of their enclosure, plump themselves into 
 the water, shoot themselves out on the opposite side, 
 and raise themselves against the bars, anxiously ex- 
 pecting the food. He will then fling a fish to the 
 opposite side of the enclosure, whereupon the animals 
 gallop along as has been described, race for the fish, 
 and then come back for more, the same gallop and 
 scramble being repeated each time, and the Seals 
 appearing to enjoy the game as much as if they 
 were children scrambling for sweetmeats. 
 
 That the gallop is the only way by which a seal can 
 proceed on land with any rapidity, is evident from the 
 structure. The reader will remember that in the whale 
 the hind limbs are entirely absent, so as to leave the 
 body free and flexible, and that there is not even a 
 pelvis. Now, the Seal has to move about on the land 
 as well as to be active in the water, and these two con- 
 ditions are fulfilled in a very simple manner. 
 
 It is evident that there must be hind limbs, and 
 that, therefore, there must be a pelvis to which the 
 limbs can be attached. But the pelvis is very small, as 
 the animal does not need to support the weight of the 
 body upon the limbs, and it is set so far back that the 
 body is as flexible as that of the whales or the dolphins. 
 The limbs themselves are short, but the actual feet are 
 rather long, flat, and set vertically, like the tail of a 
 fish, the functions of which, indeed, they perform. 
 
 The long toes are connected with skin, like the 
 webbed feet of a duck, and when the Seal wishes to 
 
SEALS. 59 
 
 propel itself with speed through the water, it presses 
 the hind feet together so as to form them into a single 
 paddle, and, by swaying the body sharply from side 
 to side, propels itself through the water just as a man 
 "sculls" a boat with a single oar at the stern. 
 
 I once took advantage of this mode of propulsion 
 perhaps rather an unfair one. Many years ago I had 
 obtained permission to go with a party of friends to 
 fish in the great Swindon reservoir. We were received 
 by a surly keeper, who would not let us fish from the 
 bank, but put us into a punt, rowed us to an old barge 
 that was anchored in the middle of the reservoir, and 
 then rowed off again, leaving us prisoners until he chose 
 to release us. 
 
 When he was out of sight I first thought of cutting 
 the rope, and swimming ashore with the barge, but 
 presently hit upon a much better plan. We took the 
 butt-joints of our fishing rods, put them into the holes 
 of the capstan, and succeeded in getting up the anchor. 
 We then shifted the rods to the rudder and used them 
 by way of a tiller, that article, as well as oars, poles, 
 etc., having been carefully removed. 
 
 By working the rudder backwards and forwards 
 we soon got the barge into movement, and traversed 
 the whole of the reservoir at will, visiting various islets, 
 and procuring the eggs of coots and other water birds. 
 At last, we took the barge to the furthest end of the 
 reservoir, got ashore, and then pushed the barge back 
 into the water. 
 
 The keeper's rage was unbounded when we pre- 
 sented ourselves at the door of the enclosure, he think- 
 ing that we were prisoners all the while, and not 
 
60 MARINE AND AQUATIC TRESPASSERS. 
 
 having the least intention of releasing us for some time. 
 Nor was his anger appeased when we declined to give 
 any explanation as to the mode of our escape. 
 
 I mention this incident in order to illustrate the 
 propulsive power of a Seal's hind feet. For, even 
 under such disadvantageous circumstances, the rudder 
 being very small in proportion to the barge, and having 
 to be worked very slowly and cautiously for fear of 
 breaking the fishing-rod which acted as a tiller, we 
 traversed a course of several miles, and guided the un- 
 wieldy vessel just as we liked. 
 
 Now, the paddles, or hind feet of the Seal are very 
 large in proportion to the size of the animal, and are 
 swept backwards and forwards with the whole force of 
 the powerful and flexible body. A single slow and 
 gentle sweep of the paddles drives the animal for a 
 wonderful distance through the water, while a power- 
 ful stroke gives sufficient impetus to send the Seal 
 fairly out of the water. The fore paws are principally 
 used for preserving the balance and inclining the body 
 from side to side. One of the Seals in the Zoological 
 Gardens used habitually to swim on its back, like the 
 well-known water-boatman of our ponds. 
 
 As the Seals spend so much of their time in the 
 water, it is evident that, like the whale tribe, they 
 should have a sort of blanket in order to preserve the 
 heat of the body. This object is attained by two 
 methods. 
 
 In the first place, there is a layer of fat beneath the 
 skin, somewhat like that of the whales, but separate 
 from the skin and not entangled in it. In the next 
 place, there is a covering of hair outside the skin : 
 
SEALS. 61 
 
 this covering is two-fold. Next the skin comes a 
 coat of thick, soft, downy fur, which in some species is 
 so fine, glossy, and warm, that it is of great value in 
 the fur trade. The seal-skin jackets, mantles, and 
 muffs, which are so favoured by ladies, are formed of 
 this inner coating. 
 
 Next comes an outer coating of long and rather 
 coarse hairs, which project through the down and are 
 laid as closely together as the thatch of a house, and are 
 quite as impervious to water. They are all set with a 
 decided slope backward, so as to offer scarcely any 
 resistance to the water when the Seal is swimming. 
 These hairs are-too thick and coarse for civilized wear, 
 though the Greenlanders and Esquimaux are only too 
 glad to make use of a double protection against the 
 cold. In order, therefore, to suit the present taste, 
 the coarse hairs must be plucked out by hand, and this 
 process adds in no small degree to the cost of the 
 fur. 
 
 It is remarkable, by the way, that the extinct 
 Siberian elephant, popularly known as the Mammoth, 
 had just such an arrangement of fur and hair. Next 
 the skin was a thick coat of fur, the hairs of which were 
 about an inch and a half in length, and over them came 
 a thatch, so to speak, of very coarse hairs, varying 
 greatly in length, but evidently intended to shield the 
 animal from wet as well as to retain the bodily heat. 
 The colour of both kinds of hair is reddish brown, the 
 fur being of a warmer hue than the coarse hairs. 
 Beside these, there was a further protection afforded 
 by a number of very thick hairs, or rather bristles, 
 fully eighteen inches in length. I believe that these 
 
62 MARINE AND AQUATIC TRESPASSERS. 
 
 are for the purpose of straining off the water, and con- 
 ducting it so as to fall in streams away from the 
 animal's body. 
 
 The reader may be reminded that the long hairs of 
 the great apes are used for a similar purpose. Those 
 of the upper arm are directed downwards, and those of 
 the lower arm upwards, so that they meet at the elbow 
 in a sort of point. When rain comes on, the animal 
 sits crouching together as closely as possible, with its 
 arms crossed and the hands resting on the shoulders. 
 The arms then act as a penthouse for the rest of the 
 body, the water running down them and pouring off 
 the long hairs at the elbow. 
 
 As is the case with the whales, the external orifice 
 of the ear is exceedingly small, so that the water cannot 
 penetrate into the auditory apparatus. The lungs are 
 similarly guarded by means of the structure of the 
 nostrils, which are self-closed by their own elasticity, 
 and are held tighter together in proportion to the 
 pressure of water. 
 
 It has been mentioned that the Seals produce their 
 young on the shore, or, at all events, out of the water, 
 thus differing essentially from the whale tribe, which are 
 unable to leave the water, even for a short space of time. 
 Sometimes the Seals proceed a little inland for this 
 purpose, and sometimes they remain upon the ice, 
 their two-fold coating of hair outside the skin, and 
 their single, but thick, coating of fat inside it, 
 effectually enabling them to endure contact with its 
 cold surface. A most remarkable history of the nursery 
 life of a Seal is given by Capt. Hall in his "Life among 
 the Esquimaux." 
 
SEALS. 63 
 
 It appears that in that region the Seals always keep 
 open breathing-holes for themselves, which they con- 
 trive to pierce completely through the thick ice. This 
 is done by always resorting to the same spot when the 
 ice begins to form, so that at last a perpendicular 
 tunnel is always kept open, and is large enough for a 
 full-grown Seal to pass up and down with perfect ease. 
 
 As the time approaches for the young one to be 
 born, the mother ascends the tunnel, and with her 
 fore paws scrapes away the snow until she has formed 
 a cavity of a dome-like form, and much wider than the 
 opening of the tunnel. She is enabled to ascend the 
 tunnel easily enough, because the weight of the ice and 
 snow forces the water almost to its entrance. On the 
 ledge which is left around the entrance she deposits 
 her young one, which is thus nurtured in almost 
 absolute safety the bear, fox, and the dog being the 
 only enemies which it has to fear. The Esquimaux 
 call these remarkable houses by the name which they 
 give to their own snow-houses, namely, ' ( igloo," and 
 it is most probable that the first idea of the Esquimaux 
 snow-house was taken from the dwelling of the Seal. 
 
 Within this house the young Seal remains for some 
 time. Gradually, summer comes on ; the rays of the 
 sun melt away the snow that lay upon the roof of the 
 igloo. But, by this time, the young Seal has so increased 
 in size and strength that it no longer needs the pro- 
 tection, and is able to shift for itself. 
 
 A rough plan or chart of the Seal's igloo is here 
 given. It is taken from Capt. Hall's description. A 
 represents the snow ; B is the igloo scraped in it ; C 
 is the ice; and D is the tunnel, nearly filled with water 
 
6* MARINE AND AQUATIC TRESPASSERS. 
 
 by the pressure of the ice and snow ; E is the sea on 
 which the ice-floe is resting. The reader will see from 
 this rough chart what a simple, and yet what an effi- 
 cient, plan this is for enabling the young Seal to be 
 nurtured in safety, and the mother to visit it whenever 
 she likes, and to procure food without betraying the 
 position of her nursling to the many terrestrial foes 
 which would at once render her childless if they dis- 
 covered the hiding-place of her young one. 
 
 SEALS IGLOO. 
 
 A good account of the Seal's igloo is given by 
 Capt. Hall. A cry was raised that one of the Esqui- 
 maux women had caught a young Seal. Everyone ran 
 to the spot, the capture of a Seal being a most mo- 
 mentous event among these people. 
 
 " On reaching the place of capture, we found that 
 Tunukderlien had beneath her feet a young Seal, alive 
 and kicking. Koojesse immediately made a line fast 
 
SEALS. 65 
 
 to one of its hind flippers, and allowed the Seal to re- 
 enter the igloo where it had been caught. 
 
 " As this was something new and interesting to ine, 
 I intently watched what followed. The Seal was, per- 
 haps, two or three weeks old, and, like all young Seals, 
 was white, though not so white as untainted snow. 
 
 " While Koojesse kept hold of the line, four or five 
 fathoms long, the Seal worked itself hastily back into 
 the igloo, its birth-place, where it made a plunge 
 down the seal-hole into the sea. Koojesse allowed it 
 the whole play of his line, crawling into the igloo, 
 taking the seal-hook with him, and waiting patiently 
 for the parent Seal to come up. I was close by him, 
 there being just sufficient room through the opening 
 made where the young Seal was caught for me to push 
 myself in. Then, lying flat down, we both carefully 
 watched. 
 
 " In three or four minutes the young Seal returned, 
 popping up its round, shining head, and blowing and 
 puffing like a whale, though on a reduced scale, its 
 large eyes glistening like lights from twinkling stars. 
 It came directly to its bed-place, where we reclined. 
 As it attempted to crawl up, Koojesse gave it a stroke 
 on the head, signifying, f Go away dive down show 
 to your mother that you, the darling of her affections, 
 are in trouble ; and when she comes to your aid Fll 
 hook her too ! } 
 
 " The two women were now close by us, each with 
 a seal-dog, and, while waiting, I had a good oppor- 
 tunity of inspecting a Seal^s igloo. 
 
 " It was a model of those which the Innuits make 
 for themselves, and was completely dome-shaped. It 
 
 5 
 
66 MARINE AND AQUATIC TEESPASSERS. 
 
 was five feet or so in diameter, and two-and-a-half feet 
 high, with a depth of snow above it of some five feet. 
 The platform of sea-ice was where the parent Seal gave 
 birth to its young, and afterwards nursed it. On one 
 side was the seal-hole, filled with sea- water, which was 
 within two inches of the top of the platform." 
 
 In all probability, the igloo is retained in its shape 
 by the animal warmth and hot breath of the young. 
 We shall return to the Seal's igloo when we come to 
 treat of the polar bear as a trespasser. The little 
 animal which was thus used as a bait wherewith to 
 catch its mother, was afterwards killed in the usual 
 fashion i.e., pressing it strongly on the back with the 
 whole weight of the body, and so stopping its breath. 
 This is done for the purpose of saving the blood, 
 which, -when drunk warm, is one of the greatest luxuries 
 of the Esquimaux, and even appreciated by Capt. Hall 
 himself. 
 
 See how many laws of Nature are utilized to pre- 
 serve the life of a baby Seal. 
 
 First, there is the fact that water, when frozen, 
 expands in size, and therefore floats upon the yet un- 
 frozen water. Did it contract instead of expanding, the 
 whole of both polar seas would have been by this time 
 nothing but a solid mass of ice. If the ice had sunk 
 instead of floated, it would have congealed the water 
 around it, and so added to its bulk as well as to its 
 weight. Nor would it ever have been thawed 
 again. 
 
 Water is a very bad conductor of heat ; so bad, 
 indeed, that if a vessel be filled with water at thirty- 
 four degrees, and a red-hot lump of iron plunged 
 
SEALS. 67 
 
 into it for an inch or so, the water around the 
 iron will be boiling fiercely, while at a couple of 
 inches below the iron it will still remain at thirty-four 
 degrees. 
 
 As far as the Seal goes, two points are already 
 gained in its favour. The ice floating on the surface 
 of the water acts as a safeguard; for it is just as 
 difficult for heat to get through ice in one direction as 
 in another; and, however cold the external atmosphere 
 may be, it can but slowly extract the heat through the 
 covering of ice, which serves in the inanimate world 
 the same purpose that the fatty "blanket" serves in 
 the living whales and seals. Next, by means of this 
 layer of ice interposed between the sea and the open 
 air, the water is preserved unfrozen ; and so the Seal 
 can always find the supply of fish on which its life, 
 together with that of its young, depends. 
 
 The same quality of flotation in the ice is also 
 utilized in supplying the infant Seal with a couch on 
 which it can lie until it is strong enough to enter the 
 water and shift for itself. 
 
 Again, the peculiar crystalline formation of the 
 snow is utilized in providing a shelter for the little 
 animal. It is light enough to be easily scooped away 
 by the fore paws of the mother Seal. Yet the ramified 
 form of the crystals, which interlace each other in all 
 directions, render it tenacious enough for the igloo to 
 preserve its form, instead of falling in, as would be 
 the case if it were sculptured in sand. And, lastly, it 
 is partially pervious both to light and air, so that the 
 young Seal is not altogether deprived of these acces- 
 sories to life. 
 
68 MARINE AND AQUATIC TRESPASSERS. 
 
 Another law of Nature is then brought into play. 
 If the superincumbent weight of the ice and snow 
 were to produce no mechanical effect on the water on 
 which it floats, the mother Seal would have great 
 difficulty in ascending the tunnel, if, indeed, she did 
 not find it impossible. But the pressure forces the 
 water to such a height, that the animal can rise nearly 
 to the surface of the ice, and can easily scramble to 
 the assistance of her offspring. 
 
 Thus we see how the same property of matter 
 i.e., a slow conducting of heat, can be employed for 
 the use of the same animal in three different ways. 
 Directly applied to itself in the way of the fatty layer 
 beneath the skin and the coating of fur outside the 
 body, it prevents the animal heat from escaping into the 
 surrounding water, ice, and cold atmosphere. Indirectly 
 applied, in the form of snow and ice, it preserves the 
 sea from being wholly frozen ; and in the form of snow, 
 it affords to the young Seal a warm residence. 
 
 It is well known that owing to the non-conducting 
 power of snow, the snow-house of the Esquimaux is 
 not only warm, but so hot, that although it is only 
 warmed by the lamp, the inhabitants are often obliged 
 to throw off all their clothes. Indeed, were it not for 
 this property, the Esquimaux could not sustain ex- 
 istence. In their country no tree can grow, and there 
 is absolutely nothing with which the inhabitants can 
 build a house, except the snow. This, however, is 
 always at hand; and so, where an European would 
 speedily lose his life by the frost, the Esquimaux finds 
 a warm and comfortable refuge from the cold. Ex- 
 perienced travellers in cold climates have long known 
 
SEALS. 69 
 
 that if they are benighted at a distance from shelter, 
 they can make themselves tolerably comfortable, pro- 
 vided that there be only a reasonable depth of snow 
 into which they can burrow. And this very property 
 is utilized by the Seal, which, like the human inhabi- 
 tants of the same land, finds a shelter and a home 
 beneath the ice-cold snow. 
 
 Having thus seen how the structure of the Seals is 
 modified according to the surrounding conditions, 
 and enables them to divide their lives between the land 
 and water, we will briefly notice one or two of the 
 most conspicuous species, and see how their habits 
 agree with their structure. 
 
 The Common Seal (Phoca vitulind) is too familiar 
 to need description, and we will therefore proceed at 
 once to the two species which are represented on 
 Plate I. 
 
 The figures in the foreground represent the 
 Walrus, an enormous species of Seal, measuring, when 
 adult, no less than fifteen feet in length ; and being, 
 as may be seen by reference to the illustration, very 
 stout in the body. 
 
 On looking at the Walrus, the first point that 
 strikes the observer is the enormous development of 
 the canine teeth of the upper jaw, which form two 
 long and powerful tusks, slightly curved, and gradually 
 tapering to a point at the tip. 
 
 The reader may remember that in the description 
 of the narwhal, a doubt was expressed as to the purpose 
 served by the one enormous tooth that projects from 
 the jaw of the male. The chief difficulty lies in the 
 
70 MARINE AND AQUATIC TRESPASSERS. 
 
 fact that only the male possesses this tusk ; so that it 
 could not be used for the purpose of gaining food, or, 
 indeed, of preserving life in any direct manner. 
 
 In the Walrus, however, both sexes possess the 
 tusks ; so that no such difficulty arises. One use to 
 which these enormous tusks are put, is to aid the 
 animal in dragging its huge body upon the shore. 
 Another use is, to tear up the algae which grow 
 upon the rocks below water-mark : for this Seal is 
 omnivorous, and, besides eating fish, Crustacea, and 
 other animal substances, feeds also upon the marine 
 vegetation. 
 
 The tusks are larger in the males than in the 
 females, and are used on occasions either when they 
 fight with each other, or when they are engaged in 
 defence against other enemies. The worst of them is 
 the Polar bear, which, however, is often beaten off by 
 a powerful male Walrus, though the skin of the latter 
 shows many deep wounds caused by his enemy's claws. 
 
 When they fight among themselves, it is almost 
 invariably in the breeding season. Each male has 
 quite a harem of females, over whom he watches with 
 the extremest jealousy, though he does not lose an 
 opportunity for decoying a member of a neighbouring 
 harem into his own premises. 
 
 The very peculiar shape of the muzzle is caused by 
 the very large bony sockets which are needed for 
 the reception of the huge tusks. These sockets 
 extend nearly to the upper part of the head, and are 
 so long that when the mouth is closed, the lower 
 part of the socket is about level with the bottom of the 
 lower jaw. 
 
SEALS. 71 
 
 The accompanying illustration, which is kindly lent 
 by Messrs. Routledge and Sons, shows the remarkable 
 form which both jaws are obliged to assume in order 
 to accommodate those enormous tusks. This jaw, if 
 formed in the usual manner, would be in the way of 
 tusks, so that the mouth could not be closed. It is, 
 
 FKULL OF WALRUS. 
 
 therefore, very much narrowed in front, so that it 
 passes easily between the tusks, and can move with 
 freedom. 
 
 Another strange variation in the structure of these 
 animals is shown in the centre of Plate I., the figures 
 in which represent that extraordinary creature, the 
 
72 , MARINE AND AQUATIC TEESPASSERS. 
 
 Crested Seal (Stemmatopus crestatus), so called on 
 account of the upper part of the head, which in the 
 male is developed into a sort of crest, that can be 
 raised or lowered at pleasure. It is, in fact, a modifi- 
 cation of the nose, and constructed in a singular 
 manner. 
 
 An upright ridge of gristly substance passes from 
 the nose to over the top of the head, like the crest of 
 an ancient helmet, and averages some seven inches in 
 height. This supports the flexible sides of a large 
 pouch that communicates with the nostrils, and by 
 means of them can be inflated until it forms a large 
 projection on the top of the head, looking like a huge 
 wen. As soon as the Seal allows the air to pass 
 out of this singular structure, the sides collapse by 
 their own elasticity, so that in the course of a few 
 seconds the whole aspect of the animal is totally 
 changed. 
 
 No one has the least idea as to the purpose which 
 this remarkable addition to the head is meant to per- 
 form. 
 
 Some persons have suggested that, as the Seals are 
 very sensitive about the nostrils, and can be killed by 
 a comparatively slight blow at the end of the nose, the 
 inflatable sac is intended to protect the animal's life. 
 This object it certainly does fulfil, but I cannot think 
 that it was designed for any such purpose. 
 
 In the first place, Seals were not made for the pur- 
 pose of being knocked on the nose ; and in the next 
 place, there can be no reason why the females and 
 immature males should not be endowed with the same 
 protective armour, their fur being quite as saleable as 
 
SEALS. 73 
 
 that of the adult male, and they, in consequence, being 
 equally liable to be knocked on the nose. 
 
 It has also been suggested that the sac is intended 
 to increase the loudness of the voice; but the fact 
 that it communicates with the nostrils, which are used 
 for breathing, and not with the throat, which is used 
 for the production of sound, militates strongly against 
 this theory. All known species of Seal can bellow 
 loudly enough when they are angry, but they do so 
 with their throats, and not through their noses. 
 
 An appendage of an equally mysterious character 
 belongs to the gigantic seal, which is called the Sea 
 Elephant (Morunga proboscidea) . The name is doubly 
 appropriate, the animal being of gigantic dimensions, 
 and the snout of the adult male prolonged into a 
 form that somewhat resembles the proboscis of the 
 elephant. 
 
 Even the Walrus looks small in point of size by the 
 side of the Sea Elephant, the former averaging some 
 fourteen or fifteen feet in length, while an adult male 
 Sea Elephant has been known to measure thirty feet in 
 length. 
 
 The enormous snout of the male is, in one respect, 
 like the head-pouch of the Crested Seal. When the 
 animal is undisturbed, it hangs down quite loose and 
 flaccid, and is scarcely noticeable at a little distance. 
 But when it is angered, especially by a rival of its own 
 species, it has a way of expanding the proboscis to a 
 wonderful size, thereby giving itself a most formidable 
 aspect. 
 
 Its enormous dimensions, and the powerful teeth 
 with which its jaws are armed, render it a very un- 
 
74 MARINE AND AQUATIC TRESPASSERS. 
 
 pleasant looking animal, but the additional feature of 
 the expanded proboscis gives it a look of ferocity 
 which is quite appalling. Fortunately for its human 
 enemies, its terrors evaporate in mere show, for, .if 
 boldly faced, it will shuffle off as fast as is permitted 
 by its huge, fat, oil-clad body, which quivers like a 
 shape of jelly as it moves along. 
 
 We naturally ask ourselves the use of these singular 
 appendages to the Crested Seal and the Sea Elephant. 
 We do not as yet know, any more than we know the 
 object of the long mane-like hair upon the head, neck, 
 and shoulders of the Seal called the Sea Lion. It de- 
 rives this name partly from the mane, which gives it a 
 lion-like aspect, and partly from its habit of almost 
 perpetually roaring when on shore. This habit, by the 
 way, has more than once been of the greatest use to 
 sailors, by warning them of the vicinity of land or an 
 ice-floe which they were approaching too closely in 
 foggy weather. 
 
 Even with our own species, we do not understand 
 the use of many of the structures. Take, for example, 
 a parallel case, the beard of man, which is analogous 
 to the head-pouch of the Crested Seal, the dilated 
 snout of the Sea Elephant, and the mane of the Sea 
 Lion. It serves no definite purpose, as far "as we know. 
 It cannot be intended, as some have said, for protec- 
 tion against cold, because while the Hindoos, who live 
 in a hot climate, have very large stiff beards, the Esqui- 
 maux of the Northern Polar regions, and the Fuegians 
 of the Southern Pole, are devoid of any such protec- 
 tion, their faces being practically beardless, as far as 
 defensive purposes are concerned. 
 
SEALS. 75 
 
 Again, we have two distinct races of men inhabit- 
 ing contiguous localities, in which the one is bearded 
 and the other beardless : these are the Fijians and the 
 Tongans. The former are magnificent creatures, with 
 vast quantities of long and curly hair on their heads, 
 and their fd,ces covered with the fullest and most luxu- 
 riant of beards. The latter have long and straight 
 hair on their heads, and their faces are nearly as smooth 
 as those of women. Yet they live under the same 
 skies, have many of the same habits, and feed on the 
 same food. 
 
 And it is a curious fact that the fierce-looking 
 Fijian, who is always crying for war, who never walks 
 without a club on his shoulder, and is a confirmed 
 cannibal, is hopelessly overmatched by the quiet, mild- 
 looking, beardless Tongan, who, indeed, has made 
 inroads upon the Fijian coast, and threatened to esta- 
 blish himself permanently there, despite all efforts of 
 the externally valiant, but at heart cowardly Fijian, to 
 expel him. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 Winter 
 
 AMONG the reptiles there are so many water trespassers 
 that it is difficult to determine the species with which 
 to begin, especially as there are some beings which 
 occupy so closely the boundary line between reptiles 
 and fishes, that it is not easy to fix their exact place. 
 Again, the reptiles being divided into two distinct 
 portions the one of which is represented by the frogs, 
 toads, and newts, while the other consists of lizards, 
 tortoises, and serpents we find ourselves in some con- 
 fusion as to their precedence. 
 
 The best plan is, as I think, to take those creatures 
 first which, like the seals among the mammalia, pass 
 almost the whole of their lives in the water, although 
 they are capable of living upon land. Familiar 
 examples of the most perfect form of these creatures 
 may be found in our Common Frog and Newt, which, 
 however, unlike each other externally, are constructed 
 exactly on the same model as regards their power of 
 water trespassing, and differ chiefly in their mode of 
 propulsion, whether in water or on land. 
 
 It is evident, for example, that the Newt, which 
 
THE NEWT. 77 
 
 passes by far the greatest part of its time in the water, 
 should be formed on a more fish-like model than is 
 needful for the Frog, which passes the greater part of 
 its time on the land, though the water is a perfectly 
 familiar element to it, and it can propel itself nearly as 
 fast, though not so gracefully, as does the Newt, the 
 one advancing by a series of intermittent strokes from 
 the webbed hind feet, while the other undulates rapidly 
 and steadily, after the manner of the fish, being pro- 
 pelled by the sinuous movement of the flattened and 
 flexible body. 
 
 We will begin with the Newt, as an example of a 
 water trespasser which passes most of its time in the 
 water, though it can live and travel upon land. 
 
 One of these singularly pretty creatures is repre- 
 sented in the central figure upon Cut 3. In common 
 with the Frog and Toad, both of which are seen upon 
 the same illustration, it begins its active life as a 
 fish, carrying on respiration by means of gills, and 
 ends it as a reptile that breathes atmospheric air 
 by means of lungs. So that we have before our 
 eyes one of the most astonishing arcana of Nature, 
 examples of which may be found any day by any one 
 who will take the trouble to look for them. As the 
 space of this work is but limited, it will be necessary 
 to give but a very brief description of this remarkable 
 modification of structure, as exemplified in the Newts, 
 Frogs, and Toads. 
 
 The egg is deposited in the water, like that of a 
 fish, and when the young is hatched it has gills con- 
 structed on precisely the same plan as those of the fish, 
 except that they are outside instead of inside the head, 
 
78 REPTILIAN WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 looking like little pink feathers attached to the sides of 
 the neck, the pink colour being due to the blood which 
 is seen through their delicate membranes. In this 
 state, the young animal is well-known under the name 
 of tadpole, and I very strongly advise my readers who 
 are within reach of a pond or ditch, to catch some tad- 
 poles and examine them with the magnify ing- glass. 
 Whether they be the young of Newt, Frog, or Toad, 
 does not in the least signify. 
 
 In this form, they remain in the water for some 
 three weeks, during which time the limbs are begin- 
 ning to show themselves, and the lungs are being 
 gradually developed. Taking the Newt as our first 
 example, it retains through life the elongated and 
 fish-like shape of the body, and takes, in addition, 
 four legs, which are short, not very strong, but 
 quite capable of enabling their owner to walk upon 
 land. 
 
 Another great and radical change is, however, taking 
 place. 
 
 Not only does the animal gain limbs and lungs, but, 
 exactly in proportion to the development of the lungs, 
 the gills begin to become gradually less, until they 
 vanish entirely, and the whole of respiration is con- 
 ducted by means of the lungs. We have now a reptile 
 which is to its own order what the whales are to the 
 mammals. It lives in the water, finds its food below 
 the surface, and is, therefore, obliged to be able to 
 pass a considerable time without respiration. 
 
 This object is achieved in a very simple manner. 
 In the case of the whales and dolphins, which are hot- 
 blooded mammals, so large an amount of oxygen is 
 
THE NEWT. 79 
 
 required for the aeration of the blood that the animal 
 cannot take with it a supply of air, but substitutes a 
 reservoir of clearly aerated blood. The reptiles, how- 
 ever, being cold-blooded animals, do not require so 
 much oxygen, and, in consequence, they are able to 
 take with them a quantity of air which suffices them 
 for a considerable period. 
 
 For this purpose, the lungs are composed of cells 
 very much larger in proportion to the size of the animal 
 than those of the mammalia. Thus, only a portion of 
 the blood is at a time brought into contact with the 
 air within the lungs, and a comparatively small supply 
 can last for a considerable time before its properties 
 are exhausted. As the quantity is so small, the act of 
 respiration can be performed in a very short time ; and 
 a Newt which has been below the water for a long time 
 will just wriggle its way to the surface, put its head 
 partly out of the water, take a single quick breath, and 
 then wriggle its way down again, the whole business 
 being transacted in so short a time that if the observer 
 be armed with a net he must be very quick in his 
 movements if he can capture the Newt before it has 
 descended beyond his reach. 
 
 Generally all the Salamanders, as these creatures 
 are collectively termed, are of small size ; but there 
 are one or two exceptions, the most illustrious of 
 which is the Giant Salamander (Sieboldm maxima), of 
 Japan, which is about a yard in length, and very 
 broad in proportion to its width, so that it is really 
 a large animal. It does not possess the beautiful 
 green and orange hues of our own little Newt, but is 
 black-brown, and all covered with warty knobs, so 
 
80 EBPTILIAN WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 that it is anything but a pretty creature. It lives 
 well in this country. 
 
 Another very large Newt is the Menopome of the 
 Ohio river, which reaches the length of two feet or so. 
 Both these large Newts are very voracious ; and are 
 so destructive among fish, that the latter has received 
 the popular but not euphonious names of mud-devil, 
 hell-bender, and ground-puppy. 
 
 The fishermen are nearly as much afraid of it as 
 our English peasants are of the Common Newt, though 
 with a little more reason/inasmuch as the Menopome is 
 a large animal ; and in spite of the small size of its 
 teeth, might manage to give an ugly bite ; whereas 
 the Newt is absolutely incapable of harm. But, in 
 both cases, the animal is credited with powers which 
 it does not possess, and its bite is thought to be 
 venomous. 
 
 It does not seem to be very plentiful in any 
 locality, its numbers having apparently been dimin- 
 ished within the last few years. Dr. C. C. Abbott 
 mentions that in various parts of the United States, 
 the Menopome has been exhibited in travelling mena- 
 geries under the title of the "Australian Ornithor- 
 hynchus paradoxus." The exhibitor must have pos- 
 sessed wonderful confidence in the ignorance of the 
 general public. 
 
 In captivity it is found to feed voraciously on 
 minnows and similar fish, an astonishing number of 
 which it devours daily. One of these reptiles tried to 
 eat a large cray-fish, but got so sharply pricked in the 
 nose by the projecting points of the crustacean's head, 
 that it afterwards took care to let the creature alone. 
 
THE NEWT. 81 
 
 There are some of these animals which seem to 
 have their development arrested, and never to get 
 beyond the tadpole state. Such, for example, is the 
 well-known Proteus anguinus of Adelsberg, in Carniola, 
 a creature in which not only the organs of respiration, 
 but those of sight are undeveloped. It is, in fact, 
 little more than a blind tadpole of full size, having no 
 eyes, and breathing entirely through gills. 
 
 Then there is the Axolotl (Axoloteles guttatus) of 
 Mexico, which is about eight or ten inches in length. 
 It has anything but a pleasing look, but yet is valued 
 as an article of food, and regularly sold in the 
 markets. 
 
 The gills in this creature are very bold and con- 
 spicuous, standing out like tufts of feathers on either 
 side of the back of the head. 
 
 The strangest thing about this animal is, that 
 although when left in its native waters, it never 
 passes beyond the tadpole condition, it can be arti- 
 ficially developed into the state of a Newt. It is found 
 that if the supply of water be gradually cut off, the 
 gills diminish in proportion to the lessening of 
 their usefulness, while the lungs become developed. 
 In fact, the creature is forced artificially to go through 
 just the same process as the newts, frogs, and toads, 
 undergo naturally. 
 
 It may seem strange that these creatures should be 
 undeveloped all their lives, and yet produce young. 
 Such, however, is the case ; for they lay eggs just 
 like any other Newt, and their eggs are hatched into 
 little tadpoles, which afterwards grow to be big tad- 
 poles, but never pass beyond that stage. 
 
 6 
 
82 EEPTILIAN WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 In the Insect-room at the British Museum, several 
 of these creatures have been kept for some years in a 
 glass vessel. They are quite tame, and will come to 
 be fed when summoned; the mode of calling them 
 being to make a slight rippling on the surface of 
 the water with the finger. 
 
 The axolotl breeds freely in England the speci- 
 mens in the British Museum producing annually great 
 quantities of young. They are, however, difficult crea- 
 tures to rear; and only a very small percentage pass even 
 beyond their infancy. I tried to rear a dozen of them, 
 but failed, although I took care to supply them with 
 water in which were great numbers of the water-flea, 
 and other entomostraca. Most of them died gradually 
 off, without having increased in size ; while only one 
 seemed to be in the way of thriving. That one did 
 grow finely, and I thought that it would have sur- 
 vived; but one day the usual fatal sign made its 
 appearance, i.e., a sort of flocculence round the body, 
 and in another day all my axolotls were dead. 
 
 I much regretted its loss, as I wished, as soon as 
 it was about half-grown, to try the experiment of 
 converting the gill-breathing axolotl into an air- 
 breathing newt. 
 
 The axolotl is shown in the lower figure of 
 Cut 4. 
 
 There is one very large species of gill-breathing 
 Newt which inhabits the Mississippi and several of the 
 American lakes. Its scientific title is Necturus late- 
 ralis. I do not know whether it possesses a popular 
 name. 
 
 It sometimes reaches a length not very far short of 
 
CUT 4. SNAKE AND AXOLOTL. 
 
SALAMANDERS. 83 
 
 that of the great Japanese Salamander, though it is 
 not so broad and stout. Its gills have a more fan- 
 like form than those of the axolotl; and it is probable 
 that if the experiment were tried, the respiratory 
 apparatus of theNecturus could be artificially developed, 
 like that of the axolotl. 
 
 With regard to these gill-breathing Salamanders, 
 Dr. Baird was of the opinion that they were really the 
 arrested form of some animal, which is, at present, 
 unknown in the perfect state. Perhaps some of my 
 readers who take a delight in the aquarium, may 
 remember the pretty little Spotted Salamander or Eft, 
 that is in such demand on account of its violet-black 
 colour, relieved with a row of large, irregular, yellow 
 spots on each side, The scientific name of the 
 animal is Ambystoma Carolina, and Dr. Baird con- 
 sidered that the axolotl is in reality the arrested 
 larval form of some Newt belonging to the same genus 
 as the Spotted Eft. 
 
 In consequence of the fact that they retain the gills 
 throughout their whole life, the animals which have 
 just been mentioned are collectively termed Perenni- 
 branchiate Amphibia, that is, amphibious reptiles whose 
 gills are permanent. The true newts, frogs, and toads 
 are, on the other hand, termed Caducibranchiate 
 Amphibia, i.e., amphibious reptiles whose gills are 
 obliterated. 
 
 On these remarkable changes of structure Mr. 
 Eymer Jones has the following remarks : 
 
 " However curious the phenomena attending the 
 development of the tadpoles of the amphibious reptiles 
 may be to the observer who merely watches the changes 
 
84 REPTILIAN WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 perceptible from day to day in their external form, 
 they acquire a tenfold interest to the physiologist who 
 traces the progressive evolution of their internal viscera. 
 More especially, when he finds that in these creatures 
 he has an opportunity afforded him of contemplating, 
 displayed before his eyes, as it were, upon an enlarged 
 scale, those phases of development through which the 
 embryo of every air-breathing vertebrated animal must 
 pass while concealed within the egg. 
 
 " The division, therefore, of reptiles into such as 
 undergo a metamorphosis and such as do not, is by no 
 means philosophical, though convenient to the physio- 
 logist ; for all reptiles undergo a metamorphosis, though 
 not to the same extent." 
 
 Mr. Jones then proceeds to sum up the subject by 
 showing that in the Perennibranchiate reptiles the 
 change from the aquatic to the air-breathing animal is 
 never fully accomplished, while in the Caducibranchiates 
 the change takes place after the young has been 
 hatched. He then shows that even in the case of the 
 reptiles proper, such as the lizards, snakes, and 
 tortoises, a similar change takes place, though it is 
 accomplished within tKe egg, long before the little 
 animal is hatched. And the same rule holds good with 
 birds. 
 
 From these observations the reader will, I think, 
 see the extreme value, not only of observation, but of 
 generalizing the facts that are observed. 
 
 Even if taken alone, the faculty of observation is of 
 very high value. It adds a new charm to life, and 
 gives entrance, so to speak, into a different world. 
 The good old story of "Eyes and No Eyes" is applicable 
 
SALAMANDERS. 85 
 
 to Natural History as well as to general observation, 
 and anyone who is even partially trained to observa- 
 tion will find himself absorbingly interested in a walk 
 where another finds nothing but dull uniformity. 
 
 Still, the mere accumulation of facts, though valu- 
 able, is not all that is required. It is knowledge, but 
 not wisdom. Taking our present example of the 
 development of the newt, it is a singularly interesting 
 task to watch the gradual development of the tadpole 
 into the newt or frog to notice the growth of the 
 limbs and the disappearance of the gills. But it is 
 infinitely more interesting when we grasp the fact, that 
 in the development of this creature, which is carried 
 on before our eyes, we have the key to the develop- 
 ment of all vertebrated animals, and to note that all 
 pass through similar changes, though not in so open a 
 manner. 
 
 It is evident that the generalizer must possess a 
 mind of wider grasp than is needed for observation 
 alone, and it has frequently happened that the person 
 who has hit upon the most valuable generalizations is 
 one whose thoughts are mostly engaged on subjects of 
 a different nature. 
 
 Take, for example, the two great discoveries in 
 zoology and botany namely, the homologies of the 
 skeleton and the structure of the fruit. These dis- 
 coveries were not made by professed zoologists or 
 botanists, but by Goethe, the poet. He certainly had 
 some knowledge of both these sciences, but he was 
 also deeply read in various forms of literature, and had 
 studied chemistry, jurisprudence, music, drawing, and 
 languages. In this latter branch of knowledge he was 
 
86 REPTILIAN WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 so expert that for his own amusement he wrote a sort 
 of novel, composed of letters written by seven corres- 
 pondents, each in a different language. 
 
 A mind thus trained was sure to see a new fact in 
 various lights, and to grasp at once the relations 
 which it would hold with other facts. No idea ever 
 presents itself alone to such a mind, but is immediately 
 grouped about with other ideas gathered from various 
 sources, but all bearing on that one point. 
 
 Now let us see how it happened that a poet dis- 
 covered the homologies of the skeleton. 
 
 He was walking, and saw a skull I believe of a 
 deer lying on the ground. There was nothing very 
 noteworthy in this. Thousands of skulls had been 
 examined by professed anatomists, who were familiar 
 with every part of them, and the use of every hollow, 
 projection, or perforation ; and yet none of them had 
 detected in the skull its relationship to the rest of the 
 skeleton. It is possible that the very same skull had 
 been seen by many persons, who saw in it nothing 
 more than a familiar object. 
 
 To the eye of the poet, the skull was a revelation. 
 It lay with the base towards him, and it suddenly 
 flashed across his mind that the occipital bone was,' in 
 fact, nothing but a vertebra modified, the large hole at 
 the base of the skull being an enlargement of the hole 
 in the vertebra through which the spinal cord passes, 
 and the disc-shaped bone itself nothing but the vertebra 
 flattened. The next thought evidently was to the effect 
 that if one part of the skull were a modified vertebra, 
 the other parts had probably the same origin, the 
 hollow of the skull being a still further enlargement of 
 
SALAMANDERS. 87 
 
 the vertebral hole, and the dome-like bones nothing 
 but modifications of the vertebra itself. In fact, the 
 skull is not an isolated structure, but is formed of a 
 simple modification of four vertebrae. 
 
 On this beautiful discovery, so obscure before it was 
 made, and so simple afterwards, is based the whole of 
 our modern knowledge of the skeleton and its homo- 
 logies throughout the whole of the mammalia. The 
 subject is far too vast to be discussed in the present 
 work, and I can only refer my readers to Professor 
 Owen's " Lectures on Comparative Anatomy." Suffice 
 it to say that since the time when Goethe saw that 
 stray skull, the vertebra has been known to be the key 
 to the whole skeleton, all other parts being but modifi- 
 cations of it, however unlike they may appear to the 
 uninstructed eye. 
 
 The second great discovery of this wonderful man 
 was the structure of fruit, which he found out while 
 eating an orange. I suppose, and certainly hope, that 
 most of my readers have eaten plenty of oranges in 
 their time ; but scarcely think that, unless as botanists, 
 they were aware of the fact that the orange contained 
 the key to the structure of the fruit, as the vertebra 
 contains the structure of the skeleton. 
 
 Goethe, however, saw with other eyes than most 
 men, and, as he opened the orange, a mystery of 
 Nature was revealed. It is probable, and almost 
 certain, that he had eaten many oranges before this 
 particular one opened the eyes of his understanding. 
 On separating the various segments of which the 
 interior of an orange is composed, he was at once 
 struck with the fact that each segment was in reality a 
 
REPTILIAN WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 modified leaf, the outer membranes representing the 
 upper and lower epidermis of the leaf, and the soft, 
 juicy interior being a modification of the "parenchyma," 
 which in some leaves is very thin, but in others is very 
 thick and juicy. The leaves in question are of the kind 
 which are technically called " carpels/' and are those 
 of which seed-vessels are made. 
 
 He saw in that one intuitive flash of genius that 
 the orange is, in fact, a whorl of leaves, and thus was 
 given the key to a great mystery hitherto concealed 
 from man, By means of this discovery one or two 
 apparent anomalies are easily explained. There is 
 a variety of orange, known by the name of the Female 
 Bigarade. It is a large, coarse, deep yellow fruit, which 
 has the peculiarity of being double, one orange being 
 enclosed within another. Although this fact had been 
 known for many years, no botanists could account for 
 it, and it was left for the poet Goethe to supply the 
 key to the mystery. When this is understood, the 
 structure of the double orange is easily understood. It 
 consists of two whorls of carpels on the same stem, the 
 upper and smaller whorl being consolidated into the 
 central fruit, and the lower and larger whorl encircling 
 it. In some cases, three oranges are found one within 
 the other. 
 
 Other curious varieties of the orange tribe are also 
 accounted for in the same manner. For example, there 
 is the Fingered Bigarade, in which the fruit is divided 
 into finger-like globes ; the Horned Bigarade, in which 
 the fruit is deeply ribbed, and has its sides projecting 
 into horns ; and the enormous Chinese Fingered Citron, 
 in which the fruit is entirely divided into long, finger- 
 
FROGS AND TOADS. 89 
 
 like portions. Before Goethe's discovery, no one could 
 account for these singular varieties of form ; but when 
 we know that the fruit is composed of whorls of carpels, 
 there is no difficulty in understanding that in the one 
 case there are successive whorls on ihe same stem, the 
 larger enclosing the smaller, and that in the latter case 
 the carpels are only partially united to each other, so 
 that they form fingers or horns. 
 
 Here, then, we see the incalculable value of the 
 union between the observing and the generalizing 
 mind, the latter utilizing the results of the former, and 
 bringing apparently dissimilar facts to bear upon the 
 one central subject. Newton's discovery of gravitation, 
 or, rather, of universal attraction, was of a precisely 
 similar nature, although the subject is a much larger 
 one. There are still many unsolved mysteries in 
 Nature ; and I feel sure that when the ' ' hour and the 
 man " come, they will be solved as simply as Goethe 
 solved the homologies of the skeleton and the structure 
 of fruit, and as Newton discovered that the courses of 
 the heavenly bodies and the falling of a stone to the 
 ground were governed by one and the same law of 
 mutual attraction. 
 
 There seems to be an idea that Frogs and Toads can 
 live entirely in the water. This is not the case, for 
 either of these animals will be drowned if placed in 
 water from which it cannot escape. It will drown as 
 certainly as will a dog or a cat, only the operation will 
 occupy a longer time. I well recollect that when I 
 was a small boy I found some frogs in the garden, 
 and thinking them to be in want of water, I filled a 
 pail nearly full and put them in it. I was sorely dis- 
 
90 REPTILIAN WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 concerted one day to find that my pets were dead, and 
 had some difficulty in understanding that a Frog or 
 Toad could be drowned. 
 
 There is an artificial bathing-place near where I 
 live. It is a large oblong basin, lined with cement, 
 and so arranged that the water cannot rise within a 
 foot or so of the edge. Towards the end of summer, 
 there are numbers of dead frogs and toads in the basin. 
 They have heedlessly leaped into the water, and not 
 being able to clamber up the side, have been 
 drowned. 
 
 It may be that in these cases the death of the 
 animals may be partly owing to hunger; and this 
 brings us to another point in the history of these water 
 trespassers. 
 
 In the case of the newts, the creature obtains its 
 food in the water, through which it propels itself by 
 the sinuous movements of its body. Large limbs 
 would therefore be useless, and, in fact, would only be 
 an inconvenience in the water, while they would be of 
 no great use on the land. Whenever the newt goes 
 out of the water, it does not need to hurry itself, and 
 the four slight limbs with which it is furnished are 
 quite sufficient for its purpose. 
 
 But the Frogs and Toads are differently constituted, 
 They have to procure their food on the shore, as well 
 as to propel themselves in the water, and it is evident 
 that the whole plan of their locomotive machinery must 
 be entirely changed. Legs are therefore substituted 
 for the tail as means of progression, and the latter is 
 therefore abolished altogether. Another problem now 
 remains i.e., to form legs which will be equally 
 
FROGS AND TOADS. 91 
 
 capable of rapid progress on the ground ; and how 
 admirably this double duty is fulfilled in the legs of 
 the Frog, is evident enough to all who have seen the 
 perfect ease with which the creature moves either on 
 the ground or in the water. 
 
 On the land the progress of the Frog is wonderfully 
 like that of the kangaroo, the very long and powerful 
 hind legs being in both animals the means of pro- 
 pulsion, and the short fore legs used principally to 
 support the body when the animal is at rest. In the 
 water the fore legs are not used at all, but kept 
 motionless in front of the breast. 
 
 As for the webbed foot which drives the Frog so 
 rapidly through the water, it is formed by a simple 
 extension of the skin between the lengthened toes. If 
 we separate our own fingers widely, we see that at 
 their juncture there is a fold of skin, which, if con- 
 tinued to the tips of the fingers, would give them a 
 strong resemblance to the foot of the Frog. I have 
 seen more than one instance where, in the human 
 being, the hands were webbed nearly half up the 
 fingers. 
 
 Lately there have been in the shops some swim- 
 ming gloves with a piece of waterproof cloth connect- 
 ing each finger, so as to make them useful organs of 
 propulsion. As, however, the speed in swimming de- 
 pends more on the legs than on the arms, the instru- 
 ment should have been attached to the feet, and not 
 to the hands. 
 
 The late Captain Morton, K.N., invented a very in- 
 genious plan of increasing the speed of a swimmer. To 
 the sole of each foot was attached a rather thick strip 
 
92 REPTILIAN WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 of wood about two incites wide, and extending along 
 the whole of the foot. On either side was a piece of 
 very thin but strong board, making the whole appa- 
 ratus about eleven or twelve inches in width. The 
 side pieces were attached by hinges, so that when the 
 feet were drawn forward, they collapsed, and offered no 
 resistance to the water, while they opened out again in 
 making the stroke. Flat pieces of board were also 
 attached to the hands ; and by means of this apparatus 
 a wonderful rate of speed could be attained. 
 
 Still, ingenious as was the invention, it is infinitely 
 surpassed by the structure of the Frog's hind feet, 
 which have also the advantage of being useful on land, 
 whereas the swimming apparatus just mentioned 
 would render its wearer incapable of advancing ten 
 steps on land. 
 
 Another point in the structure of the Frog is the 
 mode of its breathing. It has neither diaphragm nor 
 ribs, and cannot, therefore, respire by means of either 
 the one or the other. It is, however, compensated for 
 their absence by the great development of the throat- 
 bone called os hyoides, and the muscles connected 
 with it. By their action the large throat is converted 
 into a sort of bellows, by means of which air is forced 
 into and drawn out of the lungs. Anyone can see 
 this movement by watching a Frog or a Toad. 
 
 In consequence of this structure, added to the 
 large size of the cellular lungs, the fore part of the 
 body is rendered very light, and is the better able to 
 sustain the animal in the water. Like many semi- 
 aquatic creatures, the Frog can float on the surface of 
 the water, or lie on the bed of the pond or stream, the 
 
THE CROCODILE. 93 
 
 contraction of the body enabling it to render itself for 
 a time heavier than an equal bulk of water. 
 
 We will now revert to our water trespassers, and 
 take one of the most perfect of the lizard trespassers, 
 namely, the Crocodile, with which the Alligator will be 
 included. There is really but little difference between 
 these two groups of large aquatic lizards, and it is not 
 necessary to describe the marks by which they are 
 distinguished. The word " crocodile " will, therefore, 
 be understood to signify the various species of Crocodiles 
 and Alligators, the structures which enable them to 
 trespass upon the water being practically the same in 
 all the members of both groups. 
 
 Beginning with the first necessity of life i.e., 
 respiration we shall find in these huge lizards a most 
 wonderful provision, which enables the animal to respire 
 under disadvantageous conditions. 
 
 In the first place, the peculiar cellular structure of 
 the lungs in all lizards assures a slow aeration of the 
 blood, so as to suit the sluggish and cold-blooded cir- 
 culation of these creatures. 
 
 A very little amount of respiration is therefore 
 needed in these creatures, which are able to pass a 
 considerable time without any respiration at all. This 
 may be easily tested by watching the specimens at 
 the Zoological Gardens, which lie flat on the bottom 
 of their tanks for a very long period, looking as life- 
 less as if "they were sham Crocodiles made of cast iron, 
 and apparently regardless of the fact that they are 
 completely covered with water. 
 
 Something more is, however, needed. The Croco- 
 
94 REPTILIAN WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 diles feed mostly on animals which they catch upon 
 the banks of the river in which they live. It is evi- 
 dent, therefore, that they must not only be able to 
 exist for some time without respiration, but also with- 
 out food, inasmuch as the conditions of obtaining food 
 are of necessity precarious, and the animal may have 
 to pass weeks without obtaining food. When urged 
 by hunger, it rouses itself from its usual inactive state, 
 and displays much ingenuity in seizing prey. 
 
 Crocodiles have even been seen to catch the little 
 birds as they drink from the stream. The birds perch 
 on a branch that overhangs the stream, and assemble 
 upon it in such numbers that the bough is weighed 
 down to the surface of the water, so that they may 
 drink. Seeing them, the Crocodile makes a rush and 
 a snap at them, when they fly off in great alarm. 
 
 The reptile passes on, as if chagrined at having 
 missed his prey, and swims out of sight. . The birds 
 now settle again, thinking that their enemy has dis- 
 appeared. So he has, but he has only sunk himself 
 quietly below the surface. He then swims under 
 water until he has reached the spot where the birds 
 are drinking in apparent security, rises suddenly with 
 open mouth, and is tolerably sure to capture some of 
 them before they can escape. 
 
 Such small game as birds, however, are not so 
 much to the Crocodile's taste as the larger animals, 
 which it usually captures by knocking them into the 
 water with a blow of its powerful tail, and then hold- 
 ing them under water until they are drowned. Human 
 beings, dogs, and even the large and powerful cattle, 
 are in this way destroyed, and it is chiefly on account 
 
PLATE II. 
 
 CROCODILE, HIPPOPOTAMUS, AND WATER-HOG. 
 
THE CEOCODILE. 95 
 
 of this mode of feeding that the Crocodile is furnished 
 with the curious apparatus which will be briefly de- 
 scribed. 
 
 As to the smaller animals, it can kill them with 
 the gripe of its powerful jaws, but a buffalo, or even 
 a full-grown cow or horse, would not succumb to the 
 mere bite, and its struggles would be so violent that 
 the Crocodile would scarcely be able to secure it. Even 
 if the reptile were to plunge beneath the water with its 
 prey, with the intention of drowning it, the severe 
 struggle would force the Crocodile itself to need breath 
 as well as its victim. 
 
 Moreover, if it were to submerge itself with open 
 mouth, the water would pour down its throat, and very 
 soon incapacitate it for further action. Some plan 
 must therefore be devised which will enable the animal 
 to be submerged with open mouth, and yet will pre- 
 serve it from the inconvenience of having water pour- 
 ing down its throat into its stomach. This, indeed, is 
 much more important than the mere question of respi- 
 ration, for, supposing both animals to be submerged 
 simultaneously, it is evident that the hot-blooded mam- 
 mal must succumb before the cold-blooded reptile. 
 
 The means by which this end is attained is beauti- 
 fully simple and efficacious. 
 
 At the back of the throat, and just before the 
 opening of the gullet, a broad plate of gristly substance 
 passes completely across. The plate starts from the 
 bony process of the throat, called technically "os 
 hyoides/' and extends completely across the back of 
 the throat. From the upper part of the palate there 
 hangs a flap of a similar substance, which envelopes the 
 
96 REPTILIAN WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 lower plate, so that when the mouth is opened the 
 pressure of the water forces one flap against the other, 
 and effectually closes the aperture. And, as is in- 
 variably the case with such valves, the resistance is 
 increased in exact proportion to the pressure, so that 
 the deeper the Crocodile dives, and the greater the 
 pressure of the water trying to force its way down the 
 throat, the more firmly are the two parts of the valves 
 squeezed against each other. 
 
 The valves of the heart, of the veins, and that 
 which has been described on page 31 as aiding the 
 respiration of the whale tribe, are all constructed on 
 the same principle. At present, with all our advances 
 in science, and having the advantage of such models, 
 we cannot make such simple and yet such perfect 
 valves as those which have existed ever since the rep- 
 tiles took their place on earth. 
 
 Another point in the respiration of these creatures 
 is yet to be mentioned. It may be that the animal is 
 forced to respire, and yet cannot come into the open 
 air. As in the case of many animals which pass much of 
 their time in the water, the nostrils are placed at the 
 extremity of the muzzle, so that the creature can keep 
 itself entirely below the surface of the water, with the 
 exception of an inch or two of nostril. The exposed 
 portion is so small, that even in the open water it is 
 not easily detected, while it can be entirely concealed 
 by choosing some situation where there are reeds, or 
 other aquatic vegetation. 
 
 The mode of progress through the water is exactly 
 the same as that which is adopted by the fishes 
 namely, sweeping the body from side to side. In these 
 
THE CROCODILE. 97 
 
 animals, the body is lengthened into a very long and 
 very powerful tail, which, as we have already seen, not 
 only acts the part of a propeller, but as a weapon. If 
 a Crocodile be driven to fight, its tail is far more to be 
 dreaded than its jaws, formidable though they may be, 
 for its sweep is enormous, and the power of such a 
 weighty mass, lashing about as sharply as if it were 
 nothing but a slight whip, is sufficient to clear the 
 ground of any foe which it may encounter. 
 
 The teeth, again, are adapted to the peculiar mode 
 in which the Crocodile has to kill its prey. They are 
 not intended for mastication, but simply for retaining 
 the prey when it is alive, and tearing it when it is 
 dead. In fact, they are of the kind that is popularly 
 and graphically called " snatch-and-swallow/' They 
 are all conical, rather long, and sharply pointed, and 
 are slightly curved, the curve being in the direction of 
 the back of the mouth, so as to give a better hold en 
 the prey. 
 
 As the struggles of some of the larger animals 
 would probably break off one or two teeth before it 
 was rendered helpless, there is a provision for their 
 renewal. They are hollow, and filled with a pulp 
 which is perpetually engaged in forming a new tooth 
 within the old one, ready to take its place when it shall 
 fall. I have in my collection an Indian shikarry's 
 necklace, composed of fangs and claws of the tiger, 
 claws of the great sloth-bear, and teeth of the Crocodile, 
 all trophies of the owner's prowess in hunting. One 
 of the teeth must have belonged to a very large Croco- 
 dile, as it is blunted and chipped from hard usage, 
 while others are quite smooth and sharp. 
 
 7 
 
98 REPTILIAN WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 The contrast between the tooth of the Crocodile and 
 that of the tiger is very curious. In point of dimen- 
 sions they are about the same, but in their shape and 
 weight are very different : the tiger's tooth being solid, 
 heavy, and flattened, with a distinct knife-like edge on 
 the inner curve, while the Crocodile's tooth is hollow, 
 light, and rounded. 
 
 These teeth are set in hollows in the jaw, and not 
 consolidated with the bones of the skull. Consequently, 
 they are easily removed, and, indeed, in dried skulls 
 the teeth are always liable to fall out, owing to the 
 shrinking of the soft material of the socket. It is 
 evident, therefore, that the number of teeth must 
 be extremely variable. In my collection there is a 
 skull of the great Gangetic Crocodile, or Gavial, a huge 
 reptile which sometimes attains the length of twenty- 
 five feet. It has a very long and narrow head. My 
 specimen belonged to a young animal, and the skull 
 measures only twenty-six inches in length ; yet, in the 
 middle, the diameter of the skull is only one inch and 
 three-quarters. Many of the teeth have fallen from the 
 sockets, but some still remain, so that their size and shape 
 can be understood. In the lower jaw there are twenty- 
 five teeth on each side, and in the upper jaw twenty- 
 nine, making a complement of one hundred and eight. 
 A figure of the African Crocodile is given in the 
 upper portion of Plate II. 
 
 Another curious group of water-trespassers is to be 
 found in the marine and aquatic members of the 
 Tortoise tribe, some of which are vegetarians and others 
 carnivorous. 
 
THE TORTOISE. 99 
 
 Of the terrestrial species, the common Greek 
 Tortoise is a sufficiently familiar example, being often 
 kept in the garden. It is as well, by the way, not to 
 allow it to visit the strawberry beds, as it will assuredly 
 help itself to the fruit as soon as it ripens, and, stupid 
 as it may seem, has quite sense enough to pick out the 
 best berries. I had one for some five or six years, 
 and was obliged, during the strawberry season, to keep 
 it tethered on the grass by means of a string, one end 
 of which passed through a hole bored in the shell, and 
 the other was fastened to a weight too heavy for the 
 creature to move. 
 
 In the marine turtles, the fore limbs, and especially 
 the feet, are greatly lengthened and flattened, so as to 
 form instruments of propulsion. The hind feet are 
 also very wide and flat, but are not so much elongated 
 in proportion as are the fore limbs. In the Hawksbill 
 Turtle, which furnishes the " tortoise-shell " of com- 
 merce, the fore limbs are enormously elongated. I 
 have in my collection a young Hawksbill that was 
 captured almost immediately after it was hatched, and 
 before the projecting shelly plates had been developed. 
 In this little creature the fore limbs are so long that if 
 they were straightened, instead of being bent, as they 
 always are, they would be nearly as long as the entire 
 body. 
 
 With these modified limbs they can propel them- 
 selves at a wonderful pace, and, if struck with a 
 harpoon, will sometimes tow a boat for a considerable 
 distance, and with a speed that is truly surprising. 
 They do not seem, however, to be capable of long- 
 continued exertion, and in shallow waters are some- 
 
100 REPTILIAN WATEE TRESPASSERS. 
 
 times taken by a couple of men in a boat, who chase 
 the creature from spot to spot, and do not allow it to 
 rest for a single moment. When it is quite tired out 
 they strike the harpoon into it, and make it a com- 
 paratively easy prey. Even under these circumstances, 
 however, the turtle always dashes off at a great pace as 
 soon as it feels the point of the harpoon, and, were not 
 the weapon constructed so that the point becomes 
 detached from the shaft, .the violent movements of the 
 reptile would soon dislodge the harpoon, and, in all 
 probability, break the shaft to pieces. As it is, how- 
 ever, the shaft is shaken off, floats to the surface, and 
 is recovered, while the turtle is held by a strong line 
 that is attached to the iron point, which is buried 
 deeply in the reptile's back. 
 
 So effective is the swimming apparatus, that some 
 of these creatures seem as much at home in the sea as 
 do the whale tribe, and may be found hundreds of 
 miles from land. A Loggerhead Turtle, for example, 
 was once captured midway between the Bahamas and 
 the Azores. 
 
 The distance to which the creature can swim is the 
 more remarkable when we remember that although 
 the turtles pass nearly the whole of their lives in the 
 sea, they are forced to come to shore for the purpose 
 of depositing their eggs. This they all do in a very 
 similar manner. They select a sunny spot, some thirty 
 or forty yards above high-water mark, and scrape 
 a large hole by pushing their flat hind legs under 
 the sand, and jerking it away, just as a child throws 
 about the sand with its wooden spade. When the 
 female has made an excavation some two feet deep, she 
 
THE TORTOISE. 101 
 
 deposits in it about a hundred and fifty or two hundred 
 eggs, scrapes the sand back again, and goes off to the sea. 
 
 Here, then, we have a case where the machinery 
 which enables the creature to swim in the sea, also 
 enables it to make short journeys on land, and to pro- 
 vide for its future young. The animal is a trespasser 
 upon the domain of water, and not a denizen of it. 
 
 It has already been mentioned that some of these 
 reptiles are vegetable feeders, while others are car- 
 nivorous. Yet, there is very little difference in the 
 structure of their mouths; and for the following 
 reason. Whether it eat animal or vegetable sub- 
 stances, it does not masticate its food, but only bites 
 or tears it into pieces, small enough for it to swallow. 
 
 Both jaws are edged with a very strong, horny plate, 
 nearly as sharp as a knife, and more or less waved, so 
 as to produce a " drawing-cut,^ as swordsmen say, 
 when the jaws are closed. Some of these creatures 
 are much dreaded for their power of jaw ; for they 
 have been known to take off a man's finger at a single 
 bite, or to sever in the same way an ordinary walking- 
 stick. The lower jaw is rather smaller than the upper, 
 and when the mouth is closed, the sharp edges of the 
 upper jaw overlap those of the lower, so that they act 
 just like a pair of shears. 
 
 Armed with these powerful instruments, the turtles 
 can either crop the marine vegetation on which they 
 feed, or even tear to pieces animal substances. Some 
 species, such as the Loggerhead Turtle, which has just 
 been mentioned, live almost entirely upon molluscs, 
 their shear-like jaws crushing shells of considerable 
 size and great hardness. 
 
102 REPTILIAN WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 There are many species of turtle, of which the 
 Green Turtle and the Hawksbill Turtle are the best 
 known, and the most useful to man. The former is 
 the reptile which is so justly famous as a delicacy, 
 whether in the form of soup or cutlets. It is one of 
 the vegetable feeders. 
 
 It has been noticed that most of the turtles which 
 are brought to this country are females. The reason 
 is evident. 
 
 Although they can be chased and harpooned in 
 the manner that has been already described, such 
 captures are rather matters of sport than of business. 
 Those, therefore, who hunt the turtle by way of busi- 
 ness, choose the time when the reptiles are obliged to 
 come on shore to lay their eggs. They watch until 
 she has finished the operation ; and then, intercepting 
 her as she is making her way to the sea, turn her on 
 her back, and leave her. She cannot stir in this 
 position, and the men are set free to attack another. 
 The spots where the eggs have been laid are carefully 
 noted, as the eggs, when preserved, furnish an abun- 
 dant supply of excellent oil. 
 
 As to the males, they seldom trouble themselves to 
 come to shore, and so it is that nearly all the turtles 
 brought to England are of the female sex. 
 
 The Hawksbill Turtle, which is seen in the upper 
 right-hand corner of the illustration on Cut 5 pos- 
 sesses a very singular development of the shell. 
 As the reader may probably know, the shell of the 
 Turtle and Tortoise is formed of a development of the 
 vertebrae and the ribs, covered with a coating, more or 
 less thick, of a horny substance. In the Green Turtle, 
 
THE TORTOISE. 103 
 
 this heavy coating is spread evenly over the surface of 
 the bones ; but in the Hawksbill Turtle,, it is modified 
 into a series of separate plates, which overlap each 
 other like the tiles of a house, or the surface of an 
 imbricated bud. They are rather leaf-shaped, the 
 pointed end projecting, and the blunter end fixed to 
 the skeleton. Altogether there are thirteen of these 
 plates in every Hawksbill Turtle, the complete set 
 being technically called a "head." One of these 
 plates, which is in my collection, is exactly a foct 
 long, by six inches and a half at its widest part. On 
 it are six circular scars, showing the places where 
 sessile barnacles have at one time established them- 
 selves. 
 
 On turning it over, and looking at the edges, it is 
 easy to see how the plates are increased by successive 
 depositing of new substance around the edges, the 
 series of deposits being as clearly marked as the rings 
 in the wood of an exogenous tree. 
 
 The whole of the upper surface is covered with 
 multitudinous scratches in all directions, showing the 
 rough usage which it must have endured during the 
 life of the animal, and when merely viewed from the 
 side it looks a very uninteresting object. A piece of 
 black horn or pasteboard would be about as handsome. 
 But, when it is held up to a good light, it is instan- 
 taneously metamorphosed, and becomes endowed with 
 the richest mottlings of red, brown, black, and 
 yellow. 
 
 It is rather a remarkable fact that the horny cover- 
 ing is removable from the skeleton by means of heat. 
 The turtle hunters, therefore, who have not the least 
 
101 REPTILIAN WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 idea that they are inflicting pain on a fellow -creature, 
 do not kill the Hawksbill Turtles, but expose them to a 
 steady heat, sometimes by the simple process of light- 
 ing a fire on their backs. The tortoiseshell being thus 
 removed, the suffering creature is returned to the sea, 
 where it grows a fresh set of plates, though they are 
 not as good in quality as the original set. 
 
 We now pass to an allied group of water trespassers, 
 popularly called by the collective name of Terrapins. 
 They vary much in size, some, such as the 
 Alligator Terrapin, being a full yard in length, while 
 others, like the well-known chicken-tortoise, are barely 
 six inches in length, even when the head is protruded 
 to its fullest extent. As these inhabitants of land 
 divide their time tolerably equally between land and 
 water, it is evident that their limbs must be suited 
 to either element. This is done by the simple plan of 
 narrowing and lengthening the toes of both pairs of 
 feet, and connecting them with a membrane. 
 
 They are fairly active, both in and out of the water, 
 and, unsuitable as their structure may seem for such a 
 feat, can scramble to the top of a large stone, or even 
 make their way up the branches of a partially sub- 
 merged tree. If such a tree be cautiously approached, it 
 presents an extraordinary sight, being literally covered 
 with tortoises, packed together like herrings in a 
 barrel, or figs in a box, and having apparently about 
 as much life in them. But, if a stick be incautiously 
 snapped, or a hasty movement made, the whole 
 assemblage drop into the water, and in a few seconds 
 not a tortoise is to be seen. 
 
TERRAPINS. 305 
 
 I kept a couple of chicken-tortoises for some time, 
 and very troublesome pets they were. Scarcely any 
 precautions could keep them from escaping from their 
 house, and whenever they escaped they always climbed 
 up something. They were always pleased when set 
 upon some elevation say, a table, a shelf, or a chest 
 of drawers. But the worst part of their conduct was, 
 that whenever they were pleased to take fright, which 
 was very often indeed, and without the least imagin- 
 able reason, they would scuttle off with such rapidity 
 that it was almost impossible to anticipate them, and 
 fling themselves down as fearlessly as if they had deep 
 water beneath them instead of a hard floor. It was a 
 curious example of the failure of instinct when ordinary 
 conditions are altered. 
 
 They soon became very tame, and would come to 
 me if food were offered to them. They swam with 
 much celerity, and, in order to indulge their climbing 
 propensities, I put some stones and set a brick on end 
 in the middle of the vessel in which they were kept. 
 G-enerally, they contented themselves with clambering 
 up the stones and brick, but they always had a 
 hankering for escape, and, if they could contrive to 
 hitch one single claw over the top of the vessel, out 
 they went, and often caused no small trouble in finding 
 them. 
 
 Their mode of eating was remarkable. If a piece 
 of meat were offered them, they would seize it in 
 their jaws, close the mouth firmly, so that the sharp, 
 horny edges should cut deeply into it, and then, 
 placing one of the fore feet at either side of the mouth, 
 they would push the meat forcibly from them, so as to 
 
106 REPTILIAN "WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 tear away the piece which was grasped in their jaws. 
 They would repeat the process until the whole of the 
 meat was swallowed. 
 
 One of them was a special favourite of mine, and 
 when it died I preserved it after the manner taught me 
 by the late Charles Waterton, and the effigies of the 
 little creature is on my book as I write,, in the exact 
 attitude which it assumed when it expected food from 
 me. It used to stretch its neck to the fullest extent, 
 and rather on one side, with a curiously pleading ex- 
 pression in a creature which looks almost passionless. 
 The beautiful colouring of bright yellow streaks on 
 dark brown that adorned its head, neck, and limbs, 
 has almost totally vanished, but the attitude is exactly 
 the same as that which it so often assumed during life, 
 and which, unless damaged by very rough usage, it 
 will retain for years after the hand that preserved it 
 has passed from off the earth. 
 
 I am told that some of the larger species of the 
 same genus, Emys, attack fish, by coming quietly 
 beneath them as they are sleeping, and then taking 
 a bite out of the lower part of the body. I can 
 well believe this to be the case, having personally 
 known instances where even the little chicken- 
 tortoise has killed numbers of gold-fish in this very 
 way. 
 
 Two species of Terrapin are shown in Cut 5. 
 
 Occupying the lower part of the illustration is the 
 great Alligator Terrapin (Ohelydra Serpentina), to which 
 allusion has already been made. The name Chelydra, 
 by the way, is composed of two Greek words, and sig- 
 nifies water- tortoise. The name Serpentina, or snake- 
 
TEREAPINS. 107 
 
 like,, is applied to the reptile on account of its long, 
 snake-like neck. 
 
 As may be seen by reference to the illustration, 
 the shell does not entirely envelope the body, as is the 
 case with most of the tortoises, but merely forms a 
 shield on the back, the whole of the legs being visible 
 outside it, and the neck not able to be concealed within 
 it, as is the case with the terrestrial tortoises. The 
 animal is a tolerably good walker, and travels farther 
 from the water than is generally usual among the 
 aquatic tortoises. Still, it is not as much at home on 
 land as in the water, and its gait ashore is as awkward 
 and ungainly, compared with its easy gliding through 
 the water, as the almost ludicrous waddle of a swan on 
 land, compared with its proverbially graceful move- 
 ments afloat. 
 
 It is one of the predacious tortoises, making much 
 havoc among fish of various kinds, and especially 
 delighting in eels, which it can capture in spite of 
 their agile nature and slippery bodies, by the grasp of 
 its strong jaws, which very much resemble the beak 
 of a falcon. Indeed, should the struggles of the fish 
 be very violent, the Alligator Terrapin would not have 
 very much difficulty in shearing it asunder with a 
 single bite. 
 
 It is easily kept in captivity, feeding readily on all 
 kinds of butcher's offal, and, as it seems to be always 
 hungry, it is often captured with the hook. Terrapin 
 fishing is thought to afford very good sport. The line 
 is a very strong one, and for a few yards from the hook 
 is covered with wire, like the " gimp " used in pike 
 fishing. For not only would the sharp jaws shear 
 
108 REPTILIAN WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 asunder any ordinary line, but the creature has a way 
 of bringing its fore feet to bear upon it, and snapping 
 it by main force, which, as it sometimes reaches three 
 feet in length, it is certain to do with any ordinary 
 line. 
 
 Like most of its kind, the Alligator Terrapin is 
 valued for the table, and is kept alive to be sold in the 
 market. The popular name of alligator is given to it 
 because in America all the crocodiles are called alli- 
 gators, and the reptile certainly does look very much 
 like a small crocodile with the shell of a tortoise upon 
 its back. 
 
 Nearly in the middle of the illustration, and just 
 above the Alligator Terrapin, is shown the Australian 
 river tortoise, called the Chelodine. There are many 
 chelodines, but this has been selected as an example 
 of an Australian water trespasser, belonging to the 
 great group of tortoises. Its scientific name is Chelo- 
 dina longicollis. The latter of these names signifies 
 " long-necked," and is given to the animal because its 
 neck is very long, thin, and flexible. For the same 
 reason, the popular name of snake tortoise has some- 
 times been given to it. 
 
 It is also called the yellow chelodine, in conse- 
 quence of the colour of the horny plates or shields, 
 which are yellow in the centre and black on the edges. 
 It is rather remarkable, by the way, that although the 
 shields of the hawksbill turtle retain their richness of 
 colour as long as the material itself exists, the shields 
 of many other chelodines becomes dull and dark soon 
 after death. 
 
 This contrast is well shown in the shield of the 
 
TERRAPINS. 109. 
 
 hawksbill turtle and the preserved chicken-tortoise, 
 which have already been mentioned. The former 
 retains all its rich inottlings, although many years have 
 elapsed since I took it from a barrel at the Docks. 
 The latter has entirely lost its colouring. When the 
 little creature was alive the shields were olive-brown, 
 with a net-like pattern of a paler hue, and in the 
 middle of each was a pale ring edged with black, from 
 which diverged a number of lines towards the edges of 
 the shield. Now all this colouring has faded, and the 
 colour is dull, brown-black, with a few blacker lines on 
 each shield. 
 
 It is easy to understand that the yellow stripes 
 upon the skin should fade away after death, but that 
 the colour of the horny plates should alter is as unex- 
 pected a fact as if black or brown human hair were to 
 turn white after it had been severed from the head. 
 
 The Australian chelodine loves stagnant water in 
 preference to running streams, and feeds upon the 
 slow-paced fishes, the frogs, and similar creatures 
 which inhabit the same localities. 
 
 The last of the tortoise water trespassers which 
 can be described in these pages is the Snapping Turtle, 
 as it is popularly called, its scientific name being 
 Trionyx ferox. The name is probably familiar to my 
 readers through the medium of the " Bon Gaultier " 
 legends, where " Slingsby, of the manly chest/' defied 
 and slew the ' ' snapping turtle of the West/' 
 
 I very much regret that the clever illustrator of 
 this work did not draw the real snapping turtle instead 
 of a mere green turtle, which is a very harmless being. 
 He would have made a much more effective picture. 
 
110 REPTILIAN WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 The real snapping turtle has a very ferocious look about 
 it, while the green turtle is one of the mildest and 
 foolishest-looking of reptiles. The name trionyx is 
 Greek, and signifies three-clawed, in allusion to the 
 structure of the feet, only three toes of each foot pos- 
 sessing claws, although the full complement of five toes 
 is possessed by the reptile. 
 
 It well deserves its name of snapping turtle, for it 
 snaps and bites with astonishing ferocity; while its 
 long and lithe neck enables it to bring a considerable 
 area within reach of its jaws. It feeds mostly on fish, 
 but catches various water-fowl, and is not above 
 eating young alligators when it can find them. 
 
 Its voracity renders it liable to be taken with a 
 hook and line, as has been related of the Alligator 
 Terrapin ; but it requires very strong tackle, and a 
 skilful hand, to land it safely. It is so heavy, so 
 strong, and so active, that an angler who caught one 
 of these creatures when he was expecting a fish, com- 
 pared it to a mill-stone with a steam engine inside it. 
 Fish is perhaps the best bait for this reptile. After 
 it has been captured, it is generally placed in a tank and 
 kept alive until wanted; the injury inflicted by the 
 hook not affecting it in the least. 
 
 So indifferent is the creature to injury, that after 
 the head has been severed from the body, the former 
 will snap and bite for a considerable time, as if it were 
 possessed of its body; while the latter will crawl 
 about as if it were still possessed of its head. In one 
 case, where a snapping turtle was decapitated, and 
 then plunged into boiling water, the heart was still 
 pulsating; and, when removed from the body and 
 
TERRAPINS. Ill 
 
 placed on a table, continued to beat for some twenty- 
 four hours longer. 
 
 Like the Alligator Terrapin, the snapping turtle is 
 highly valued as an article of food, and is kept for 
 this purpose just as we keep the green turtle in the 
 tanks called " crawls." In England, the turtles 
 spend one day in the tank, and the next on the floor 
 of the cell; this plan being found to keep them in 
 good health. 
 
 There is an African representative of the snapping 
 turtle, called the Tyrse (Trionyx Nileticus). As its 
 specific name implies, it inhabits the Nile, and there 
 makes much havoc among the young crocodiles. 
 Both these creatures belong to a small group of 
 aquatic tortoises, called soft turtles, because the hard 
 shell-covering only extends over a part of the back, 
 leaving the rest comparatively soft. They owe the 
 name of turtle to their size, although, as is shown by 
 the structure of the feet, they are only tortoises who 
 are qualified by their webbed feet for swimming in 
 the water. 
 
 We now come to another group of reptilian water 
 trespassers. We have seen how the lizards are thus 
 represented by the crocodiles and alligators ; the 
 batrachians by the newts, frogs, and toads, and their 
 kin ; and the tortoises by the turtles of the ocean, and 
 the various aquatic tortoises of the rivers and lakes. 
 Only one group of reptiles now remains, namely, the 
 Serpents ; and even among them we find many species 
 that are as much water trespassers as are the newt or 
 the turtle. All snakes, I believe, are able to swim ; 
 
112 REPTILIAN WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 and, to judge by our common Grass Snake or Viper, 
 they undulate their way through the water in a most 
 graceful manner. Then there are some, such as the 
 Black Snake of Australia, which is often called the 
 Water Viper, from its habit of frequenting the rivers. 
 
 But there are some species of snakes which live 
 almost entirely in the water; and, like the whale or 
 the dolphin, soon die upon dry land. They all in- 
 habit the same latitude, and are common in the Indian 
 seas, where they always excite the admiration of those 
 who see them for the first time. Mr. Williams, the 
 well-known missionary, in his " Narrative/' mentions 
 the water snakes which he saw, some striped with 
 yellow and black, and others ringed with white upon 
 a black ground. Both kinds are considered to be 
 valuable articles of food, as are those species which 
 live on the shore. 
 
 I possess a copy of Bennett's " Whaling Voyage/' 
 which has evidently passed through the hands of an 
 old whaling captain, who has annotated it profusely. 
 His experience is evidently very wide, and his remarks 
 are valuable ; but his literary education has been 
 much neglected, and the mode in which he conveys 
 his information is often most ludicrous. He has a 
 strong objection to the " Mishunnarys," as he is 
 pleased to call them, and invariably prefaces the word 
 with some powerfully depreciating epithet. Every 
 evil is laid on the shoulders of the missionaries. For 
 example, there is an account of a certain disastrous 
 war, which is annotated as follows : " There is not one 
 wourd of truth in this steatment ; Mr. Willims, Since 
 killed in Dillons Bay Erremanga, caus this bluddy war." 
 
SERPENTS. 113 
 
 In vol. i., p. 67, Mr. Bennett remarks that no 
 Serpents are found on the Society Islands, though 
 water snakes are not uncommonly seen on their 
 coasts. On the margin of the page, there is an 
 annotation as follows : " There was no such Sneaks in 
 nay time." 
 
 With all his prejudices against the "Rascelly 
 Iggerent Mishunnarys," with whose misdeeds the 
 book is plentifully sprinkled, his notes are really 
 valuable when he comes to his own practical experi- 
 ence ; and among them are many upon subjects of 
 natural history, which have the advantage of being 
 written by a man who merely relates his own obser- 
 vations, without having any theory to carry out. 
 
 For example, in vol. ii., p. 74, Mr. Bennett makes 
 the following remarks on a species of water snake : 
 " While we were yet engaged in the strait, my tow- 
 net captured a Water Snake (Hydrtiphis bicolor). It 
 was two feet in length ; the upper surface of the body 
 uniformly black; the inferior of a bright-yellow colour; 
 the tail vandyked with black and white. It had the 
 ordinary form of a land snake, with the exception that 
 the belly was keel-shaped, and the tail compressed (to 
 facilitate swimming), and blunt at the extremity. 
 The teeth were similar to those of innocuous land 
 snakes. 
 
 " It should be remembered that some sea snakes 
 have tubular, or poisonous, teeth mingled with the 
 true teeth. 
 
 " It did not appear much inconvenienced by being 
 removed from its natural element; and when taken oh 
 board the ship, resembled the terrestrial snakes in its 
 
 8 
 
114 REPTILIAN WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 mode of rearing the head, gazing fixedly, and rapidly 
 protruding and retracting a cloven tongue. It did 
 not appear, however, to possess any power of pro- 
 gressing on land ; since, when placed on the deck of 
 the ship, it made the lateral motions usual with land 
 snakes, but could not advance. Tt uttered no sound, 
 nor did it make any attempt to bite. On dissection 
 after death, I found several small fish in its stomach." 
 
 This passage is annotated as follows : 
 
 " Thees Sneaks are Numerous at the fegee Isslanes, 
 and bask in the Sun on the Rocks, the breed on 
 Shore/' 
 
 This species is a very pretty one, being black 
 above, and light yellow beneath and on the sides, 
 whence it derives its name of "bicolor," or two- 
 coloured. It scarcely ever comes on shore, except for 
 the purpose of depositing its eggs, which it lays 
 tolerably near high-water mark, so that when the 
 young are hatched by the heat of the sun, they can 
 make their way into the sea with very little trouble. 
 It is, on the average, about three feet in length. 
 
 Before examining the different species of water 
 snakes, we will glance at a few details of structure. 
 The first point is, as has already been noticed in all 
 water trespassers, the power of respiration. 
 
 In the Serpent tribe, there is no necessity for 
 special structures for the use of the water snakes. 
 The lungs are most curiously formed. They are long, 
 nearly cylindrical sacs, looking, when inflated, very 
 much as if they were meant to receive sausage-meat. 
 If carefully injected, it is seen that only the upper 
 part is vascular ; so that nearly the whole of the lung 
 
SERPENTS. 115 
 
 is nothing more than a receptacle for air, the reptile 
 having therefore always within it a supply of air that 
 will aerate the blood for a long time. 
 
 Many years ago. when I had a school, my boys 
 were accustomed to make pets of snakes, and to carry 
 them about in their pockets. One of their amuse- 
 ments was, to take their pets to a deserted stone 
 quarry, which had become half-filled with water, and 
 give them a swim. They used to have races across 
 the quarry; and, as a rule, the snakes went straight 
 across. Sometimes, however, they would dive, flatten 
 themselves against the bottom of the quarry, and 
 there remain until they were roused by a stone dropped 
 over them. The time during which they would re- 
 main submerged was astonishing; and not even a 
 frog could hold out longer, if so long. 
 
 Now, in the marine snakes, which spend almost 
 the whole of their time in the water, the lungs are 
 very large indeed ; so that the reptile can lie quietly 
 sleeping on the surface of the water, being kept afloat 
 by the large and inflated lungs. If the snake can be 
 detected in this position, it can be easily taken, as it 
 must partially empty the lungs before it can dive; 
 and this is a work of some little time, the reptile being 
 obliged to throw itself on its back. I imagine that 
 the specimen which was caught in Mr. Bennett's net, 
 must have been taken while it was thus lying asleep. 
 
 Another point connected with respiration is, that 
 in the water snakes, the nostrils are furnished with a 
 structure which fulfils the same purpose as the corre- 
 sponding portion of the whales and dolphins. They 
 are fitted with a sort of valve, which effectually closes 
 
116 REPTILIAN WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 them while the reptile is beneath the water, but can 
 be opened for the purpose of respiration when at the 
 surface. 
 
 The second point in the economy of a water tres- 
 passer, is the manner of progression. It has already 
 been mentioned that all snakes can propel themselves 
 through the water by an undulating movement of the 
 body. Those species, however, which almost exclu- 
 sively inhabit the water, have their structure modified 
 so as to suit their way of life. The tail portion of the 
 body, instead of being round, like that of the land 
 snake, is widened and flattened; assuming, in fact, 
 almost the exact shape of the eel's tail. 
 
 There are many species of water snakes, more than 
 seventy species being in the collection of the British 
 Museum. Some of them, among which is the species 
 which has just been mentioned, are such thorough 
 trespassers on the sea that not only cannot they live 
 upon land, but they soon perish in fresh water. Occa- 
 sionally, when there has been a severe storm, they are 
 thrown ashore, where they very soon die. Sometimes 
 they are driven up the mouth of tidal rivers, but, 
 unless they can make their way to the sea, they do not 
 long survive the change of element. 
 
 They are among the venomous Serpents, and are 
 held in great dread by the fishermen, in whose nets 
 they are often accidentally taken. 
 
 As is the case with many fishes of the warmer seas, 
 the colours of these water snakes, though brilliant 
 during life, are fugitive after death, and often vanish 
 entirely from the stuffed skin. It is a curious fact that 
 even during life the colours are brightest in the young 
 
SERPENTS. 117 
 
 specimens, and so dull in the old that they are nearly 
 entirely of one colour. For example, in the present 
 species, which is called the Black -backed Pelamis, the 
 young snake is yellow below and black above, while 
 the old snake is almost entirely black. 
 
 This species has a very wide range, the specimens 
 in the British Museum having been taken off the shores 
 of India, Borneo, and New Zealand ; and there is one 
 specimen which is believed to have been captured near 
 Madagascar. It is common enough in India to have 
 received a vernacular name, and is called by the 
 natives Nalla Whallagee Pam. 
 
 Then there is a genus of Asiatic marine snakes, 
 which are called by the common titles of Shooter-sun 
 and Chittul by the natives, and are known to zoologists 
 by the generic name of Hydrophis. 
 
 About fifteen species of Hydrophis are in the 
 British Museum ; but there is the greatest difficulty in 
 determining a species of Hydrophis, the marks which 
 are generally used for this purpose being exceedingly 
 variable, not only in different species or in different 
 individuals of the same species, but in the same indi- 
 vidual. 
 
 For example, the shield-scales of the various parts 
 of the head are used as means by which the species 
 can be determined. In the Black-backed Pelamis the 
 specific distinction lies in the number and arrange- 
 ment of the scales about the eyes ; but in some 
 specimens the scales on the one side will be quite 
 different from those on the other, so that it is very 
 possible that mere varieties may be counted as species, 
 or species as varieties. In the British Museum there 
 
118 REPTILIAN WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 are very many specimens of the Black -backed Pelamis, 
 and, in order to attain some kind of arrangement, they 
 are divided into six different groups, each of which is 
 so distinct from the others that it is not easy to decide 
 whether they may not be totally distinct species, 
 instead of simple varieties of a single species. 
 
 They have very long, slender necks, and sometimes 
 attain the length of four feet. 
 
 The species which is represented in the illustration 
 is the Banded Chersydrus (Ghersydrus granulatus) , so 
 called because its body is marked with bands of white 
 on a black ground. There are also white spots upon 
 the sides, the tail, and the head. 
 
 It inhabits the shores of India and Java, and by 
 the natives of the latter country is called Oular-limpe. 
 It is not such a sea-going reptile as those which have 
 just been mentioned, preferring inland bays and the 
 estuaries of large rivers, where the water is brackish 
 rather than wholly salt. When the water is clear these 
 snakes may be seen lying on the bottom. 
 
 From this attachment to the land as well as the 
 water, it has received the name of Chersydrus. This 
 title, as Greek scholars will know, is composed of two 
 words, the former signifying dry land, and the latter 
 signifying water. All these water snakes, indeed, have 
 received names expressive of their habit, structure, or 
 colour. For example, taking the Nalla Whallagee Pam. 
 Its generic name, Pelamis, is formed from a Greek 
 word signifying the sea ; and its specific name, bicolor, 
 or two-coloured, refers to the black and yellow of its 
 hues. The name Hydrophis, again, is formed from 
 two Greek words, signifying water serpent. 
 
SEKPENTS. 119 
 
 Beside these flat-tailed, eel -like water snakes, there 
 are many others which are frequenters of the water, 
 but prefer fresh water to salt, and cannot trust them- 
 selves so far from land as do the true sea-snakes. 
 
 Several of these are placed in the genus Cerberus, 
 and are probably so called on account of the almost 
 repulsive ugliness of their large heads. They are not 
 dreaded as are those which belong to the group which 
 has already been described. 
 
 The commonest of these snakes is the Karoo 
 Bokadam of India, Borneo, etc. It is a brown snake, 
 banded with black across the back, having white sides 
 and a black belly, mottled with black. The tail is 
 black, and there are a few pale spots along the sides. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 CARNIVORA. 
 
 WE will next take another series of mammalia, which 
 may be called Partial Trespassers in the water, and shall 
 find representatives of them among the caraivora, the 
 rodents, the pachydermata, the marsupials, and the 
 monotremes. We will begin with the Carnivora. 
 
 Perhaps the best-known examples of these animals 
 are the various species of Otter, most of which frequent 
 rivers and lakes, though some prefer the sea. 
 
 In these aquatic weasels, for such are the Otters, we 
 cannot but admire the mode in which the form is 
 modified so as to suit the element in which they have 
 to obtain their food. Both the terrestrial and aquatic 
 weasels have to capture prey by chase, and as the prey 
 of the Otter is exclusively*. found among the fishes, it is 
 evident that the structure of the body must be greatly 
 different in the two groups. 
 
 The first point which strikes the eye of an anatomisfc 
 is the use which is made of the tail. In the terrestrial 
 weasels, such as the common weasel, the stoat, the 
 badger, the ratels, etc., the tail is very short andinsig- 
 
OTTERS. 121 
 
 nificant. Considering their habits, these animals would 
 only be- incommoded by a long tail, and it is, therefore, 
 abbreviated to suit the conditions of their life. But 
 when the animal has to propel itself rapidly through 
 the water, and to be endued with great agility as well 
 as speed, it is evident that as it is a trespasser in the 
 domains of the fishes, it must have something of the 
 fish-structure. 
 
 This object is attained chiefly by the form of the 
 tail, which, instead of being short and insignificant, as 
 in the terrestrial weasels, is very long, thick, and 
 powerful. Moreover, it is slightly compressed. By 
 means of this organ the Otter can propel itself through 
 the water with wonderful rapidity, the movement being 
 from side to side, just as is the case with the whales, 
 the seals, the crocodiles, the newts, and the water- 
 snakes. 
 
 Besides the tail, the Otter has other^ instruments of 
 propulsion namely, the feet, the toes of which are 
 webbed, so as to present a wider surface to the water. 
 The feet, however, are more used to balance and direct 
 the body than to propel it, as can easily be seen by 
 watching the animal as it pursues its course through 
 the water. 
 
 It is absolutely impossible to exaggerate, and not 
 easy to describe adequately, the wonderful beauty, 
 ease, and gracefulness of its movements in the water. 
 On land, though it can proceed at a considerable pace, 
 it has anything but a graceful gait. Its ordinary walk 
 is a pattering trot, but when it is hurried it changes its 
 pace to that of an up-and-down kind of gallop, which 
 certainly is speedy, but is not graceful. This peculiar 
 
122 PARTIAL WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 gait is caused by the length of the body, the shortness 
 of the legs, and the distance between the fore and hind 
 legs. As the creature goes galloping along, the back 
 is arched at every leap, and the entomological spectator 
 is at once reminded of the peculiar mode of progression 
 adopted by the looper caterpillar. 
 
 The animal is perfectly aware of. its inferiority on 
 land, and seldom trusts itself far from water. Almost 
 the only exception is when the rivers are so frozen that 
 it cannot obtain its ordinary food, and is obliged to 
 hunt for game on land, like its terrestrial relatives. 
 Under such conditions it has been known to enter 
 farm-yards at many miles' distance from the river which 
 it frequents, and to make as much havoc among the 
 poultry as would be caused by a marten or a polecat. 
 
 If, therefore, it be alarmed when on land, it always 
 makes for the water at once, dives, and can swim to a 
 considerable distance before it emerges. Its mode of 
 respiration is rather peculiar. The lungs are capacious, 
 so as to contain a large quantity of air, and as the 
 animal swims below the surface it continually expires 
 the air which it had taken into its lungs, so that as it 
 goes along its progress can be traced by the rising 
 air-bubbles. The supply of air being exhausted, it 
 rises to the surface, takes a breath, and again dives. 
 The rapidity with which this operation is conducted 
 seems rather startling until we recollect that as the 
 animal has already emptied its lungs under water, it 
 only needs to make a single inspiration to complete the 
 act of breathing. 
 
 When the Otter goes into the water from the land, 
 it slips in as noiselessly as if the water were oil, and, 
 
1 w 
 
OTTERS. 123 
 
 with easy wavings of its tail and undulations of its 
 body, glides along with admirable ease and elegance. 
 It is seen to great advantage when at play with a com- 
 panion ; and as there are mostly some living Otters in 
 any Zoological Gar dens, there are plenty of opportunities 
 of seeing them. It is in these mock encounters that 
 the use of the webbed feet is best seen. As they twist, 
 and turn, and double beneath the water, the feet, and 
 especially the fore feet, are used for this purpose, just 
 as a swimmer alters his course by means of his hands. 
 The tail is all the while used for propulsion, and partly 
 for direction, but the doubling below the water is 
 achieved almost wholly by means of the feet. 
 
 There are few more interesting sights than to 
 watch Otters at play with each other. The infinite 
 variety of graceful attitudes as they twine and undu- 
 late beneath the surface must be seen to be appreciated. 
 They pretend to fight, just like a couple of puppies at 
 play, grasp each other with feet as well as with teeth, 
 roll over and over, and then, with a single wave of the 
 tail, they shoot out of the water upon the bank, gallop 
 round and round, and then glide again into the water 
 to pursue their graceful sport. 
 
 The shape of the head calls for some attention. It 
 is broader and flatter than in the terrestrial weasels 
 and has the nostrils placed high as well as the eyes, so 
 that it can both breathe and see without exposing 
 more than a few inches of surface. The same modi- 
 fication of structure is to be seen in the hippopotamus 
 and crocodile, both of which creatures, in spite of their 
 enormous size, expose so small a surface to the open 
 iiir, that even a good rifleman has to take his most 
 
124 PARTIAL WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 careful aim before he can plant his bullet success- 
 fully. 
 
 In order that the Otter should be enabled to retain 
 the slippery and active prey on which it feeds, its 
 canine teeth must of necessity be long and sharp, and 
 its jaws powerful. But many Otters live habitually on 
 the salmon, one of the most powerful and active fish of 
 our rivers. In course of time they become epicures, 
 only kill the finest fish, and are dainty enough to eat 
 only the shoulders, leaving the rest on the bank. 
 
 Many a shepherd has kept himself well fed by 
 discovering the larder of one of these old Otters, and 
 taking the fish which the dainty creature had left on 
 the bank. Perhaps scarcely half a pound of the fish 
 would have been eaten by the Otter, the remainder 
 falling to the man, who of course took very good care 
 not to reveal the dwelling-place of so useful an ally, 
 and never to disturb the animal at its food. 
 
 Any one who has caught a salmon can appreciate 
 its strength. Even when landed, it struggles so 
 fiercely, that only experienced fishers can hold it, and 
 its power in its own element is necessarily very much 
 greater. Yet the Otter can swim faster than the 
 salmon, turn more nimbly, and when it has once 
 grasped its prey is strong enough to bring it to land. 
 This fact shows that the neck must possess the double 
 qualities of flexibility and strength, and accordingly, 
 if the skin be removed, the neck is seen to be clothed 
 with muscles quite as strong, in proportion to the size 
 of the animal, as are those of the lion himself. 
 
 Indeed, there are few creatures in which flexibility 
 and power are so wonderfully combined as in the Otter. 
 
OTTERS. 125 
 
 As it moves about in the water, it scarcely seems to 
 possess any joints at all, so easy is the turn of the body 
 and limbs. Yet when it sets itself to a struggle with 
 its prey, its whole character seems to be changed, and 
 the entire framework of the animal becomes as rigid as 
 if the bones and sinews were of steel. 
 
 This can be readily seen by throwing a fish into 
 the water at the Zoological Gardens. Of course, in 
 such limited dimensions, there is little scope for flight 
 on the part of the fish, or chase on the part of the 
 Otter. But the Otter can " make-believe " as well as 
 any child at its play, and it generally makes believe 
 that the fish is a large salmon, which is costing a hard 
 fight before it yields. 
 
 Then, after it has safely landed its prey, the Otter 
 places its fore paws oil the fish, seizes it in its mouth, 
 and tears it to pieces with a crunching sound that 
 speaks plainly of the great strength that is employed 
 in .the operation. It is no wonder that few dogs can 
 be found to face the Otter in fair fight, and that even 
 the best-trained Otter hounds have all their work to 
 do in securing an animal which can twist about like a 
 snake and bite like a badger. 
 
 It seems somewhat curious that while the falcon 
 should have been trained to catch birds in the air, and 
 ferrets to chase rats and rabbits beneath the ground, 
 the Otter, which is a near relation of the ferret, should 
 not have its aquatic powers utilized, and be taught to 
 catch fish for its trainer, instead of depopulating the 
 river on its own account and in its own wasteful 
 manner. 
 
 It is trained in some parts of India and China, and 
 
126 PARTIAL WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 is kept near the water, tethered by rope and collar 
 until wanted. This animal is the Chinese Otter, or 
 Indian Otter (Lutra Chinensis), which is spread over a 
 considerable portion of Asia. The reader may remem- 
 ber that the cormorant is used for a similar purpose ; 
 but as reference will be made to that bird in a future 
 page, it needs at present only a passing mention. 
 
 The Otter would be even more valuable than the 
 cormorant for this purpose, and for the following 
 reason : The instinct of the cormorant teaches it, when 
 it has caught a fish, to swallow it on the spot ; but the 
 instinct of the Otter teaches it, under similar circum- 
 stances, to bring the fish ashore. It does not swallow 
 its prey whole, like the cormorant, but, as we have 
 already seen, tears it to pieces with its teeth, while 
 holding it down with its fore paws. 
 
 As the present work does not pretend to give a 
 detailed description of all the water trespassers, but 
 only to give a slight sketch of them and the modifica- 
 tions of structure which will enable them to trespass 
 upon an alien element, I shall only mention one other 
 species of Otter namely, the Sea Otter (Enhydra 
 Lutris) . 
 
 This is a most singular animal, and presents a 
 remarkable contrast to the structure of the Ofcters in 
 general. As has already been mentioned, in the gene- 
 rality of the Otters, the tail plays the most conspicuous 
 part. But in the Sea Otter it is quite short, and is, in 
 fact, scarcely larger, in proportion to the size of the 
 animal, than that of the stoat or common weasel. In 
 order, however, to compensate for the smallness of the 
 tail, the body is very much elongated, and the hind 
 
OTTEES. 127 
 
 legs are set on in such a way that they present a 
 curious resemblance to the nippers of the seal. 
 
 Indeed, so strongly marked is the similitude, that 
 several systematic zoologists have considered that the 
 Otters form, through this species, a transitional link 
 between the weasels and the seals. 
 
 Although it is popularly called the Sea Otter, it 
 does not restrict itself to the sea, but passes a migra- 
 tory existence. It inhabits the shores of the Northern 
 Pacific, and as the winter cold of that locality is very 
 severe, the rivers and lakes are frozen for a consider- 
 able portion of the year, so that no Otter could live if it 
 were dependent on fresh water. 
 
 During the warmer seasons of the year, the Sea 
 Otter inhabits the inland lakes, and feeds upon the 
 fresh-water fish. When, however, the frosts of winter 
 begin to approach, the Otter is led by instinct to leave 
 the lakes and descend the rivers until it reaches the 
 sea. Here it is sure of obtaining food, and here it 
 remains until the summer's sun has broken up the ice 
 of the fresh water, when it returns to its former 
 locality. In default of fish, it can feed upon Crustacea 
 and molluscs, its powerful teeth enabling it to crush 
 even the hard aud strong shells with which the greater 
 number of marine molluscs are protected. 
 
 As is the case with the seal, and particularly with 
 those species that are confined to northern climates, 
 the Sea Otter is furnished with very thick and warm 
 fur. This fur is doubly valuable firstly, because it is 
 very soft in texture and rich in colour ; and, secondly, 
 because the animal is a rare one, and not easily cap- 
 tured when discovered. 
 
128 PARTIAL WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 The colour of the fur is a very deep black-brown 
 above, and whitish beneath. The animals live in pairs, 
 and are said to produce only one cub at a time. In size 
 it is far superior to our British species, for whereas 
 the common Otter weighs, on an average, about twenty- 
 four pounds, the Sea Otter weighs from seventy to 
 eighty pounds. 
 
 Unsuited as the Bears may seem for aquatic feats, 
 they yet have a representative as a water trespasser 
 namely, the well-known Polar Bear, or White Bear, 
 so called from the cream-white colour of its coat. 
 
 It is well known that in the colder regions there 
 are many creatures which assume a white hue in the 
 winter-time. The common ptarmigan of Scotland is a 
 familiar example which occurs within our own island. 
 Then there is the Arctic fox, which becomes perfectly 
 white in winter, and the Arctic wolf, which becomes 
 pale grey, while the lovely white ermine is, as most- 
 people know, merely the common stoat, which has as- 
 sumed its winter clothing. The last-mentioned animal, 
 by the way, has been artificially bleached by keeping 
 it in a cold atmosphere ; and even in our country are 
 occasionally found stoats which have partially assumed 
 the white winter's dress of the ermine. 
 
 In all those creatures, however, the white hue is 
 but temporary, and at the beginning of the warm 
 weather the ordinary dark hue of the fur or plumage 
 is resumed. The white bear, however, forms an ex- 
 ception to the general rule, the fur retaining its white 
 colour through life, and even keeping it when the 
 animal is brought to a warmer climate. Several Polar 
 
POLAR BEAES. 129 
 
 bears have lived for years in the Zoological Gardens, 
 and in spite of the many hot summers which they have 
 painfully endured, the fur has never darkened. 
 
 Various reasons have been adduced for this reten- 
 tion of the white hue. I think, however, that its con- 
 dition as a water trespasser may afford a very sufficient 
 reason. The animal feeds partly on fishes, but its 
 chief food consists of seals. In fair chase, the bear 
 would have but little chance of catching so speedy and 
 active an animal as the seal, and it therefore employs 
 stratagem to attain its object. 
 
 Seals always resort to the shore for repose, and 
 have a very curious fashion of sleeping. They take 
 short naps of barely ten seconds each, raising their 
 heads and looking about them between each nap. The 
 Polar Bear takes advantage of this peculiarity, and 
 when he sees a seal asleep on the land or an ice-floe, 
 he makes his approach with the greatest caution. 
 
 He first dives and swims under water in the direc- 
 tion of his intended prey, only just putting his nose 
 above the surface for the purpose of breathing. When 
 he has thus reached the shore, he scrambles upon it 
 during one of the seal's naps, and lies motionless while 
 it takes its customary survey. As soon as the seal lays 
 down its head, the bear hitches himself towards it by 
 means of his claws, and again becomes quiet as soon 
 as it awakes. He then contrives to come near enough 
 to cut off its retreat to the water, and is perfectly sure 
 of his prey, the seal having no more chance against 
 the bear ashore, than has the bear against the seal in 
 the water. The seal can scuttle along at a tolerable 
 rate, but the fur-soled feet of the bear gives the animal 
 
 9 
 
130 PARTIAL WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 so firm a hold of the slippery ground that there is no 
 difficulty in intercepting and killing the seal. 
 
 The reader will now see why the colour of this 
 water-loving bear should be white. If, during one of 
 its brief intervals of wakefulness, the seal were to espy 
 a dark object floating in the water, its suspicions would 
 at once be excited, and it would make off to a place of 
 safety before it could be captured. But, at a little 
 distance, the white body of the Polar Bear looks just 
 like a lump of floating ice, and the seal, therefore 
 suffers it to approach, being in ignorance of its true 
 character. It is in the approach by water that the 
 bear's chief difficulty lies, for, as we have seen, if he 
 can only manage to interpose between the seal and the 
 water, the fate of the destined prey is assured, unless 
 it happens to be near a hole in the ice. 
 
 It is rather a remarkable fact that the Esquimaux 
 seal-hunters have borrowed from the Polar Bear two 
 modes of catching the seal. One mode is by imitat- 
 ing the method of approach to the sleeping seal, the 
 hunter lying flat on his face, and hitching himself along 
 gradually during the short naps of the animal. So 
 skilful are the men at this work that they will often 
 contrive to kill the seal even though it should be close 
 to a hole in the ice. The animal has mostly strength 
 enough to plunge through the hole, but is retained by 
 the rope attached to the harpoon. 
 
 The second mode is that of catching the young seal 
 in the igloo, which has been described on page 64. 
 
 The bear manages to find out by its sense of smell 
 the exact position of the igloo. It then goes to a little 
 distance, leaps with all its weight on the igloo so as to 
 
POLAR BEAKS. 131 
 
 break in the roof, and seizes the young seal before it 
 can escape. The hunter does just the same thing, 
 except that he uses his dog's nose for the discovery, 
 and his spear instead of claws. 
 
 The modifications of form which permit the Polar 
 Bear to become a trespasser upon the water are few and 
 simple, but effective for their purpose. As the animal 
 is not intended to remain below the surface for any 
 length of time, no change of structure is needed in the 
 respiratory organs. As, however, it is obliged to be 
 very active in the water, and to swim to long distances, 
 the means of locomotion must evidently be very different 
 from those of the terrestrial bears. 
 
 In the first place, the body is longer and more 
 flexible, while the neck is so much elongated as to 
 remind the observer of the same part of a weasel, and 
 is almost as flexible as that of the otter, which has 
 already been described. Then, the head is of a rather 
 peculiar shape, tapering regularly from the forehead to 
 the nose, instead of having a depression at the base of 
 the snout, as is the case with land-inhabiting bears,- 
 this form being probably given in order to enable the 
 animal to dart its head faster at its prey than it could 
 do if it were" broad and thick. 
 
 The chief instruments of locomotion are the feet, 
 which serve to transport the animal over land or ice, 
 or to propel it through the water. They are very much 
 longer and broader than those of the terrestrial bears, 
 measuring, in fact, one-sixth of the length of the body. 
 By means of these four paddles, the bear, in spite of 
 its large size, can play about in the water almost as 
 actively as the otter itself, and is so swift and quick 
 
132 PARTIAL WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 that it lias been seen to chase and capture a salmon in 
 the open sea. So powerful is the action of its feet 
 while swimming that, when it is much excited in chase 
 of prey, it can make a succession of long springs out 
 of the water, just as one may sometimes see a pike 
 do when chasing a smaller fish. 
 
 Both the sole and the upper part of the foot are 
 clothed with stout and long hairs. Those of the sole 
 are invaluable in giving the creature a foothold upon 
 the ice, and the latter act as a sort of pent-house to 
 shoot the water away from the foot when the animal 
 lands. 
 
 There is a peculiarity also about the fur, which, I 
 believe, had not been publicly noticed until I called 
 attention to it in an article published in the "Daily 
 Telegraph." Ordinarily, the hairy clothing of the 
 Polar Bear is as impervious to water as the fur of a seal 
 or the feathers of a duck, and, when the animal comes 
 on shore after a dive or a swim of thirty or forty miles, 
 its skin is perfectly dry, though the water pours in 
 torrents from its back. But, in order to perform this 
 office properly, the skin must be perfectly clean ; and 
 this fact was discovered in rather a curious manner. 
 
 A young Polar Bear was added to the collection at 
 the Zoological Gardens, and as soon as it was trans- 
 ferred to the den, it plunged joyfully into the water, 
 and swam about for a little time. Presently, however, 
 it was seen to be in difficulties. It sank lower and 
 lower in the water, and became so weak by struggling 
 that it was not able to drag itself ashore. Fortunately, 
 the keeper was, as usual, on the alert, and, by letting 
 off the water, contrived to save the creature's life. 
 
WATER SHREW. 133 
 
 It seems rather absurd that an animal which can 
 chase and capture a salmon in its own element, and 
 swim thirty miles, should be in danger of drowning in 
 a little tank not so large as a moderate-sized room. 
 The reason, however, was soon apparent. The animal 
 had travelled for a considerable distance by land, 
 without any opportunity of getting at water. Conse- 
 quently, its fur became choked with dust and dirt, 
 absorbed water like a sponge, and was very nearly the 
 cause of its owner's death. 
 
 The water-resisting power of fur will be mentioned 
 in the description of the animal next on our list. 
 
 Still taking the carnivorous animals in their 
 zoological order, we find that the insect-eating carni- 
 vora have several representatives as water trespassers. 
 We will begin with one little animal that is very 
 common in this country, but not nearly so well known 
 as might be imagined from its numbers. The fact is, 
 it is a quick and very little creature, and the sound of 
 a human voice or even a heavy step at some distance 
 will send it to its secure hiding-place. 
 
 Everyone is familiar with the long-nosed Shrew-mice 
 that are found lying dead about the roads in autumn, 
 and used at one time to be objects of superstitious 
 dread to the ignorant. Several members of its family 
 are as much at home in the water as the polar bear, 
 their best representative being the Water shrew 
 (Crossopus fodiens) , which is shown on Cut 7. 
 
 I am tolerably sure that these Iittl6 animals exist 
 on the banks of many streams where their presence is 
 not even suspected. I have found them in places 
 
PARTIAL WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 where no one would think that the creatures could pick 
 up a living, and have always been much interested in 
 them. As far as I have seen, they do not appear to 
 travel to any great distance from their burrow, so that 
 although there may be several families of water shrews 
 within a mile, every yard of the stream must be care- 
 fully inspected before they can be found. 
 
 In some respects, the modifications of structure 
 which enable them to become water trespassers 
 resemble those of the polar bear. As in that animal, 
 the feet are the instruments of propulsion, are long and 
 wide, the width being gained partly by the length of 
 the toes, which can be spread well apart, and partly by 
 the fringe of stiff hairs which surround them, and 
 which acts just like the hairs in the rowing legs of the 
 water-beetles. 
 
 The generic name of Crossopus, or tassel-footed, is 
 given to the various Water shrews in consequence of 
 this hairy fringe to the feet. When the creature is 
 carefully inspected, it will be seen that from the 
 manner in which these hairs are set upon the foot, they 
 hold the water like the blade of an oar while the animal 
 is making its stroke, and yield to the water as the limb 
 is drawn forward in readiness for the next stroke. 
 
 We will now revert for a time to the question 
 which was mentioned at the end of the account of the 
 polar bear namely, the capability of fur to resist 
 water. 
 
 At first sight, it appears absurd to suppose that 
 hairs, when laid side by side, can resist the action of 
 water, and keep the animal perfectly dry though it may 
 be submerged for a considerable time. Such an opinion 
 
WATER SHREW. 135 
 
 would be perfectly justified. Taken alone, no amount 
 of hairs would keep water from the skin any more 
 than water could be carried in a sieve. But another 
 element has to be considered namely, the air which 
 entangled among the hairs, and which is the real 
 barrier both to the penetration of water to the skin, 
 and of loss of animal heat through the skin into the 
 water. 
 
 Some of my readers may perhaps have tried to pour 
 water into an empty vessel through a single narrow 
 aperture, and, if they have done so, have signally failed, 
 the air in the vessel not permitting the water to enter. 
 Suppose, for example, that the vent-peg of an empty 
 barrel be removed, and a funnel tightly inserted in its 
 place. The funnel may be filled with water, but not a 
 drop will enter the barrel, the invisible air within 
 forming a barrier as effectual as a cork or a stopper. 
 
 There is an amusing little trick which is sometimes 
 played upon unsuspecting persons, and which illus- 
 trates this property of air. An empty soda-water bottle 
 is laid on its side, and a piece of cork about as large 
 as a pea placed within the neck. Anyone is then 
 challenged to blow the cork into the bottle. This 
 looks so easy that a person who does not know the 
 trick, or whose knowledge of the properties of matter 
 does not enable him to see through the attempted 
 delusion, advances and blows sharply into the bottle. To 
 his great surprise he finds himself struck in the face 
 with the piece of cork, which he has blown out of the 
 bottle and not into it. 
 
 The fact is, the bottle, although it looks empty, is 
 really full of air; and just in proportion as air is blown 
 
136 PARTIAL WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 into it, the air that already exists is blown out, carry- 
 ing the cork with it. The only way to get the cork 
 into the bottlo is to coax it, so to speak, by blowing 
 very gently and steadily on one side, so that the air 
 within the bottle is allowed to escape gradually, and 
 the cork slowly rolls along the side of the neck until 
 it is fairly within the body of the bottle. 
 
 These two examples illustrate the action of fur 
 upon the life of the animal, and show that the very 
 same property which keeps an animal warm in winter, 
 keeps it dry in water. In itself, fur has no warmth ; 
 and, if in the depth of winter, a thermometer were 
 applied to a fur coat and a steel cuirass, each would be 
 found to be of the same temperature ; though the 
 former would keep a man warm, and the latter freeze 
 him to death. Air is a very bad conductor of heat ; 
 and, as there is much air entangled in fur, it pre- 
 vents the animal heat from escaping. 
 
 Thus we see why it is that long-haired furs are so 
 much warmer than those of a shorter character. 
 They entangle more air, and consequently interpose 
 more of a non-conducting medium between the animal 
 and the external cold. Even in these cases, such as 
 the seal-skin, in which ladies so rejoice, where the fur 
 is apparently short, the individual hairs are really 
 found to be long, but curled and twisted so as to 
 occupy less space, while holding the same amount of 
 air. A familiar example of the value of air as a non- 
 conductor of heat, may be seen in the conduct of birds 
 when exposed to severe cold. 
 
 Take, for example, the redbreast a bird peculiarly 
 sensitive to cold, and so bold as to be easily ap- 
 
WATER SHREW. 137 
 
 preached. See what the redbreast looks like in the 
 winter, as he sits disconsolately on a bough, or 
 crouches about on the ground. He is hardly recog- 
 nizable for the trim, smooth- feathered bird of the 
 summer time. All his plumage is puffed out until he 
 looks a mere ball of feathers. In fact, the poor bird 
 is suffering from cold, and instinctively erects all its 
 feathers, so as to entangle as much air as possible 
 between them. 
 
 It is evident that the " set," whether of hair or 
 feathers, has much to do with the capability of entang- 
 ling air ; and that anything which interferes with the 
 orderly arrangement of the fibres, will equally interfere 
 with the cold or water-resisting power. I think that 
 in this respect much depends on life. Take, for 
 example, a common water rat, as it comes out of the 
 water, and capture it on shore. It will be found that 
 although the exterior of the fur be wet, the skin is 
 quite dry. But, if the same animal had been shot 
 while in the water, it would have been wet to the 
 skin when taken out. 
 
 It is to this fact that is due the fearful cruelty 
 committed by professional cat stealers. We have 
 most of us heard the shameful details of cases where 
 the delinquent has fortunately been brought to. justice, 
 and seen that the heartless miscreants always excused 
 themselves for flaying cats alive, by saying that their 
 skins were worth nothing if taken from them after 
 death. 
 
 We can now understand why the young polar 
 bear which has been lately mentioned, was so nearly 
 drowned. The dust and dirt that had worked their 
 
138 PARTIAL WATEE TRESPASSERS. 
 
 way into its fur had interfered with the set of the 
 hairs, and had allowed the air to escape, and conse- 
 quently the water to get in. Take, again, the familiar 
 example of a sponge. Sink it below the water with- 
 out pressing it ; let it remain for a few minutes, and 
 then remove it. Scarcely a drop of water will have 
 penetrated to its interior. Bubbles of air will be seen 
 at the mouth of every aperture, and will have acted as 
 effectual barriers to the water. Sink it again for half 
 a second, but squeeze it at the time, and then loosen 
 it. On removing the sponge it will be found filled 
 with water, the air having been expelled by the 
 pressure. 
 
 Now, every one who has watched the gambols of 
 the Water shrew in a stream, has been struck with the 
 beauty of its appearance when diving. It seems to be 
 enveloped in a suit of silver spangles, and this appear- 
 ance is due to the innumerable air bubbles which are 
 entangled among its hairs, and which glitter just like 
 those of the sunken sponge. So firmly are they held 
 among the hairs that the rapid movements of the 
 animal through the water do not dislodge them ; and 
 they alter its appearance so completely, that when 
 the Water shrew emerges and goes pattering along the 
 bank, it is hardly to be recognized as the same 
 creature which was but a moment ago gliding beneath 
 the water ; the velvet-black of its dry coat contrast- 
 ing curiously with the silvery suit which it wears 
 while submerged. 
 
 It has already been mentioned that the sense of 
 hearing is in these animals very acute. That of sight 
 appears to be rather dull, or perhaps it is incapable 
 
WATER SHRfcW. 139 
 
 of being extended beyond a certain distance. Let the 
 observer only sit quiet, without moving, and the 
 Water shrews will play about within reach of a stick, 
 entirely unconscious of man's proximity. But a 
 movement which produces the least sound at once 
 gives the alarm, and sends the little animals off to 
 their hiding-places. 
 
 There is yet another provision of nature which 
 ought to be noticed. In common with many other 
 water trespassers, it has but very small ears. Still, as 
 it is much given to diving and the water might force 
 its way into the auditory passages the entrance to 
 the ear is guarded by a valve composed of three little 
 flaps, which are forced together by the pressure of 
 the superincumbent water, and so keep the interior of 
 the ear entirely dry. 
 
 There is another British Water shrew, which is 
 called the oared shrew, because the stiff, hairy fringe 
 upon the feet is very hard and conspicuous, looking, 
 while the animal is swimming, like the blade of an 
 oar. It is sometimes called the black shrew, because, 
 although the upper part of the body is of the same 
 velvety black in both animals, the oared shrew is 
 much darker beneath than the common Water shrew. 
 In both species, the tail is flattened from the tip to 
 about one-third of its length, so that it probably serves 
 the purpose of a rudder. 
 
140 PARTIAL WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 THE DAESMAN (Galemys Pyrenaica). 
 
 In some parts of Russia and France there are found 
 some curious animals allied to our water shrews, but 
 even more determined water trespassers. Their scien- 
 tific name is Galemys, and they are popularly known 
 under the name of Daesman. 
 
 In many respects, such as the flattening of the tail, 
 the Daesman very much resembles the water shrew, but 
 as it is a much more aquatic animal, its structure is 
 modified accordingly. 
 
 Unlike the water shrew, which gambols about on 
 shore or in the water with equal agility, the Daesman 
 spends hardly any of its time out of the water, and is in 
 the fresh water almost as constantly aquatic as the seals 
 are in the ocean. As, therefore, its legs are needed for 
 swimming rather than for walking, they are very much 
 shortened, very little more than the paws appearing 
 outside the skin. The toes are very long in proportion, 
 and are connected with webs, so as to convert the foot 
 into a powerful oar. 
 
 It is very much averse to walking on land, and if 
 it be obliged to pass from one stream to another, it 
 will avoid the overland route, and dig for itself a 
 tunnel, the fore feet being adapted for burrowing as 
 well as swimming. 
 
 The strangest part of its formation, which enables 
 the Daesman to be a water trespasser, is the shape of 
 the nose. In the ordinary shrew this organ is elon- 
 gated, but in the Daesman it is so very long and mobile 
 
THE DAESMAN. 141 
 
 that it reminds the observer of the elephant's pro- 
 boscis. Were it not for the peculiar form of this organ, 
 nearly all the Daesmans would perish in the winter time, 
 not from cold, against which they are tolerably proof, 
 but from want of air. 
 
 In the winter time, the streams in which the Daes- 
 man lives are covered with thick ice, through which 
 very little air can pass. The animal is therefore driven 
 to its burrow, which is a complicated series of tunnel- 
 lings some twenty feet or so in total length. The 
 mouth of the burrow opens under the surface of the 
 water, and although its ramifications extend upwards, 
 they do not break into the open air like those of the 
 mole. Indeed, even if the Daesman did desire to dig 
 its way into the air, it could not do so, the frozen soil 
 beiDg too hard for its feet. 
 
 Its long proboscis of a nose now stands the crea- 
 ture in good stead, for it goes about in search of small 
 apertures in the ground or ice, and by thrusting its 
 nose into them, contrives to breathe where an animal 
 less fitly endowed would, to a certainty, die of asphyxia. 
 Even the Daesman sometimes succumbs, and the 
 animals are found lying dead and suffocated in their 
 burrows. 
 
 For frost the Daesman cares but little, being pro- 
 tected from cold as well as from the water by a double 
 coating of fur, like that of the seal, namely, an inner 
 coat of fine soft down, and an outer covering of stiffer 
 hair. The inner coat is so thick and warm that the 
 fur is in great requisition as an article of apparel. It 
 is not only warm, but light, and the only drawback to 
 its use is its costliness, the Daesmans not being very 
 
142 PARTIAL WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 plentiful, and a great many skins being required for a 
 single garment. The average length, of each skin is 
 not more than eight inches. 
 
 One of the true moles is called the shrew- mole, 
 and really seems to form a connecting link be- 
 tween the moles and the shrews. Its scientific name 
 is Scalops, which literally signifies a digger, and is 
 given to the animal on account of its burrowing 
 habits. 
 
 It has a very long mobile nose, like that of the 
 Daesman, with which animal it is sometimes con- 
 founded. Although not so aquatic as the Daesman, it 
 is a water-lover, and swims well, the broad digging 
 feet acting as paddles wherewith it can propel itself 
 through the water. Even the common mole is no mean 
 swimmer, as I can testify from experience, having 
 seen it take voluntarily to the water and swim across 
 a stream. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE BEAVEE (Castor Fiber). 
 
 AT the head of the rodent water trespass era, the 
 Beaver at once takes its place as being one of the best 
 swimmers, and possessing the most interesting habits, 
 besides being one of the largest of the whole group. 
 It is rather remarkable that the largest of all the 
 rodent animals, the capybara, is also a water tres- 
 passer, though not to such an extent as the Beaver. 
 
 The history of the Beaver is a very wonderful one, 
 and there are few animals about whom so many strange 
 stories have been told, some being true and some 
 false, and the former more wonderful than the latter. 
 In the present case, we are only concerned with those 
 details of the animal's economy which enable it to 
 become a trespasser in the water. 
 
 The most remarkable part of the Beaver's history is 
 the manner in which it keeps itself supplied with 
 a sufficient depth of water for its purpose when it 
 inhabits a shallow stream. This purpose it fulfils by 
 making a dam, constructed on exactly the same prin- 
 
144 RODENT WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 ciple as that of an ordinary water-mill. This fact has 
 long been known, but the manner in which the dam is 
 constructed has been much misunderstood, and some 
 of the stories respecting the Beaver's powers of build- 
 ing are nearly as fabulous as those of the sailing 
 powers of the nautilus shell. 
 
 For example, we used to be told that the Beaver 
 made the dam by cutting long stakes, sharpening one 
 end, driving them into the bed of the river, and then 
 intertwining smaller boughs between the uprights. 
 The work was finished by filling all the interstices 
 with stones and mud, which were brought on their 
 tails, just as a mason carries mortar on a board. The 
 tail was also said to subserve the purpose of a trowel, 
 and to be chiefly used in smoothing and patting down 
 the mud. 
 
 As a boy, I was always puzzled to understand 
 how a Beaver should be able to drive stakes into the 
 bed of the river, not seeing where the necessary power 
 could be obtained. I had often constructed dams 
 across streamlets, but could not have driven stakes 
 without the use of a heavy mallet, an implement which 
 a Beaver was not likely to possess. Similarly, being a 
 swimmer, I could not understand how the Beaver could 
 carry mud or stones on its tail, conjecturing, from 
 practical experience, that the weight of the cargo 
 would sink the tail in the water, so that everything 
 upon it would slide off. 
 
 On land, the conveyance was supposed to be 
 managed in a different manner. An old Beaver, whose 
 teeth were too much worn to be serviceable in cutting 
 down trees, was utilized as a timber cart. He had to 
 
THE BEAVER. 145 
 
 lie on his back, and was then laden with logs, which 
 he embraced with his legs. Several other Beavers 
 then drew him to the spot where the timber was 
 wanted, and so often was this done that many old 
 Beavers had the skin rubbed quite off their backs. If 
 the community were a recent one, and no old Beaver 
 was to be found, they took possession of the first 
 stranger whom they met, and impressed him into 
 their service. The Beaver was also supposed to be 
 unable to live if its tail were dry, so that if it went on 
 shore, it was obliged to go to the river at short inter- 
 vals, and dip its tail in the water. 
 
 There is now before me an engraving representing 
 a party of Beavers engaged in architecture. Their dam 
 is made of strong stakes driven perpendicularly into 
 the bed of the river, and placed quite parallel to each 
 other. Between tnem are interlaced a number of 
 branches, some of which are so large that they could 
 not have been fixed without the exertion of far greater 
 power than a Beaver can possess. 
 
 The real history of the manner in which the Beaver 
 makes itself a home in the water is admirably given in 
 a paper by Mr. A. H. Green, who has been a practical 
 Beaver trapper for some^ years, and had carefully 
 watched the customs of the animal. The paper was pub- 
 lished in the Journal of the Linnaean Society for August, 
 1869. The following extract is taken from the paper : 
 
 " They begin to build their dams about July or 
 August, as soon as the summer floods begin to subside. 
 For this purpose they generally choose a bend in the 
 stream, with high and clayey banks, and commence by 
 felling a large tree that will reach across the water ; or 
 
 10 
 
146 RODENT WATER TRESPASSERS- 
 
 they fell a tree on each side of the water so as to meet 
 in the centre. They then float sticks from six to four 
 feet long down to the dam, and lay them horizontally, 
 filling in the spaces with roots, tufts of grass, leaves, 
 and clay or mud. The branches of the first tree are 
 the perpendicular supports, almost all the remaining 
 sticks being placed horizontally and crosswise. The 
 last six or eight inches in height is very insecurely con- 
 structed, being nothing but mud and leaves. 
 
 " The highest dam I ever saw was only about four 
 feet six inches ; but the generality of them are not above 
 two or three feet. The action of the water, by bringing 
 down mud, gravel, or fallen leaves, strengthens the 
 dam by making a sloping bank against it ; and, the 
 willow sticks of which it is composed sending forth their 
 roots and shoots, the dam in course of time becomes 
 a fixture, bound together as strongly as well could be. 
 
 " The winter floods almost invariably destroy the 
 upper part of the dam, which is reconstructed afresh 
 every year. The shape of the dam is almost always 
 semicircular, with the crown of the arch down stream, 
 thus reversing the order of things ; but I have no doubt 
 this is in consequence of the heads of the first or 
 principal trees being floated down stream when they 
 are first thrown. 
 
 " The body of water raised by these dams varies, 
 of course, according to the fall of the original stream, 
 from a small hole of 20 feet diameter to a lake of miles 
 in length. In the former case, the Beaver builds his 
 house close to the dam, so as to get depth of water, 
 and there saves himself from any hungry panther 
 (Felis concolor, L.) or wolf who might feel inclined to 
 
THE BEAVER. 147 
 
 indulge in Beaver-meat. The Beaver also burrows into 
 the banks of streams, always taking care to have two 
 entrances, one under (or close to) the water, and a 
 smaller air-hole on land. With a good dog, capital 
 sport may be had on some of the smaller rivulets lead- 
 ing into or out of a lake. 
 
 " The houses are formed of water-logged sticks 
 placed horizontally in the water. They have always 
 two or more entrances, and a small chamber with a 
 little grass for the Beaver to lie on. The top of the 
 house is constructed very thick, to guard against 
 attacks by animals. Mud and roots are used to make 
 the house solid ; but no mud is seen from the outside, 
 as the top is covered with loose sticks left there by the 
 Beaver, after taking the bark off. The houses are gene- 
 rally about four feet in height, and about six in diameter 
 on the outside, and would hold about four Beavers, 
 though I have known small houses to hold two only/' 
 
 It is probable that the two errors respecting the 
 tail of the Beaver namely, that it is used as a trowel 
 or mortar-board may arise from the fact that as the 
 animal always trails its flat tail after it as it walks, the 
 muddy sides of the river are worn quite smooth in 
 spots which are much frequented by the Beaver. Then, 
 after it has deposited its load, it has a way of giving 
 a self-satisfied sort of slap on the water with its tail, 
 which has evidently been mistaken for the act of pat- 
 ting down the mud. 
 
 As to their mode of carrying the materials used 
 for their buildings, the stones, earth, and similar sub- 
 stances are held firmly between the fore paws and the 
 chin, so that they are upheld by the inflated lungs. 
 
148 RODENT WATEE TRESPASSERS. 
 
 As to trees, the Beavers proceed in a very ingenious 
 manner. They are invariably cut so that the head of 
 the tree falls away from the river. As soon as it is 
 down the Beavers precipitate themselves on it, cut 
 away the branches which are not needed, and drag it 
 into the river so that it can be floated down. They in- 
 variably fell trees above, and never below, their dams. 
 To drag a tree up the stream would be beyond the 
 power of any number of Beavers, but to guide it down 
 is a different business, and three or four of the animals 
 are quite enough to pilot a large tree to its destina- 
 tion, taking advantage of every eddy in the stream as 
 craftily as if they were experienced boatmen. 
 
 The houses are built in two flats, the lower one 
 being nearly on a level with the water, and used as a 
 landing-stage, and the upper employed as a sleeping 
 apartment. It was at one time thought that the Beaver 
 was in the habit of filling its house with fresh branches 
 by way of a store of food. This, however, is not the 
 case, for, as Mr. Green very rightly observes, a single 
 day's food for a Beaver would more than fill the house. 
 Their stores are generally made at some distance from 
 the dam, and above it, and when the animal has 
 stripped the bark from the branch," which forms almost 
 its sole food, it throws the peeled branch into the 
 stream, and utilizes it either for its dam or house. 
 
 It is evident that the Beaver, which spends so much 
 of its time in the water, must possess some kind of 
 clothing, whether of fur, scale, or feather, which will 
 protect its body. In point of fact, hair, scales, and 
 feathers are only modifications of the same develop- 
 ment of the skin. In common with many other water- 
 
THE BEAVER. 149 
 
 loving mammals, they have a double coating of 
 differently formed hairs. Next to the skin comes the 
 close, soft hair, of which beaver-hats are made, and 
 over that is a thatching of longer and coarser hair. 
 
 So effectual is this double protection that the Beaver 
 seems to be absolutely indifferent to temperature. 
 Some years ago, when I had the curiosity to visit the 
 Zoological Gardens in the depth of a severe winter, I 
 was greatly interested in the behaviour of the Beaver. 
 It was one of the nastiest and most uncomfortable days 
 that could be imagined. There was ice, there was 
 sleet, and there was a north-east wind which seemed 
 to drive through the thickest and stoutest garments as 
 if they were mere cobwebs. 
 
 For myself, though never caring very much for 
 weather, I was so completely chilled to the very bone 
 that I could hardly have patience to watch any animal, 
 however interesting, and was quite unable to make 
 notes, my fingers being incapable of even feeling the 
 pencil. Yet, the Beaver seemed to be in the full 
 exultation of an enjoyable existence. He was popping 
 in and out of his house, running round the edge of his 
 little pond, biting a stick or two with his chisel-like 
 teeth, and ever and anon plunging into the water with 
 a loud slap of his tail, and disappearing below the sur- 
 face. Presently, he would reappear, scramble upon 
 land, and resume his walk, apparently unconscious of 
 the fact that he was trailing with him a number of 
 lumps of ice that had become entangled with his fur. 
 I felt horribly envious of a creature who could enjoy 
 itself by swimming about in water that almost froze 
 one to look at. 
 
150 RODENT WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 It may at first sight appear rather strange that the 
 possession of very large teeth should be necessary in 
 order that the Beaver may retain its position as a 
 water trespasser. Yet, were it not for these wonder- 
 fully powerful weapons, the beaver would soon perish 
 off the face of the earth. A certain depth of water is 
 absolutely necessary for its existence ; this depth 
 cannot be secured without the use of dams ; and dams 
 cannot be made without the assistance of teeth that 
 
 SKULL OF BEAVEK. 
 
 are large, sharp, and powerful enough to fell the trees 
 which make the foundation of the dam, to cut off the 
 boughs, and to strip them of the bark. These teeth 
 are, therefore, even for a rodent animal, of very great 
 size and strength. They are so powerful that they 
 can cut in two with a single bite a strong walking- 
 stick, and the grooves which they leave upon the trees 
 are so deep that they are often mistaken for the marks 
 cut by the Indian tomahawks. 
 
 The strength and size of the teeth may be judged 
 
THE BEAVER. 151 
 
 from the preceding figure of a Beaver's skull. 
 This figure was drawn for my " Illustrated Natural 
 History," published by Messrs. Routledge and Sons, 
 and is kindly lent by them. 
 
 There is one remarkable point in their internal 
 structure, the object of which is not precisely known. 
 The cavities of the heart are very large in proportion to 
 the size of the organ, then the walls are quite thin, 
 and when the animal is dead, the heart seems to col- 
 lapse almost into nothing. 
 
 Perhaps the reader may not be aware that the 
 Beaver, although it is chiefly known as an inhabitant 
 of North America, still exists in several parts of 
 Europe, and, until a comparatively late period of 
 history, was found in this country, and was called in 
 Scotland the broad-tailed otter. I believe that it was 
 not fairly extinct until the end of the fifteenth or the 
 beginning of the sixteenth century. 
 
 It is a notable fact that in the historical records of 
 this country, the fur of the Beaver was not only more 
 costly than that of any other British animal, bub 
 regularly increased in proportionate value, showing 
 that the animal was gradually becoming scarcer. The 
 last specimens were seen in some of the Scottish lakes, 
 and I think that it would be a good work to procure a 
 number of specimens, whether European or American, 
 and try to re-introduce this curious and interesting 
 animal. 
 
 It has already been mentioned that the mental 
 qualities of the Beaver have been much exaggerated, 
 in consequence of the erroneous ideas which were pre- 
 valent respecting its mode of life. But truth is, indeed, 
 
152 EODENT WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 often stranger than fiction, as may be seen from the 
 following anecdote which is given by Mr. Green : 
 
 " In a creek about four miles above the mouth of 
 Quesnelle River, in British Columbia, some miners 
 broke down a Beaver' s dam, in the course of the opera- 
 tions for making a ditch, at the same time erecting a 
 wheel to force up the water. Beavers abounded in this 
 stream, and found themselves much inconvenienced 
 by these proceedings. Accordingly, it is said that, in 
 order to stop the wheel, the Beavers placed a stick 
 between the flappers, in such a way as to stop the revo- 
 lutions of the wheel. This was so continually repeated 
 night after night, and was so artfully performed, as to 
 preclude the possibility of its being accidental." 
 
 Although it is not true that the Beaver must 
 always have its tail wet, yet the auimal does not seem 
 to thrive unless it can obtain access to water. It has 
 often been kept on land and supplied with food, but 
 its natural instincts lead it to perform many of the acts 
 which it would perform if at liberty. For example, if 
 kept in a room, it will collect articles of furniture and 
 make a sort of dam with them in a corner, although 
 there may not be a drop of water in the room. Some- 
 times it has found the necessity for dam-building so 
 strong, that, not being able to find any loose furniture, 
 such as brushes, or even waste-paper, it has supplied 
 itself with building materials by gnawing off the legs 
 of the chairs and tables. In one such case, the Beaver 
 laid all the furniture prostrate in a single night, having 
 cut off all the legs of every chair and table. 
 
 Water seems to be even a matter of health with the 
 animal. Mr. Green mentions a specimen that was 
 
THE WATER EAT, OR WATER VOLE. 153 
 
 kept at Fort M'Leod. By degrees it became blind, 
 but if allowed access to the water, it always used to 
 bathe its eyes, and in a short while recovered and 
 maintained its sight as long as it could wet its face. 
 
 THE WATER RAT, OR WATER VOLE (ArVlCold AmphillUs). 
 
 Although, as has just been stated, the beaver has 
 long been extinct in England, we still retain some of 
 its relatives, one of which shares with it the power of 
 trespassing upon the water. This is the well-known 
 Water Eat, as it is popularly called, or the Water Yole, 
 as it is more rightly named. At first sight, and as it 
 is seen running along the banks of the stream, it cer- 
 tainly has a very rat-like appearance. 
 
 But if a common rat and a water vole be placed 
 side by side, they will at once be seen to be two 
 entirely distinct animals. The former has a long and 
 sharp nose, capacious ears, and a very long tail ; 
 whereas the latter has a short head, with a blunt, 
 rounded muzzle, short ears, and a tail quite insignificant 
 when compared with that of the land rat. The fur, 
 too, is of a different texture, as can be seen by com- 
 paring them under the microscope. 
 
 Like the beaver, the Water Vole does not flourish 
 when away from its favourite element, to which it 
 always retreats when in danger. The land rat can 
 swim and even dive, as I have witnessed in a case 
 where a barn rat was driven into a pond by dogs, and 
 very nearly escaped by diving. It could not, however, 
 remain below the water for any length of time, and 
 was so exhausted for want of breath when it came to 
 
154 RODENT WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 the surface, that it fell an eary victim. It could also 
 see under the water, as was evident from the fact that 
 it made for a wooden stake which had been driven into 
 the bed of the pond, and clung to it for some little time. 
 
 The Water Vole, on the contrary, if it once got an 
 opportunity of diving, would at once have made for 
 the bottom of the pond, and then would havs skirted 
 the edge, until it found one of the burrows which were 
 tolerably sure to lead into the water. 
 
 These burrows are made on just the same principle 
 as those of the beaver, their entrance being well below 
 the surface of the water, and the extremities well 
 above the highest point to which the water can reach. 
 How numerous are those burrows very few people 
 know. A stream may appear to be absolutely free 
 from Water Voles, while both banks are literally riddled 
 with their holes. This fact may be ascertained by 
 anyone who chooses to take the trouble of wading 
 along the banks and feeling for the rat-holes. 
 
 During my boyhood I was much addicted to cray- 
 fish hunting. This is rather an exciting sport. You 
 wade along the river bank, and with the fingers test 
 every inch of it as low as can be reached. There will 
 be plenty of rat-holes, especially in those parts which 
 are edged by willows, whose roots hang in the water 
 like great tufts of long red hair, as of a giant's beard. 
 Under the cover of these roots the Water Vole 
 loves to place the entrance of its burrow, and it is in 
 such places that the crayfish makes its haunt. A little 
 practice soon enables the crayfish hunter to detect his 
 prey. He pushes his hand into the burrow, and if his 
 fingers are pricked, he knows that it is by the spiky 
 

 CUT 7. WATER VOLE AND WATER SHREW. 
 
THE WATER EAT, OR WATER VOLE. 155 
 
 projections of the crayfish's head. By a quick move- 
 ment he catches the crayfish by the long antennae, 
 jerks it out of its hiding-place, and transfers it to his 
 basket, if he takes the trouble to carry one. At 
 Oxford, where the Isis and Cherwell swarm with cray- 
 fish, we never troubled ourselves about baskets, but 
 always put the crayfish in our caps. 
 
 No one who has not had a similar experience can 
 form any idea of the manner in which the banks of 
 streams and ditcbes are perforated with the burrows of 
 the Water Vole. Many are disused, but are occupied 
 by squatters, such as the crayfish already mentioned, 
 the water shrew, and even the kingfisher, when an 
 entrance to the burrow can be found above the surface 
 of the water. 
 
 Another point in which the Water Yole agrees with 
 the beaver is the vegetable nature of its food, which 
 consists almost entirely of the bark of reeds, mare's - 
 tail, and other aquatic plants, though the animal some- 
 times makes raids into cultivated grounds, and does 
 some amount of damage to the crops. Such an event 
 as this is, however, a rare one, and a single barn rat 
 will do more harm to the agriculturist than a hundred 
 Water Voles. 
 
 Sometimes, however, the Water Vole does become a 
 mischievous animal, though in another manner. There 
 is no great harm in its burrows when they are made 
 in the banks of streams or ditches. But when they 
 perforate the banks of artificial pieces of water, they 
 have been known to weaken the restraining walls to 
 such a degree that they have given way. In some 
 places the Water Vole becomes a constant danger t o 
 
156 RODENT WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 reservoirs, for if the water once forces its way even 
 through so small an aperture as a rat's burrow, it 
 enlarges it with increasing rapidity, and soon cuts a 
 large channel for itself. 
 
 Even in a small way the animal may become a 
 great nuisance. The late Mr. Waterton had for many 
 years a pond in front of his house. The Water Voles 
 inhabited the banks of this pond, and were continually 
 boring their tunnels, so as to let out the water into a 
 neighbouring stream. He could not extirpate them 
 until the herons came and built in the ground, when 
 the birds soon found out this fertile source of food, 
 and demolished the intruders. 
 
 THE CAPYBARA (Hydrochcerus Capylara). 
 
 It is a rather remarkable fact that the largest of all 
 existing rodents should be a partial water trespasser ; 
 so much so, indeed, that whenever pressed by danger, 
 it always rushes to the water for safety. It is a native 
 of South America. 
 
 Like most of the swimming animals, its feet are 
 webbed. With these feet it makes wonderful way in 
 the water, and, clumsy as it looks, can dive and swim 
 with such speed that no ordinary foe can overtake it. 
 The flesh of this animal is very good, and it is there- 
 fore much hunted by the natives. Its speed and 
 agility in the water, however, are so great, that they 
 could have but little hope of securing it but for the 
 terrible wourali poison with which they cover their 
 arrows. These weapons are five or six feet long, so 
 that they can not only force their way through the 
 
THE CAPYBARA. 157 
 
 luxuriant foliage that fringes the banks of South 
 American rivers, but can be driven with sufficient 
 strength to penetrate the singularly tough skin with 
 which the Capybara is guarded against the effects of 
 the water. 
 
 This skin is so strong that it almost deserves the 
 title of hide, and is the only material known that will 
 resist the spear-like points of the agave plant. Yet 
 the hard wooden point of the long arrow can be driven 
 into it, and if it only penetrate for an inch, the fate of 
 the animal is sealed. 
 
 The point is flat, and cut with a series of barbs. 
 It is quite independent of the arrow, being slipped 
 loosely into a square hole at the end of the shaft. As 
 soon, therefore, as the animal feels the wound, it 
 springs forward, and shakes off the shaft, the head 
 remaining in the wound. The effect of the wourali 
 poison with which it is covered is very remarkable. 
 
 It produces an almost instantaneous insensibility. 
 The creature seems to be seized with irresistible 
 drowsiness, which increases momentarily ; and, though 
 it may not die at once, it cannot exert itself, and so 
 falls a victim to its pursuers. Mr. Waterton states 
 that if birds be but slightly wounded with the tiny 
 blow- gun arrow, the point of which is no longer than 
 that of an ordinary darning needle, it can seldom fly 
 more than a yard or two ; but sits nodding on the 
 branch until it falls to the ground. I have only seen 
 one animal die from the effects of the wourali ; and, 
 though the arrow did not penetrate a quarter of an 
 inch into the hip, the creature never moved, but dozed 
 off into death by imperceptible gradations. 
 
158 RODENT WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 So, by using this potent weapon, the native hunter 
 neutralizes the water- trespassing powers of the Capy- 
 bara, and either prevents it from reaching the water 
 at all, or compels it to float helplessly along the stream 
 so as to be easily secured. 
 
 Like many other water trespassers, it is so constructed 
 as to be able to conceal nearly the whole of its body 
 below the surface, only just permitting its nostrils to 
 be out of the water. And it takes advantage of every 
 piece of cover, such as a patch of weed, the shade of 
 an overhanging branch, or a tuft of herbage floating 
 down the stream. Under their protection, it just lifts 
 its nostrils above the surface of the water, ta,kes breath, 
 and again sinks. And, as it sees perfectly well under 
 water, and need only take breath at intervals of seven 
 or eight minutes, the water is evidently the safest place 
 for it. 
 
 It is mostly a nocturnal animal, moving and feed- 
 ing by night ; and by day lying asleep in the herbage 
 of the river bank, and within a few paces of the water. 
 The foliage is so dense that scarcely any eye but that 
 of the native hunter could detect the animal ; and 
 scarcely any weapon but the poisoned arrow could 
 secure it. Even the rifle ball might be turned aside 
 from a vital part, and so give the Capybara a chance of 
 escaping ; whereas, it does not matter where the arrow 
 strikes, provided it only penetrates through the skin. 
 
 No one, in looking at the animal, could imagine 
 its prowess in the water. On land it looks so very 
 much like a pig, that it has received the name of 
 Hydrochcerus, i.e., water pig. It is thick-bodied, has 
 short and stout limbs, very little ears, and a peculiarly 
 
THE CAPYBARA. 159 
 
 blunt, rounded, and thickened muzzle, that has almost 
 a ludicrous aspect when seen from the front. 
 
 The fur is very thick, and serves to defend the 
 animal from the action of the water. I possess a 
 quiver, given to me by the late Mr. Waterton, which 
 well illustrates the water-resisting power of the Capy- 
 bara's clothing. In order to preserve its efficiency, 
 the wourali poison must be kept dry ; which, in a 
 country of almost perpetual moisture, is a matter of no 
 small difficulty. The native hunters never lose an 
 opportunity of drying their poison, whether in store 
 or upon the weapons ; and, as soon as they light a 
 fire, they are sure to place their weapons and wourali 
 gourd close to it. 
 
 It is to the extreme care which has been taken" in 
 preserving the dryness of the wourali, which Mr. 
 Waterton brought from Guiana some sixty years ago, 
 that its present potency is to be ascribed. I have 
 seen many descriptions of experiments with wourali, 
 both in England and France (there called "curara"), 
 but they have all been unsatisfactory, except those 
 which were made with Mr. Waterton' s poison. I am 
 perfectly certain that my own poisoned arrows are 
 just as venomous now as they were in 1812, when 
 Mr. Waterton procured them from the natives. 
 
 Now, as it often happens that in Guiana the hunter 
 has to travel for days through water up to his knees, 
 it is of the last consequence that he shall preserve his 
 poisoned weapons absolutely dry. This is achieved 
 by placing them in a quiver woven from a split rattan, 
 and covered with a pitch-like cement. The cover is 
 made from a circular piece of Capybara skin, with the 
 
160 RODENT WATEE TRESPASSERS. 
 
 fur still on it. While still warm and fresh from the 
 animal, it is worked over a wooden mould, much as a 
 felt hat is made at the present day, so as to make a 
 circular cover for the quiver. 
 
 The hair is inside, and not outside, as might be 
 imagined. But the native hunter knows what he is 
 about. In the first place, the presence of the stiff, 
 coarse hair serves to retain the cover in its place when 
 screwed on, as it were, with a rotatory motion ; and 
 in the next place, not a particle of water can pass 
 through the hairs thus compressed together. Rain 
 has no effect upon it, neither has dew, or the drip- 
 pings from moisture-saturated leaves. Even if the 
 quiver should perchance fall into the water, no harm 
 would befal it, and it would float away as lightly and 
 as free from water as a corked bottle. It might lie 
 in, or rather on, the "water for a week, and the en- 
 closed weapons would be as serviceable as when they 
 were first shut into it. 
 
 The use of these hairs to the animal can easily be 
 seen by watching the Capybara in the water. As it 
 swims about, in spite of the graceful ease of its move- 
 ments, it looks as if its long clothing of coarse hair 
 must be very unpleasant when it comes on shore. 
 After it has swum about for some time, it clambers 
 up the bank, when the water pours off its hairy 
 clothing like rain off" a thatched house, leaving the 
 animal as dry as are the rooms of the house in 
 question. 
 
 The Capybara does not seem to care particularly 
 about the quality of the water, and may often be found 
 near the mouths of tidal rivers, when at time of flood, 
 
THE COYPU RAT, 161 
 
 the water is almost as salt as that of the sea. The 
 animal has but very little tail, the steering, as well as 
 the chief power evidently resting in the hind legs. 
 The average length of the Capybara is about three 
 feet seven inches ; and it is so stoutly made, that, 
 while it is on land, its abdomen nearly touches the 
 ground. It extends over a very considerable portion 
 of South America ; and wherever a river exists, there 
 will the Capybara be found. 
 
 THE COYPU EAT (Myopotamus voypus) . 
 
 In Chili there is an animal which has some relation- 
 ship to the capybara, and possesses many of its habits. 
 It is one of the Water Trespassers, spending a consider- 
 able portion of its time in that element, and propelling 
 itself almost wholly with its hind feet, which are 
 very broadly webbed. 
 
 Like the capybara, it is protected by a double 
 coating of hair, by means of which the water is 
 excluded from actual contact with its skin. This 
 double coating is useful in commerce, and has of late 
 years attained quite a celebrity under the name of 
 Nutria, or American Otter. 
 
 One of the most curious points in the structure of 
 the Coypu, is the manner in which the mouth is modi- 
 fied so as to enable the animal to become a temporary 
 denizen of the water. The incisor teeth are always 
 large in rodents, but in the Coypu they are simply 
 enormous when compared with the size of the animal. 
 They are, in fact, so large that the lips cannot be 
 
 11 
 
162 RODENT WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 closed over them; and the mouth is, in consequence, 
 perpetually open. 
 
 This would not matter very much in a terrestrial 
 quadruped, but as the Coypu is semi-aquatic, passes 
 much of its time in the water, and also swims with its 
 body almost entirely submerged, the water would run 
 down its throat as it swims, and thus prevent it from 
 swimming for any length of time. On opening the 
 mouth, however, a most curious structure is seen. 
 The palate is modified into a soft cushion-like projec- 
 tion, which is covered with hair, and which passes 
 behind the teeth, so as to close the aperture. 
 
 Nor is this all. In most animals the glottis, or 
 entrance to the wind-pipe, opens into the back of the 
 mouth; although, as with mankind, it can be connected 
 at will with the nostrils, so as to allow of respiration 
 through them. The Coypu,. however, has no choice in 
 the matter ; the glottis opening into the cavity which 
 leads to the nostrils, so that it could not breathe 
 through its mouth even if it wished. 
 
 Thus, there is a double protection to the lungs 
 from being filled with water i the projecting palate 
 forming the first line of defence, and the structure of 
 the glottis the second. If the water were to flow 
 down the throat only, and find its way into the 
 stomach, much inconvenience would ensue, but that 
 is all ; whereas, life would be endangered if water 
 were to find its way into the lungs. 
 
 We see, therefore, that the stomach is protected 
 from water by a single line of defence, namely, the 
 projecting palate ; and no great harm would happen 
 even if a drop or two of water did force their way 
 
THE BEAVER RAT, 
 
 163 
 
 through it. But, inasmuch as the presence of water 
 in the lungs would be fatal, a second line of defence 
 is needed, and is found in the manner in which the 
 glottis opens into the nostrils. 
 
 One rather curious result ensues from the latter 
 structure. As the glottis does not open into the 
 mouth, as is usual among animals, the Coypu cannot 
 utter any loud or resonant cry, and can only produce 
 a shrill sort of whistle through its nose. 
 
 The fondness of the animal for water is an integral 
 part of its nature; and even if it be only supplied 
 with a basin full, it will be dabbling in it all day. 
 Like many of the rodents, it uses its fore paws much 
 after the manner of hands ; and, if it be not satisfied 
 that its food is pure and clean, the Coypu will take it 
 to the water, dip it, and shake it with wonderful 
 dexterity until its fastidious love of cleanliness is 
 gratified. In its feeding it much resembles the 
 squirrel, sitting upright, and holding its food to its 
 mouth with its fore paws. The hind feet are long, 
 and the toes webbed ; these being the chief instru- 
 ments of propulsion* 
 
 THE BEAVER RAT (Hydromys chrysog aster) . 
 
 There are other rodent water trespassers, of which 
 we have only space for two. The first is the Beaver 
 Hat, a native of Van Diemen's Land. It is not nearly 
 so large as the coypu, the former animal measuring 
 three feet in total length, while the latter is only two 
 feet long. The tail of the Beaver Eat too, occupies 
 
164 RODENT WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 much more proportionate space than that of the 
 coypu. 
 
 Owing to the strong odour which it exhales, it is 
 often called the Musk Rat, a title which it holds in 
 common with several other rodents. So powerful is 
 this odour, that human beings have often tracked the 
 animal to its hiding-place, simply by means of the 
 sense of smell. 
 
 As its form, which very much resembles that of 
 the ichneumon, implies, it is very active in the water, 
 swimming and diving with wonderful agility. It is a 
 terrible foe to fishes, which it can chase and capture 
 in their own element. It is quite as voracious as the 
 otter, which, though a rodent, it resembles in many of 
 its habits. When kept in confinement, it is best fed 
 by placing in its cage a vessel of water, in which are a 
 number of fish. The Beaver Rat delights to plunge 
 into the water, seize a fish, eat it, and then repeat the 
 process. It will in this way consume twenty small 
 fish at a single meal. 
 
 In consequence of its otter-like ways, the Beaver 
 Rat is a terrible foe to fish-ponds, and in more than 
 one case nearly the whole stock of a new pond has 
 been devoured before the depredators could be checked. 
 
 As is the case with many of the water trespassers, 
 the fore legs are but little used in swimming. They 
 are employed for progress upon the land, and can be 
 used after the manner of hands, for the conveyance of 
 food to the mouth.' The principal means of propul- 
 sion in the water are the hind legs, which are 
 exceedingly powerful, and furnished with large and 
 broadly-webbed feet. It is a handsome animal, the 
 
THE MUSQUASH. 165 
 
 upper part of the far being rich., dark brown, and the 
 lower part a bright, golden yellow. It is in conse- 
 quence of this colouring that the animal has received 
 the specific name of Chrysogaster, or " golden-belly." 
 The generic title of Hydromys signifies " water- 
 
 THE MUSQUASH (Fiber zibethicus). 
 
 This is another of the many animals that are popu- 
 larly called by the name of musk rat. The animal, 
 however, to which that title ought to be restricted is the 
 Sondeli, or Musk Rat of India (Sorex murinus), which, 
 however, as its generic name imports, is not a rodent, 
 but one of the shrew tribe, and closely related to the 
 water-shrews, which have already been mentioned. 
 None of the other animals which are called musk rats 
 possess an odour nearly so powerful as that of the 
 sondeli, which, if it should find its way into a cellar, 
 will render the wine undrinkable whenever it passes 
 over a bottle. 
 
 The Musquash is a native of North America. It is 
 about two feet in length, exclusive of the tail, which 
 is about ten inches long. As in the coypu, the fore 
 feet are small, and but little used in swimming, this 
 task being entrusted to the hind feet, which are very 
 long, and so broadly webbed that persons who are 
 not acquainted with the animal, and who see its foot- 
 prints on the muddy banks of the river in which it is 
 accustomed to disport itself, are nearly sure to mistake 
 the traces for those of some duck. 
 
 The animal is one of the partial trespassers, and is 
 beautifully adapted to the semi-aquatic life which it 
 
166 RODENT WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 leads. Except when pressed by hunger, it is scarcely 
 ever seen except in the water or on the river-bank ; 
 and even when on shore it is protected from its many 
 foes by its assimilation in colour to the locality which 
 it frequents. 
 
 When it leaves the water and sits on the river- 
 bank, it has a way of remaining in a crouching sort of 
 attitude, and sitting absolutely still. As long as it 
 does not move, it bears so exact a resemblance, both in 
 colour and outline, to a lump of wet mud, that even if 
 it be pointed out by an experienced musquash hunter, 
 it can scarcely be distinguished from the mud on which 
 it is squatting. 
 
 On land its movements are not remarkable in any 
 way, but when it is in the water the grace and swift- 
 ness with which it is endowed are really wonderful. It 
 is so quick and active that no hunter would dream of 
 shooting at it except from behind, for its watchful eyes 
 are sure to see the flash of the gun, and before the 
 bullet can reach it, the animal has dived, leaving the 
 missile to skim uselessly over the protecting water. 
 
 This may seem strange to those who have not had 
 practical experience of the singular protecting power 
 of water against a bullet. There is no need for the 
 animal to descend to any great depth to be secure 
 against fire-arms. An inch will render it almost safe, 
 and two inches absolutely so. Indeed, if the bullet 
 has even to touch the water, the animal below it is 
 tolerably secure, for a bullet which strikes the water 
 obliquely does not enter it to the depth of half-an-inch, 
 but rebounds just like a stone when boys are playing 
 at " ducks and drakes," 
 
THE MUSQUASH. 167 
 
 If any of my readers have seen artillery practice at 
 a sea-mark, they will appreciate the protecting power 
 of the water. Even the enormous shot of the present 
 day, which are capable of being driven through the 
 thickest and strongest iron plates that have as yet 
 been made, go lightly skipping over the water in 
 almost a playful manner. They do not enter it, but 
 make a series of leaps over the surface, driving up at 
 each jump a perpendicular column of water, and not 
 sinking until the initial force is nearly expended. 
 
 When I was a boy, I remember being present at a 
 pike-shooting party. There was a tolerably large sheet 
 of water, which might almost be dignified by the name 
 of a lake. On calm, warm summer days, the pike 
 with which it abounded were in the habit of floating* 
 at the surface, either asleep or basking in the sunshine. 
 Now and then the proprietor of the lake used to get 
 together a few friends, and have a few hours' sport in 
 shooting at the fish as they lay asleep presupposing 
 that fish ever do sleep, which some people think to be 
 doubtful. 
 
 To shoot a sleeping fish may seem a very unsports- 
 manlike proceeding to those who are accustomed to 
 despise a " sitting " shot, but, in reality, a fish was 
 never hit without the utmost accuracy of aim on the 
 part of the marksman. Scarcely any part of the body 
 projects above the surface of the water, and unless that 
 part be struck, the fish escapes unhurt. I have often 
 seen the charge take effect all round the sleeping pike, 
 and yet, although the water was driven up in showers 
 by the shot, the fish escaped unhurt. 
 
 As to the Musquash, when once it dives, the hunter 
 
168 RODENT WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 will see no more of it for a long time, It always makes 
 for its burrow, which opens into the water, and has 
 several entrances, so as to allow the animal to enter or 
 leave it at several points. The burrow runs for a con- 
 siderable distance, and, as is the case with most 
 animals which dig tunnels in the banks of rivers, it 
 slopes upwards, so that the sleeping chamber is far 
 above the highest point which the water is likely to 
 reach. When the Musquash dives, it always gives the 
 water a slap with its tail, very much after the manner 
 of the beaver. 
 
 I have, in the course of this brief narrative, men- 
 tioned that there are men who systematically hunt the 
 Musquash. This is done for the sake of its fur, which, 
 like that of many other water trespassers, is of a very 
 fine quality. According to the usual structure among 
 such animals, there are two coats of hair the outer 
 being coarse, and the inner thick and fine, very much 
 like that of the beaver. As the animal is wary and 
 active, the hunters seldom employ the gun, partly 
 because so much time is wasted in getting a shot, and 
 partly because the skin is injured if the animal be 
 struck anywhere except on the head. 
 
 The fur- hunters, therefore, place their chief reliance 
 in traps, just as they do when they hunt the beaver. 
 These traps are made of iron, and are not fixed, but so 
 placed that as soon as the Musquash is caught, its 
 struggles bring it into deep water, where it is sunk 
 by the weight of the trap and drowned. 
 
 Audubon, who was practically familiar with these 
 cunning rodents, mentions that if the animal be not at 
 once sunk when trapped, its companions gather round 
 
THE MUSQUASH. 169 
 
 it, and tear their luckless comrade to pieces. This 
 mode of procedure is familiar to naturalists, as it is 
 shared by other animals. Rats, for example, always 
 devour a wounded comrade, and so do wolves. Several 
 ppecies of birds and insects also act in the same manner. 
 
 At first sight, this modification of instinct seems to 
 be a cruel one, but, in reality, it is peculiarly merciful. 
 The injured creature must die, and it is certainly more 
 merciful to destroy it with a sudden and sharp pang, 
 perhaps scarcely so painful as that which it is already 
 enduring, than to allow it to die a lingering death of 
 hunger, thirst, exhaustion, and slow agony. 
 
 The animals, in fact, do by instinct that very act 
 to which an American Indian, tied to the stake of 
 torture, tries to urge his foes. While being slowly 
 tortured to death by foes who exhaust all their treasures 
 of invention and tradition by sparing life as long as 
 possible while adding torture to torture, the captive 
 warrior loads his enemies with jeers and taunts, 
 endeavouring to goad their savage nature into dashing 
 out his brains in a fit of rage, and so ending his agony 
 and his life together. So, when crucifixion was an 
 acknowledged mode of punishment, the friends of the 
 criminal would try to find some mode of killing him 
 as he hung on the cross, instead of leaving him to 
 perish with sheer pain. 
 
 So, in later days, when the wheel and the stake 
 were in vogue, the sufferer used always to attempt to 
 bribe his executioner into shortening his pangs in 
 the former case, by administering the " coup-de- 
 grace," or blow of mercy, as it was rightly called, as 
 soon as possible ; and in the latter, by providing dry 
 
170 
 
 RODENT WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 and well-seasoned wood, so as to raise a fierce flame 
 which might almost instantaneously destroy life, and 
 by attaching bags of gunpowder to the vital parts of 
 the body. This was not cruelty, but pure mercy, and 
 so is the action of the animals who fall on a wounded 
 comrade and tear or peck him to pieces. 
 
 M. Audubon, however, makes another statement 
 concerning the Musquash, which is of a very startling 
 nature. We are not surprised to hear that when a 
 Musquash is caught in a trap, it should be killed by its 
 companions. But we are very much surprised to hear 
 that the animals can exercise discretionary powers, 
 and act in a totally different manner if their comrade 
 be wounded and at liberty, to their conduct when he is 
 wounded and captured in a trap. Audubon states that 
 if a Musquash be shot and not at once picked up, it is 
 carried off by its comrades and removed to a place of 
 safety. This is a most remarkable statement, but I 
 believe it to be a perfectly true one ; and it throws 
 quite a new light on the mental character of the lower 
 animals. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Water 
 
 THE HIPPOPOTAMUS. 
 
 WE now come to a group of animals which contains 
 the largest terrestrial mammalia that the world pro- 
 duces. Sometimes they are called Pachydermata, or 
 thick-skinned animals, in consequence of the very 
 great thickness of the hide in many species. That the 
 term is well deserved is evident from the fact that 
 there is now before me a piece of hide which I myself 
 cut, with a saw, from the shoulders of a wild boar. 
 Even in its dry state it is almost two inches in thick- 
 ness, and it is very much harder than a piece of oak of 
 the same dimensions. 
 
 Some systematic naturalists gather them into one 
 large family, called Elephantidse, in which they included 
 elephants, tapir, hyrax, hippopotamus, and swine 
 each of these smaller groups forming a separate sub- 
 family. 
 
 Most of them are extremely fond of the water, and 
 some may claim to be ranked among the water tres- 
 passers. Among these the elephant cannot be named, 
 
172 PACHYDERMATOUS WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 because, although it is very fond of the water, and 
 cannot be happy without either a plunge or a douche 
 bath, it does not fly to the water for shelter when 
 alarmed, neither does it obtain its food therein. We 
 therefore pass the elephant by, and proceed at once to 
 the typical water trespasser among them namely, the 
 Hippopotamus. 
 
 I was much struck, when reading TopsePs " His- 
 tory of Four-footed Beasts/' with a remarkable point 
 in the history of the Hippopotamus. This book was 
 published more than two hundred years ago, and in it 
 are several curious examples of scepticism and credu- 
 lity. The latter quality is shown in the accounts 
 which the author gives of certain fabulous animals 
 such as the satyr, the lamia, the sphinx, the sea- 
 serpent, etc. all of which are described in perfect 
 good faith, the descriptions accompanied by illustra- 
 tions as remarkable as the letterpress. 
 
 The reader may perhaps remember that, almost 
 within the memory of living men, the existence of the 
 giraffe was stoutly denied by the learned, while no 
 doubt was expressed about the Hippopotamus. 
 
 Yet in TopseVs book the opposite course is pur- 
 sued. The author gives two figures of the giraffes 
 rather exaggerated, especially about the horns, which 
 in one figure are made like those of the ibex, but 
 figures which very fairly express the shape of the 
 animal. They are evidently drawn from the living 
 animal, and give the peculiar sloping shoulders, the 
 shape of the tail, and the form of the hoofs with perfect 
 accuracy. 
 
 The writer also describes the very long and pre- 
 
THE HIPPOPOTAMUS. 173 
 
 hensile tongue : " His mouth, but small, like a hart's ; 
 his tongue is near three feet long, and with that he 
 will so gather in his meat that the eyes of a man will 
 fail to behold his haste/' Topsel, also mentions the 
 peculiar gait of the animal, the legs of the same side 
 being moved together. Yet one hundred years after- 
 wards, the animal was considered as a myth, and any 
 travellers who mentioned it were denounced as liars. 
 
 It is very remarkable, therefore, that Topsel, who 
 gave so accurate an account of the giraffe, should be 
 incredulous respecting the existence of the Hippopo- 
 tamus. For his figure of the animal he gives the well- 
 known allegorical painting in the Vatican, which repre- 
 sents a hippopotamus with a crocodile in its mouth, and 
 signifies the river Nile. His remarks on the subject 
 are worthy of notice. 
 
 " The sea-horse, called in the Greek Hippotomos, 
 and in Latinae Equus fluviatilis. It is a most ugly 
 and filthy beast, so called because in his voyce and 
 mane he resembleth a horse, but in its head an oxe or 
 a calf, in the residue of his body a swine ; for which 
 cause some Grecians call him sometimes a sea-horse, 
 and sometimes a sea-oxe, which thing hath moved 
 many learned men in our time to affirm that a sea- 
 horse was never seen ; whereunto I could easily sub- 
 scribe (saith Bellonius), were it not that the antient 
 figures of a sea-horse altogether resembled that which 
 is here expressed, and was lately to be seen at Con- 
 stantinople, from where this picture was taken. 
 
 " It liveth for the most part in Nilus ; yet it is of 
 a doubtful life, for it brings forth and breedeth on the 
 land, and by the proportion of the legs it seemeth 
 
174 PACHYDERMATOUS WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 rather to be made for going than for swimming ; for 
 in the night time it eateth both hay and fruit, forraging 
 into corn-fields and devouring whatsoever cometh in 
 the way ; and therefore I thought it fit to be inserted 
 into this story. As for the sea-calf, which cometh 
 sometimes to land only to take sleep, I did not judge 
 it to belong to this discourse, because it feedeth only 
 in the water/' (I presume that Topsel here refers to 
 the manatee.) 
 
 " The picture was taken out of the Colossus in the 
 Vatican at Rome, representing the river Nilus, and 
 eating of a crocodile ; and thus I reserve the further 
 discourse of this beast unto the History of Fishes, 
 adding only thus much, that it ought to be no wonder 
 to consider such monsters to come out of the sea 
 which resemble horses in their heads, seeing therein 
 are also creatures like unto grapes and swords." 
 
 One of the most remarkable points about the Hippo- 
 potamus is its extreme activity when roused to exer- 
 tion. Under ordinary circumstances it is slow, sluggish, 
 and leisurely in its movements, and has a very great 
 predilection for lying down on shore, or floating 
 motionless on the water. But when roused, its tons 
 of flesh seem to be no impediment, and the huge 
 beast flies as nimbly about as an enraged cat. 
 
 The rapidity of its movements on shore has been 
 well shown by the large female Hippopotamus in the 
 Zoological Gardens, against whose fury a variety of 
 precautions have to be taken that seem scarcely neces- 
 sary when the vast body and short legs of the animal 
 are taken into consideration. 
 
 The rhinoceros, an animal closely allied to the 
 
THE HIPPOPOTAMUS. 175 
 
 Hippopotamus, affords another example of unexpected 
 activity. Slow and deliberate in its usual movements, 
 it can suddenly charge with lightning-like rapidity, 
 and with such terrific force that one of these animals 
 has been known to strike its horn completely through 
 the body of a horse as far as the saddle on the opposite 
 side, and to throw the horse a complete somer- 
 sault. 
 
 Then, to compare small things with large, there is 
 the hyrax, or rock rabbit, the ' ' coney " of Scripture, 
 which, in spite of its smaller size,, forms a connecting 
 link between the rhinoceros and the Hippopotamus. 
 Usually the hyrax is quiet enough, but, if startled, its 
 sudden activity is quite astonishing. I have seen the 
 little animal fly over the wire gratings of the cage 
 with such rapidity that the eye can scarcely follow its 
 movements. Indeed, the jerboa is the only creature I 
 have seen that equals it in this respect. 
 
 Neither of these animals continue their rapid move- 
 ments for any long period, but during the short time 
 of activity their agile quickness is almost preter- 
 natural. 
 
 In consequence of the enormous bulk of the Hippo- 
 potamus, the legs are planted so widely asunder, that 
 when it walks through grass the feet on each side 
 form a distinct line of tracks, just like those of a very 
 fat man when he walks ; and that such an enormous 
 mass of flesh should be capable of rapid movement 
 seems almost impossible. A very good perspective 
 view of the animal is given on Plate II. 
 
 In the water the activity of the animal is no less 
 surprising than when on land. We have little oppor- 
 
176 PACHYDERMATOUS WATEE TRESPASSERS. 
 
 tunity of judging of the animal's aquatic powers by 
 seeing it in the small ponds which can alone be given 
 for its use in this country, but in its native rivers its 
 speed is really wonderful. Sometimes,, when angry 
 and pursuing an enemy, it dashes along in a series of 
 bounds, springing half out of the water at every leap, 
 just like a terrified whale. Sometimes it keeps up a 
 steady rush like that of a locomotive on a railway, its 
 deafening snorts and yells increasing the resemblance. 
 Mr. Baines, the well-known African traveller, who had 
 the advantage of being an accomplished artist, made 
 several drawings which exhibit the aquatic powers of 
 the Hippopotamus. 
 
 One of these shows the speed at which the creature 
 can rush through the water, even when hampered by 
 a heavy weight and weakened by a wound and loss of 
 blood. It represents a Hippopotamus which has been 
 struck by a native harpooner belonging- to the Makoba 
 tribe. The hunters have approached the animal in a 
 canoe which contains several assistants and a steers- 
 man. As soon as the creature is struck, it dashes off 
 down the stream at such a pace that the head of the 
 canoe is half buried in the water, and throws up 
 volumes of spray, like the bows of a swift yacht in a 
 smart breeze. 
 
 The harpooner and his assistants all hold on to the 
 rope, lying almost on their backs in the boat, and 
 holding themselves with their feet against the sides. 
 Sometimes the pace is too much even for these expe- 
 rienced boatmen, and they are obliged to cast off the 
 rope and wait for a chance of putting in another 
 harpoon. 
 
THE HIPPOPOTAMUS. 177 
 
 Sometimes the Hippopotamus turns sharply on the 
 canoe and endeavours to crush it between his enormous 
 jaws, or to drive it out of the water by a blow from 
 his head. Should he succeed in his attack, the men 
 all dive to the bottom of the river and hold on by the 
 weeds or stones until they are forced to come to the 
 surface to breathe. The fact is, that the Hippopotamus 
 cannot imagine the possibility of a foe beneath the 
 water, and therefore never thinks of looking for enemies 
 anywhere below it. As soon as he has smashed the 
 canoe, he raises his head as high out of the water as 
 possible, and if he cannot see anything alive on which 
 to wreak his vengeance, he goes off, satisfied with 
 what he has done. 
 
 Mr. Baines most kindly placed all his sketches at 
 my disposal, and I have transferred three of them 
 which represent the Hippopotamus hunt to my "Natural 
 History of Man/' published by Messrs. Eoutledge and 
 Sons, vol. 1, pp. 880383. 
 
 Although the Hippopotamus can live without access 
 to water, it does not thrive properly, and even the 
 very character of its skin becomes altered. This was 
 shown by the male Hippopotamus which was sent to 
 England in 1850, and which created such a sensation. 
 During its long travels from Egypt to the Zoological 
 Gardens, it could not bathe properly, and could only 
 have the comfort of a few buckets of water poured 
 over it daily. When it arrived it was about as large 
 as a prize hog, and was quite mild and tame, being 
 quite demonstratively affectionate towards its keeper, 
 a young Arab lad named Salama, who called his charge 
 by the name of Buckeet, i.e., the Lucky One. Mr. F. 
 
 12 
 
178 PACHYDERMATOUS WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 Buckland wrote at the time an interesting account of 
 the animal, which was published in the " Field " news- 
 paper. The following is an extract from his letter: 
 
 " From not having been able to have a bath for six 
 weeks or more, his skir had assumed a curious appear- 
 ance. The back, instead of being soft, shiny, and 
 indiarubber-like, was quite hard and dry, and the 
 skin was peeling off it, as from the bark of a tree. 
 His back, in fact, was much more like a bit of an old 
 forest oak than that of a water-loving animal. 
 
 " It was, of course, expected that the moment 
 Hippo smelt and saw the water he would rush into it ; 
 but no he merely went up to it and smelt it as 
 though he had never seen it before, and it was not 
 until the Arab advanced himself partially into the 
 water that Hippo would follow. He (like a naughty 
 boy at the sea-side) soon came out again, and was 
 only persuaded to go right in by the Arab walking 
 round the edge of the tank. 
 
 " Hippo then began to find out where he was, and 
 fcow comfortable the clean, warm water was. Down 
 he went to the bottom like a bit of lead ; then up he 
 came with a tremendous rush and a vehement snort- 
 ing ; then a duck under, then up again, prancing after 
 the manner of Neptune's sea-horses that are harnessed 
 to his chariot in the old pictures of the worthy marine 
 deity. I never recollect to have seen any creature, 
 either man or beast, so supremely happy for a short 
 time as was poor, travel- worn Hippo after his long 
 voyage of so many thousand miles. 
 
 " Coming out of the water, Hippo smelt about for 
 food ; mangold wurzel was given him, and mightily 
 
TF1E HIPPOPOTAMUS. 179 
 
 did he enjoy it. Like all young creatures in a strange 
 place, he kept a close eye upon his nurse, and gave a 
 peculiar half-bellow half-cry when he went out of his 
 sight, refusing food till his return. 
 
 " Evening soon arrived. Hippo retired to rest by 
 the side of his faithful keeper, who, the next morning, 
 reported that, whereas on ordinary occasions, if he 
 coughed or moved or made the least noise in the night, 
 1 Jamoos' (the Arabic for Hippopotamus) would wake up 
 and answer. The night of his arrival he slept a sound 
 sleep, waking only at sunrise for his breakfast and his 
 bath, which he mightily enjoyed. His skin is now 
 beginning to lose its bark-like appearance ; it is 
 getting soft and shiny, and of a black-pinkish colour, 
 and he promises to grow up into a larger beast than 
 his fellow Hippopotamus in the next cage to him; for 
 ' Buckeet ' comes from the White Nile, in which river 
 the animals grow larger than in the Blue Nile, from 
 whence the two Hippopotami now in the Gardens were 
 brought." 
 
 The slight pinkish hue which is here mentioned is 
 a sign of health. Mr. Baines tells me that when the 
 animals are at liberty in their native river, the ears, 
 nostrils, and ridge over the eyes are of the most glow- 
 ing scarlet, and not merely pink as they are in the 
 animals kept in captivity. 
 
 This brilliancy of colour is very useful to those who 
 hunt the Hippopotamus with fire-arms. As is the case 
 with many semi-aquatic animals, the head is so con- 
 structed that the creature can lie for hours with its 
 body submerged, and nothing showing above the sur- 
 face of the water except its ears, the ridges over the 
 
180 PACHYDERMATOUS WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 eyes (the " garret-windows," as Gordon Camming calls 
 them), and the nostrils. Formerly, it used to be the 
 custom to aim at the eye, because, if it were accurately 
 struck, the shot was almost instantly fatal. Now, 
 however, the hunter aims at the nostrils, for such 
 accuracy of aim is not absolutely necessary, and, if the 
 animal be hit anywhere about the nostrils, it is rendered 
 incapable of remaining below the surface, so that it 
 falls a comparatively easy prey to the bullet. Three 
 pairs of bright scarlet spots are seen on the surface of 
 the water, indicating the positions of the ears, the 
 eyes, and the nostrils. The hunter aims between the 
 nostrils, and, unless he is a very bad shot, is tolerably 
 sure to cripple the animal. 
 
 The point mentioned by Mr. Buckland about the 
 hide is well worthy of further consideration, inasmuch 
 as it is one of the most important modifications of 
 structure which enable the animal to be a water 
 trespasser. In most of the animals which have been 
 described, the vital parts are defended from the water 
 by a modification of their fur, which forms a water- 
 proof covering. But the Hippopotamus has no hair, 
 so that another mode of protection is needed. This is 
 obtained in a manner similar to that which has been 
 already noticed in the whale tribe. 
 
 The body is first covered with a thick layer of fat, 
 which is a bad conductor of heat, and therefore serves 
 to keep the animal warm. This fat is called by the 
 Dutch colonists Zee-koe speck, or sea-cow bacon, and 
 is much esteemed as an article of diet. Over this 
 casing of fat comes the skin, which is about an inch 
 and a half in thickness, and is pierced with innume- 
 
THE HIPPOPOTAMUS. 181 
 
 rable pores, through which exudes an oily, slimy sort 
 of fluid, which has the effect of preventing the water 
 from coming into absolute contact with the skin 
 itself. 
 
 Soon after " Buckeet " had been established in the 
 Zoological Gardens, I had a talk with him and patted 
 him. I could not at the time but think of Sydney 
 Smith's remark upon some one who was patting a 
 tortoise, and whom he recommended to pat the dome 
 of St. Paul's, by way of gratifying the Dean and 
 Chapter. Unfortunately, I had not removed a pair of 
 new kid gloves, and, to my astonishment, I found the 
 right-hand glove hopelessly spoiled, being saturated 
 with the dark, oily secretion of the skin. 
 
 Another point about the skin is its wonderful 
 flexibility. It is so hard and tough that when removed 
 from the animal, it has to be cut into lengths, like so 
 many planks, and so to be torn off by main force. 
 Its thickness and toughness are well shown by the 
 principal use to which it is put namely, the manufac- 
 ture of those terrible "jamboks^ or "cow-hide" 
 whips, which are so powerful that each stroke will 
 leave a groove in a deal board, and when employed on 
 the thick-hided draught oxen of Southern Africa, will 
 strike off a strip of skin along the whole back of the 
 animal. 
 
 Yet, this skin, thick, tough, and hard as may be, 
 is, when on the living animal, as soft and flexible as 
 india-rubber, enabling the Hippopotamus to perform 
 those feats of agility in and out of the water which 
 have already been mentioned. 
 
 Like many other animals which frequent the water, 
 
182 PACHYDERMATOUS WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 the Hippopotamus always rushes to that element for 
 safety when alarmed. So strong is this instinct, that 
 even the newly- born cub does the same thing, and if 
 it be disturbed when sleeping, scuttles off at once for 
 the water. It was this instinct which made the task 
 of the keepers at the Zoological Gardens so heavy 
 when the young Hippopotamus had to be removed in 
 order to give it nourishment. 
 
 The first time that they tried to get the mother 
 away from her offspring, the little creature plumped 
 after her into the water, and, as it swam as well as she 
 did, and evinced no likelihood of coming out again 
 without her, the attempt failed. When they did 
 succeed, it was by taking advantage of a time when 
 the young one was asleep. 
 
 " Buckeet/ 5 part of whose history has already been 
 narrated, was captured in a similar manner. The 
 little creature was fast asleep on a bank of reeds during 
 its mother's temporary absence. Mr. Petherick was 
 sailing a boat on the lake, and the owner, who was 
 conning the vessel from the mast-head, saw the sleep- 
 ing cub. Some of the men got into the water, went 
 quietly up to the little Hippopotamus, and whipped 
 him into the boat before he was fairly awake. After 
 the manner of his kind, he screamed lustily, but, for- 
 tunately, his mother was too far away to come to his 
 assistance. He must at that time have weighed some- 
 where about one hundred pounds. 
 
 Mr. Petherick caught no less than four animals in 
 the same way, of which *' Buckeet " was the only one 
 that reached England. One died on board, one was 
 thrown into the river when the boat struck on a rock, 
 
THE HIPPOPOTAMUS. 183 
 
 and escaped ; and the other became entangled in the 
 boat, sank with it, and was drowned. 
 
 Having these habits, the Hippopotamus is always 
 watchful to preserve its communication with the 
 river, and cannot endure that anything or anyone 
 should cut off its retreat. On one occasion, when a 
 native hunter had got between the Hippopotamus and 
 the river, the animal was too frightened to be angry. 
 It made headlong for the water, caught the man on its 
 enormous nose, jerked him high in the air, and rushed 
 into the water. Fortunately for the man, it was so 
 alarmed that it did not think of stopping and using its 
 teeth. Had it done so, there would have been no 
 chance for him, as Mr. Petherick once saw a Hippopo- 
 tamus seize a man and cut him in two with a single 
 bite. 
 
 Aquatic as it is, the Hippopotamus does not affect 
 the rapid parts of the stream ; and seems to prefer 
 the lake to the river, because there is no stream. 
 It is rather a lazy animal, and likes to lie asleep in the 
 water, if possible, with its chin resting on a bank of 
 reeds, or some such support. Consequently, it pre- 
 fers, when it awakes, to find itself in the spot which it 
 occupied when it fell asleep ; an event which would 
 not take place in a stream, however sluggish. When 
 the animal inhabits a river, such as the Nile, it looks 
 out for quiet bays which are well flanked with reed- 
 beds. In these bays there is scarcely the slightest 
 current, and the animal can repose in perfect quietude. 
 
 AVhen very young, the Hippopotamus is carefully 
 tended by its mother. After a while it becomes tired 
 of swimming, and needs rest. Now, the mother could 
 
184 PACHYDERMATOUS WATER TEESPASSERS. 
 
 easily take her little one on shore, but she very much 
 prefers to remain in the river; so she sinks herself 
 in the water until she comes below the feet of her 
 offspring, and then, rising to the surface, she lifts her 
 child on her back, and carries it about wherever she 
 goes. The neck is the usual position for the young 
 Hippopotamus under these circumstances. 
 
 THE TAPIR (Tapirus terrestris). 
 
 There are supposed to be several species of Tapir, 
 but we will restrict ourselves to the two typical 
 examples, namely, the Common Tapir of tropical 
 America, which is figured in Plate III., and the 
 Malayan Tapir (Tapirus Malay anus). 
 
 These are most valuable animals to the systematic 
 zoologist, as by their means he is -able to trace many 
 of the links that bind together the various species of 
 the pachydermata. They scarcely look like modern 
 creatures, so closely do they resemble in form and 
 attitude the extinct animals which we only know by 
 their fossil remains. There is one peculiar, squatting 
 attitude which they are fond of assuming, and which 
 gives them a sort of weird, grotesque aspect that is 
 really startling. 
 
 One of the most conspicuous points in the structure 
 of this animal is the extraordinary length of its snout, 
 which is very much longer than that of the pig, but 
 not nearly so long as that of the elephant. And it is 
 a very remarkable point that there are fossil remains 
 of animals in which the snout is gradually lengthened, 
 
PLATE III. 
 
 ' f . 
 
 TAPIRS, AND CAPYBARA. 
 
THE TAPIR. 185 
 
 so that there is a complete series of links between the 
 elephant at one end of the scale, and the swine at the 
 other. 
 
 The upper lip of the rhinoceros is, as we all know, 
 capable of great elongation, and can be worked very 
 much after the fashion of the elephant's proboscis. 
 Indeed, when the rhinoceros desires to feed, it always 
 gathers together the fodder with its upper lip, rolls 
 it into a bundle, and by means of that useful member, 
 tucks the bundle into its mouth. 
 
 The same organ of the Tapir is, however, very 
 much more developed; and it can be turned and 
 twisted about in such a manner as to give a wonderful 
 variety of expressions to the animal. Some of these 
 modifications of shape may be seen in the illustration ; 
 and, if the reader would like to study the subject for 
 himself, he has only to go to the Zoological Gardens, 
 and offer to one of the animals a little tuft of grass, 
 holding it slightly out of reach. The Tapir will then 
 be induced to protrude its lip to the utmost, and a 
 very curious object it will be sure to be. 
 
 Like the hippopotamus, the Tapir is always found 
 in the immediate vicinity of water ; and, though 
 not partaking so largely of the amphibious nature, is 
 yet a very aquatic animal. Like the hippopotamus, 
 it always retreats to the water for safety when alarmed, 
 and is a much greater traveller than that animal. The 
 hippopotamus is rather local, and loves to hang about 
 one spot ; whereas the Tapir is much of a wanderer, 
 and will make single journeys of wonderful extent, 
 partly by swimming and partly by walking. The 
 specimens in the Zoological Gardens are very fond of 
 
18:3 PACHYDERMATOUS WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 paddling about in their drinking trough, and splashing 
 the water over themselves, in default of a regular 
 bath. 
 
 The animal is most useful to the aborigines, who 
 eat its flesh, and employ its singularly tough skin for 
 many useful purposes. 
 
 The flesh is, as a rule, tough and stringy; but the 
 jaws of a savage are equal to the mastication of any 
 sort of meat, however tough. 
 
 It is not so welcome, however, to the civilised 
 colonists and agriculturists. It has the good taste 
 to prefer grain and garden crops to the wild and com- 
 paratively coarse vegetation of its native country, and 
 is rather apt to make great havoc in fields and gardens. 
 Unless cultivated grounds are very strongly fenced, 
 the Tapir will be sure to enter them. Trusting to its 
 great weight to break down the fence, and to its 
 tough skin to keep it from harm, it rushes against the 
 enclosure, and, if it should force its way through the 
 barrier, does infinite harm by treading down as well 
 as eating the crops. 
 
 Like the capybara, which inhabits the same rivers, 
 the Tapir is a wonderful adept at hiding among the 
 reeds and foliage of the river- bank. Generally, it 
 lies so concealed through the day, and is so well 
 hidden, that a practised eye is required to detect it. 
 Indeed, so well hidden is the animal, in spite of its 
 large size, that a traveller has often been startled 
 while walkirg along the banks of a stream, by the 
 sudden rush of a Tapir into the water ; the animal 
 having been almost at his very feet before it would 
 move. 
 
THE TAPIR. 1S7 
 
 It is remarkable, by the way, how completely some* 
 of our largest animals can hide themselves, owing to 
 their capacity of resembling surrounding objects. 
 Take, for example, the elephant, the giraffe, and the 
 buffalo. The elephant, although standing some ten 
 feet in height, and weighing many tons, can conceal 
 himself so effectually in a forest, that a hunter may be 
 near enough to touch him with a stick, and yet not 
 even catch a glimpse of his vast form. Not only that, 
 but the hunter may be among a herd of elephants, 
 and never be able to see one of them sufficiently for 
 a shot. 
 
 Then there is the giraffe. Any one would have 
 thought that so conspicuous an animal as this, which 
 rears its lofty head some eighteen feet from the 
 ground, must be visible at a great distance ; yet, 
 when it is among the trees upon which it feeds, it 
 bears so close a resemblance to them, that not only 
 white hunters, but even the natives, have failed to 
 distinguish them; and have sometimes been so com- 
 pletely deceived as to mistake the trees for giraffes. 
 
 As to the buffalo, whether it be the long-horned 
 arnee of India, or the thick-fronted buffalo of Southern 
 Africa, it has a way of concealing itself so that ib is 
 quite unseen, and then rushing out angrily at the 
 traveller who happens to disturb it. 
 
 1 have already alluded to the size and weight of 
 the Tapir. Now, as the animal only averages some 
 four feet in height at the shoulder, it may scarcely 
 seem entitled to be called a large one. But it is very 
 heavily and stoutly made, the body is thick, and the 
 legs are short, so that it is far more bulky than it 
 
188 PACHYDERMATOUS WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 appears to be at first sight. The feet of the Tapir are 
 very curiously constructed, so that their prints upon 
 the muddy banks of the river look very much as if 
 they had been made by some gigantic bird. 
 
 The Malayan species much resembles its American 
 relative in general habits, except that it seldom, if 
 ever, swims, but walks on the bed of the river. 
 
 BABYROUSSA (Bobirussa Alfurus). 
 
 Several of the swine may be ranked among the 
 partial water trespassers, the first of which is the 
 Babyroussa of Malacca. 
 
 The male of this animal often grows to a very large 
 size, and is really a formidable being. It is armed in 
 a very singular manner. The lower jaw possesses 
 tusks like those of the ordinary boar, except that they 
 are very much longer so long, indeed, that they pro- 
 ject very far above the upper surface of the snout. 
 
 Now, even with his comparatively short tusks, the 
 common wild boar is a dangerous foe. In India, the 
 natives think the animal quite as formidable as the 
 tiger ; for it is nearly as active, and can kill a man 
 with a single stroke of its tusks. When, therefore, we 
 see a boar as large as an ordinary donkey, and with 
 enormously developed tusks, it is evident that the 
 animal must be a terrible antagonist, if its activity 
 and courage correspond to its armature. 
 
 Besides these tusks of the lower jaw, the Baby- 
 roussa possesses a second pair, which proceed from 
 the upper jaw, and which are very curiously formed. 
 
BA.BYROUSSA. 189 
 
 The sockets in which they are developed are curved 
 in such a way as to give the tusks an upward, instead 
 of a downward turn. They actually pass through 
 a pair of holes in the upper lip, and often grow to so 
 great a length, that their points almost touch the 
 forehead. The object of these remarkable tusks is at 
 present unknown, although the fact of their presence 
 is a proof that they subserve some definite purpose. 
 Generally, tusks are used as weapons ; but those of 
 the adult male Babyroussa are quite unavailable for 
 this purpose, as the points are so close to the forehead 
 that they cannot make the slightest wound. Indeed, 
 they only interfere with the action of the tusks of the 
 lower jaw. 
 
 Some persons have thought that they are intended 
 as safeguards to the eyes when the animal is forcing its 
 way through the thick underwood. Perhaps they may 
 serve this purpose ; but that it is not the real object 
 of the tusks, is evident from the fact that the female, as 
 well as the male, has to force her way through under- 
 wood, and yet does not possess tusks in either jaw. 
 
 The Babyroussa is one of the water-lovers, and has 
 many of the habits which have been narrated as be- 
 longing to the tapir and capybara. Like these 
 animals, it frequents the banks of rivers, and hides 
 itself among the foliage. Even when kept in cap- 
 tivity it preserves the habit, and is fond of gathering 
 up the litter into a corner, and then backing itself 
 into the heap with a movement very similar to that 
 by which a crab works its way beneath the sand. 
 
 I have often seen a Babyroussa at the Zoological 
 Gardens perform this feat. The animal wriggles its 
 
190 PACHYDERMATOUS WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 way perseveringly among the litter; and, when it is 
 satisfied with its position, gives a grunt of satisfaction, 
 and then sinks on the ground. The litter closes over 
 it, and the animal is so perfectly concealed, that even 
 though it has been seen in the act of burrowing, it 
 can scarcely be detected. 
 
 If alarmed, it makes for the water, and swims off; 
 and I have been told by a traveller who had been 
 often brought into contact with it, that the animal can 
 swim for a very long distance with perfect ease. 
 Large herds of this formidable animal are often found 
 in the swampy portions of Malacca. 
 
 THE BOSCH VARK (Choiropotamus A/ricanus). 
 
 The lower figure on Plate II. represents another of 
 the water-loving swine, called by the African settlers 
 the Bosch Vark, or Bush Hog. The generic name of 
 choiropotamus, or river hog, alludes to its aquatic 
 habits, just as does that of hippopotamus, or river 
 horse, to similar habits in another denizen of the same 
 land. 
 
 It is a handsome animal, being, unlike the gene- 
 rality of pigs, variegated in colour, ' the chief hues 
 being ruddy brown and white, and the hair being very 
 long. All these semi water trespassers appear to have 
 very similar habits. They are great adepts at hiding 
 themselves, and will spend a considerable portion of 
 their time in lying concealed arrxong the herbage. 
 Each individual seems to have its regular den or hiding- 
 place, and, if it be disturbed, it rushes angrily at tho 
 intruder. Like the babyroussa, the Bosch Vark asso- 
 
THE BOSCH VARK. 191 
 
 ciates in herds, and the natives are alwa} r s chary of 
 disturbing them, knowing that the wounds inflicted by 
 their tusks are dangerous, and not easily healed. 
 
 A very fine specimen of an allied animal, the Red 
 River Hog (Potamochoerus penicillatus) was sent to the 
 Zoological Gardens about eleven years ago. This is a 
 native of Western Africa, and is a very handsome 
 animal. The head is enormously long, and so are the 
 ears, which are tipped with a brush-like tuft of long 
 hairs, thus earning for the animal the title of 'penicil- 
 latus, or pencilled. These tufted ears are used by the 
 hog much as a horse uses its tail, and are switched 
 sharply about for the purpose of driving away the flies. 
 Putting aside its rather grotesque form, the Red River 
 Hog is a handsome animal, with a rich chestnut coat, a 
 large black patch on the forehead, and a snowy- white 
 stripe down the back. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 ial and gtmtoimnafous 
 
 YAPOCK OPOSSUM (Cheironectes Yapock). 
 
 EVEN the marsupial group i.e., those animals which 
 carry their young in natural pouches is not without 
 its aquatic representative, which we find in the Yapock 
 Opossum of Tropical America. 
 
 This remarkable animal departs in many ways from 
 the structure and habits of its kin. As a rule, the 
 opossums are lovers of trees, traversing them as 
 actively as the squirrels, and securing themselves by 
 their long, prehensile tails, which they twist round the 
 branches after the fashion of the spider-monkeys of 
 the same country. Indeed, so powerful is the grasp 
 of the tail that the animal often feeds while suspended, 
 holding the food to its mouth by means of its fore 
 paws. And if it be shot while hanging, it will often 
 retain its hold until decomposition sets in, and loosens 
 the tense muscles. 
 
 They are all predacious animals, and, whenever 
 they find their way to the farm-yard, work terrible 
 destruction among the poultry. 
 
THE YAPOCK OPOSSUM. 193 
 
 It is, therefore, rather startling to find that there 
 is a species of opossum which cannot even climb a 
 tree, which obtains its prey in the water, whose feet 
 are modified into oars, and whose tail acts as a rudder. 
 Such, however, is the Yapock Opossum, a handsome 
 creature, with a coat of light grey, blotched with great 
 bars and patches of black. All the paws are webbed, 
 but the fore paws have the web extending only as far 
 as the first joints, so that they can be used after the 
 manner of hands. This structure, however, renders 
 them incapable of being employed in traversing the 
 branches of trees, as is done by the terrestrial, or, I 
 may rather say, the arboreal opossum. Even the shape 
 of the animal is unlike that of the other opossums, and, 
 to a practised eye, at once indicates its aquatic character. 
 The toes of the hind feet are much lengthened, 
 and, as they are webbed down to the claws, they form 
 very effective instruments of propulsion. By their aid, 
 the Yapock can swim so swiftly and actively that it 
 can chase and capture even the fish in their own 
 element, and, indeed, has been captured in a fish-trap. 
 The animal dived into the trap in pursuit of the fish, 
 and, being unable to extricate itself, was drowned. 
 
 Aquatic insects, Crustacea, and similar creatures, 
 form part of the Yapock' s food. Perhaps the nature 
 of its food may have some connection with the curious 
 fact that the mouth is furnished with cheek-pouches, 
 like those of the monkeys. These pouches are very 
 large, extending completely along the side of the head, 
 and are supposed to be given to the animal for the 
 purpose of enabling it to gather a store of water- 
 insects, and to take them home to its young. 
 
 13 
 
194 MARSUPIAL WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 Like most aquatic animals of small size, it resides 
 in burrows which it digs in the bank, the opening 
 being beneath the surface of the water. 
 
 In this remarkable animal we see, therefore, a most 
 instructive instance of the manner in which a compara- 
 tively slight modification of structure can transform an 
 arboreal into an aquatic animal, and enable it to live 
 with completely changed habits. Instead of traversing 
 trees, it swims and dives through the water. It seeks 
 its prey in the river, and not on the shore ; and, in- 
 stead of making its home, as the terrestrial opossums 
 do, in the hollow of a tree, or even usurping that of a 
 squirrel or some other animal that makes a warm and 
 snug nest, it excavates for itself a burrow in the bank 
 of the river, just after the fashion of the common 
 water rat of our own country. 
 
 Before leaving the marsupials, I should like to say 
 a few words upon another marsupial trespasser, 
 although it trespasses in another direction. Assuming 
 the monkeys to be the type of arboreal animals, we 
 have the remarkable fact that by very slight modifica- 
 tions of structure, an essentially terrestrial marsupial 
 animal becomes changed into an arboreal trespasser. 
 We have already seen how the arboreal opossum can 
 take an aquatic form, and we shall now see how the 
 kangaroo itself can become arboreal. 
 
 I allude to the famous Tree Kangaroo (Dendrologus 
 ursinus). This very remarkable animal has the fore 
 paws much longer, and the hind legs much shorter, 
 than is the case with those species which have only to 
 traverse the ground. The black claws are peculiarly 
 long and rather curved. 
 
THE DUCKBILL. 195 
 
 That a kangaroo should be able to traverse the 
 branches of a tree is so extraordinary a fact that 
 many people refused to believe its possibility until 
 positive proof was given of the animal by a living 
 specimen at the Zoological Gardens. Its cage was 
 fitted wifch a large tree-branch, such as is supplied to 
 the leopards, and it was a very curious sight to watch 
 the animal skipping about the boughs as lightly and 
 securely as if it had been a squirrel. It retained 
 many of the habits of its wild state, notably that of 
 sitting motionless for long periods, as if asleep, but, 
 when roused to action, leaping about with astonishing 
 quickness. 
 
 I imagine that these habits tend to its preservation. 
 The dark-brown colour of the fur bears so close a 
 resemblance to the hue of the branches that, even when 
 the animal is in a cage, and the observer knows where 
 to look, he will not at once discriminate between the 
 tree and the animal. Its habit of stillness will, there- 
 fore, account for its preservation from the eyes of 
 enemies, while its exceeding quickness and agility 
 when in motion, will enable it to escape from almost 
 any foe except man. 
 
 DUCKBILL (Platypus anatinus). 
 
 We will now return to our mammalian watei 
 trespassers, the last of which is the celebrated Duck- 
 bill, called Mullingong or Tambreet by the natives, and 
 Water- mole by the colonists. 
 
 Not for a moment could anyone doubt the aquatic 
 nature of the animal, for its thick and water-proof fur, 
 its deeply-webbed feet, and its oddly- shaped head, 
 
196 MONOTREMATOUS WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 which looks almost exactly like that of a duck all 
 point to the fact that it passes much of its time in the 
 water. 
 
 In this animal, as well as in that which was just 
 described, the protection of colour is very considerable. 
 As it floats on the surface of the water, it bears an 
 almost exact resemblance to a bunch of loose weeds, 
 and, as it has a habit of allowing itself to drift with 
 the stream, the resemblance is so close that it can 
 hardly be detected. In fact, it is only when the animal 
 begins to paddle that the slight rippling motion which 
 it makes in the water leads to its detection. As, more- 
 over, it does not expose itself in daylight, but chooses 
 the dusk of the evening for its wanderings, it is ren- 
 dered still more indistinguishable by the fading light. 
 
 Dr. Bennett has given in his " Gatherings of a 
 Naturalist in Australia," a very interesting account of 
 the habits and appearance of the animal, together with 
 an admirable coloured illustration. 
 
 In the first place, the stuffed specimens which are 
 usually seen give but little idea of the real form and 
 contour of the Duckbill. The most conspicuous part 
 of the creature namely, the bird-like beak, is always 
 black, flat, and withered ; whereas in the living animal 
 it is rounded, fleshy, and of a pinkish colour. It is 
 used as a tactile organ, and is evidently well furnished 
 with nerves, the animal paddling with it in the mud 
 just as a duck does, and extracting from it the aquatic 
 insects and molluscs on which it feeds. Like the 
 yapock opposum, it is furnished with large pouches on 
 either side of its cheeks. 
 
 Dr. Bennett succeeded in capturing several of these 
 
THE DUCKBILL. 197 
 
 animals alive, and so had many opportunities of watch- 
 ing their movements. With the aid of some natives, 
 he succeeded in digging a full-grown female out of the 
 burrow in which she lived, and, after it had become a 
 little used to captivity, experimented upon it. Taking 
 the precaution to fasten a long string to its hind leg, 
 he allowed it to swim about in a pond. It at once 
 made for the spot where aquatic weeds were floating, 
 and ranged between them and the weeds of the bank, 
 thrusting its beak among them, and evidently extract- 
 ing food. 
 
 It took no notice of insects which had fallen into 
 the water and were fluttering on the surface, but 
 restricted itself to those which it obtained from the 
 mud. The movements of the beak were noticed to l>r 
 exactly like those of the duck's bill while feeding. 
 Having no teeth, but only four grooved bony plates 
 which act like mills, it cannot eat hard or large 
 morsels, and this is probably the reason why the float- 
 ing insects were disregarded. 
 
 After a while, it climbed up the bank and began to 
 clean its fur, in which both the hind feet and the beak 
 were brought into requisition the latter being used 
 just like the beak of a bird among the feathers, and 
 producing a beautiful gloss on the fur. 
 
 Stuffed specimens also distort the whole shape of 
 the body. In such specimens the skin is stuffed as 
 full of tow as a sausage of meat, and the body is almost 
 round; but, in the living specimen, the skin is 
 peculiarly loose, and forms a large fold along each side, 
 almost as conspicuous as that of the flying squirrel. 
 in consequence of this structure, the animal can force 
 
198 MONOTREMATOTJS WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 itself through an aperture which seems hardly capable 
 of admitting an animal of half its size, and if held in 
 the hand, it can scarcely be retained there, slipping 
 through the grasp in a most uncanny fashion. It feels, 
 as Dr. Bennett says, as if the animal were enclosed in 
 a thick fur bag. When moving on land, the extreme 
 looseness of the skin gives the Duckbill a singularly 
 uncouth appearance, and neither dogs nor cats will 
 touch it, the former barking at it, and the latter 
 running away in alarm. 
 
 Dr. Bennett's account of his first sight of a Duck- 
 bill is graphic and interesting : 
 
 "The sun was now near its setting, when, at a 
 more quiet part of the river (knowing as I did the 
 crepusculous nature of the animals), I endeavoured to 
 obtain a sight of the shy OrnithorhyncJms paradoxus. 
 Those only who are anxious to view and investigate 
 the works of nature, either in the peculiar forms of 
 the animals or the surpassing beauty and variety of 
 the vegetable kingdom, can appreciate the sense of 
 enjoyment experienced on seeing in their native 
 country objects which, before, were known only from 
 vague description. 
 
 "At a tranquil part of the river, called by the 
 colonists a ' pond/ on the surface of which numerous 
 aquatic plants were growing profusely, or in places of 
 this description, the water moles were most commonly 
 seen, seeking their food among the plants, whilst the 
 shaded banks afforded them excellent situations for 
 excavating their burrows. 
 
 " We remained stationary on the banks, with gun 
 in rest, waiting their appearance with some degree of 
 
THE DUCKBILL. 199 
 
 patience ; and it was not long before my companion 
 quietly directed my attention to one of these animals 
 on the surface of the water, not far distant from the 
 bank on which we were then standing. In such 
 circumstances they may be readily recognized by 
 their dark bodies just seen level with the surface, 
 above which the head is slightly raised, and by tho 
 circles made in the water around them by their 
 paddling action. 
 
 " On seeing them, the spectator must remain 
 perfectly stationary, as the slightest noise or move- 
 ment will cause the timid creature instantly to dis- 
 appear, so acute are they in sight or hearing, or 
 perhaps in both; and they seldom reappear when 
 once frightened. 
 
 " By remaining perfectly quiet, however, when the 
 animal is paddling about, it is possible to obtain an 
 excellent view of its movements on the water; ib 
 seldom remains longer than one or two minutes play- 
 ing on the surface, but dives, and reappears a short 
 distance above or below the place at which it was, 
 observed to descend. 
 
 " Although the animal may ' come up ' close to 
 the place where the sportsman is standing, it would 
 be useless to attempt to level the gun, for that action 
 alone would cause its instantaneous disappearance; 
 but, after waiting patiently until the animal dives, 
 and watching the direction in which it sinks, prepara- 
 tion must be made to receive it with the discharge of 
 the piece instantly on its reappearance at the surface, 
 which when it descends unfrightened is almost cer- 
 tain to take place in a short time. 
 
200 MONOTREMATOUS WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 " A near shot is requisite, a distant one being 
 almost hopeless ; and the aim should be invariably 
 directed afc the head, in which part the shots are more 
 likely to take speedy effect than in the loose, dense 
 integuments of the body, which the charge is unable 
 to penetrate. I have seen the skull shattered by the 
 force of the shot, when the integuments covering it 
 have scarcely suffered injury. 
 
 " If the water is very clear, the course of the 
 animal beneath its surface after diving can be dis- 
 tinctly seen; but as the places frequented by it 
 usually abound in river-weeds, it is seldom noticed in 
 a clear part of the river. On diving, they never rise 
 again at the same place ; but it is not difficult, with 
 a little experience in sporting for these animals 
 to judge with tolerable accuracy where they may 
 come up." 
 
 Aquatic as is this animal, it cannot endure a long 
 immersion ; and is in the habit of coming ashore at 
 intervals. Dr. Bennett found that if a Duckbill be 
 kept in deep water for a quarter of an hour or 
 twenty minutes, it is so much fatigued that it would 
 soon perish from exhaustion. In consequence of 
 ignorance on this subject, some of the earlier attempts 
 to keep the animal alive proved to be failures. When 
 the Duckbill was taken, its captors placed it in a tub 
 with water, and then were very much surprised to 
 find that by the next morning it was lying drowned 
 if the tub were half full of water ; and had scrambled 
 out and escaped if it were full enough to allow the 
 animal to get a foot upon the edge of the vessel. 
 
 He also found that the longest time that they 
 
THE DUCKBILL. 201 
 
 could endure below the surface of the water without 
 requiring to breathe was a little more than seven 
 minutes. Some specimens which he had in captivity, 
 used to sink to the bottom, and lie there quietly, 
 their position being only indicated by a bubble of air 
 rising occasionally to the surface. After a time they 
 would gradually rise in the water, just protruding 
 their nostrils for a few seconds, and again sink to the 
 bottom. Sometimes they float almost entirely im- 
 mersed, only the part of the beak containing the 
 nostrils being left out of the water. Under these 
 circumstances, the nostrils are often annoyed by 
 floating dust, or other substances ; and, if they cannot 
 be cleared off by a sharp ejection of the breath, the 
 bill is carefully washed. 
 
 At the base of the beak there is a fold of skin, of 
 which Dr. Bennett writes as follows : 
 
 " The use of the fold or lappet which falls back 
 over the fore part of the head and throat, may be to 
 prevent the mud, into which these creatures thrust their 
 beak, from injuring the surrounding fur; or, what is 
 more probable, protect the eyes from injury during 
 the time that they are burrowing in the earth. The 
 nostrils are situated at the upper surface of the beak, 
 near its extremity. 
 
 " The formation of the lips enables the animal to 
 strain the water from its food, which is then conveyed 
 into two rather capacious cheek-pouches. As regards 
 the use of these, Professor Owen observes that any ' air- 
 breathing, warm-blooded animal, which obtains its 
 food by the capture of small aquatic animals while 
 submerged, must derive great advantage from the 
 
202 MONOTRKMATOU8 WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 structure which enables it to transfer them quickly to 
 a temporary receptacle, whence they may be extracted 
 and masticated whilst the animal is floating on the 
 surface of the water, or at rest in its burrow/ 
 
 " These animals have horny teeth on the toDgue. 
 On the back part of this organ there is a bulb, which 
 serves to prevent the passage of food collected in the 
 mouth, together with the water, into the gullet, and 
 to direct the former into the temporary receptacles, 
 the cheek pouches, which have an opening on each 
 side, at the back part of the mouth. 
 
 " In these I have found the food well comminuted, 
 mingled with fine gravel, of the consistence of mud ; 
 the food being composed of debris of insects and 
 small shell-fish, with mud and gravel to aid digestion. 
 I have also found the whole length of the alimentary 
 canal filled with mud or sand, together with fragments 
 of food ." 
 
 I may here mention that the peculiar shape of the 
 head is obtained by the development of certain bones. 
 The upper jaw is formed from the intermaxillary bones, 
 which are lengthened, flattened, and turned inwards 
 at the ends ; while a similar development of the bones 
 of the lower jaw constitutes the lower mandible. In 
 the stuffed and dried specimen, the shape of these 
 bones can easily be traced through the dried skin. 
 When the skeleton is freed from the soft portions, 
 the aspect of the head is even more remarkable than 
 in the living animal, and has quite a grotesque 
 appearance about it. 
 
 Dr. Bennett mentions that his Duckbills never 
 looked so absurd as when they yawned. When they 
 
THE DUCKBILL. 203 
 
 awoke, they generally stretched themselves much as 
 a cat does, thrusting out the fore paws as far as pos- 
 sible, and spreading the toes, and at the same time 
 opening their jaws to the fullest extent. The action 
 was natural enough ; but as one does not expect to 
 see a duck yawn, it was very absurd. 
 
 A casual mention has already been made of the 
 fact that the Duckbill can clamber out of a vessel in 
 which it is placed. Unfit as it may seem for perform- 
 ing such feats, the Duckbill is a capital climber a 
 faculty which is probably needed for ascending the 
 banks out of the water. A pair of young Duckbills 
 which were kept by Dr. Bennett in his house, were 
 perpetually found on the tops of book-cases, or other 
 elevated spots. At last the mode was discovered, and 
 was seen to be exactly the same as that which was 
 formerly employed by chimney-sweepers during their 
 ascent. The animal got between the wall and the 
 furniture, placed its back against the one, and its 
 feet against the other, and so managed to wriggle 
 its way upwards. I may be pardoned for repeating 
 here a personal anecdote, because it illustrates the 
 subject. 
 
 During my childhood we were accustomed to get 
 on the roof of a summer-house in exactly the same 
 way. The summer-house was within two feet or so of a 
 stable ; and, by setting our feet against the stable 
 wall, and our backs against that of the summer-house, 
 we very speedily reached the roof. This was a 
 useful accomplishment, especially in the autumn, be- 
 cause some remarkably fine Sweetwater and Black 
 Hamburg grapes were trained over the roofs of the 
 
204 MONOTREMATOUS WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 summer-house and stable, and, having a southern ex- 
 posure, ripened admirably. 
 
 The entomological reader will probably recollect 
 that the larva of the tiger-beetle acts in exactly the 
 same manner. When it ascends its perpendicular 
 burrow, it wriggles itself upwards by bending its 
 body, and pressing alternately with its back and belly 
 against the sides of the tunnel. When it wishes to 
 descend, it has only to straighten its body, and down 
 it falls by its own weight. 
 
 The animal is not only a good climber, but an 
 accomplished burrower. The fore paws, whjch are 
 such admirable instruments of propulsion in the water, 
 and aid it so well in climbing, are equally useful when 
 intended to perform the office of a spade. When the 
 animal is on land, the web collapses between the toes, 
 and leaves the claws free to perform their task of 
 digging. 
 
 Like many other aquatic animals, the Duckbill lives 
 in burrows which it excavates in the bank. These 
 burrows are often of very great length seldom less 
 than twenty feet long, and sometimes reaching the 
 great length of fifty feet. They always ascend, so 
 that the water cannot rise far into them; and they 
 have the peculiarity that there are two entrances one 
 above the surface of the water, and the other below it. 
 The former is generally about a yard or so from the 
 surface of the water, while the other is below it ; 
 this secondary passage joining the main burrow a 
 short distance from the other entrance. 
 
 Thus the animal can regain its home either by 
 water or by land. If, for example, it has been lying 
 
THE DUCKBILL. 205 
 
 on the bank, and has completed its toilet as has already 
 been described, it would naturally prefer to walk into 
 its burrow without wetting itself, and being obliged to 
 repeat the operation. But, if it were pursued, or even 
 alarmed, it would dive, and so regain its home unseen. 
 
 At the upper extremity of the burrow is the home. 
 This is always oval in form, and much larger than the 
 burrow itself. It is floored with dry weeds and similar 
 substances, and is a very comfortable residence. 
 Within this chamber the animal always sleeps, rolling 
 itself up into a ball like a hedgehog, and uttering little 
 angry growls if disturbed. In it the young ones are 
 born, and pass the first few months of their lives in safety 
 from any foe except man. Even white men, with all 
 their tools, find that to dig out a Duckbill when it has 
 taken refuge in its nest is no easy matter. The natives, 
 however, with no tools better than sharp sticks, can 
 beat the white man in digging, and, when once they 
 have made up their minds to secure the Duckbill, they 
 never fail to do so. The outer entrance to the burrow 
 is almost invariably concealed by grass or other foliage, 
 and is not easily found. 
 
 Whether or not the remarkable spur with which 
 the hind foot of the male is armed has any connection 
 with its aquatic habits, is at present unknown, and, 
 indeed, the object of the spur is altogether a mystery. 
 It exists also in an allied animal, the echidna, or 
 porcupine ant-eater, of the same country, and is 
 in both animals thought to be armed with a poisonous 
 fluid. 
 
 However, Dr. Bennett, after trying all kinds of 
 experiments on adult male Duckbills, and doing his 
 
206 MONOTREMATOU8 WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 best to get himself wounded, could not succeed even 
 in being scratched with the spur. This curious 
 instrument, by the way, almost exactly resembles 
 that of the game-cock, except that it is but loosely 
 attached, and is often kept folded back, so that it is 
 not visible unless specially sought for. 
 
 As yet, none of these animals have been brought 
 in a living state to England. They are very delicate 
 in constitution, and, unless supplied with a proper diet, 
 invariably pine away and die. Various attempts have 
 been made, but all in vain. As far as is yet known, 
 molluscs chopped up very fine furnish the best food, 
 but the animal never seems to thrive unless it can 
 forage for itself in the inud. Probably, if some speci- 
 mens could only be got safely across the sea, they might 
 find sufficient nutriment in the ponds of the Zoological 
 Gardens, but at present the voyage has proved an in- 
 superable obstacle. 
 
 The water-repelling property of the fur has already 
 been mentioned. It is a curious fact that this property 
 only exists as long as the animal is in health. This 
 was shown by the various Duckbills which have been 
 captured and kept alive. At first, while they were 
 plump and in good health, the water rolled off their fur 
 as soon as they left it, and they were almost immediately 
 dry ; but, when they began to fail in health, the fur 
 failed in proportion, became matted, and would not 
 dry. The mandibles also lost their round plumpness 
 and their beautiful pinky colour. 
 
 It is rather interesting to note that even in the 
 Duckbill the sense of humour is to be found. Dr. 
 Bennett states that his pair of young Duckbills were as 
 
THE DUCKBILL. 207 
 
 playful as kittens, sporting with each other in exactly 
 the same manner, knocking each other over, and pre- 
 tending to bite. They had even invented a game exactly 
 like our " hide-and-seek/' one of them concealing 
 itself and then calling the other to come and look for it. 
 
 Although no living specimens have yet been trans- 
 mitted, many have been preserved in spirits of wine 
 and sent over for dissection. By these means we have 
 attained to some knowledge of the economy of this 
 wonderful creature, which hardly seems to belong to 
 the same epoch as ourselves. 
 
 I recollect meeting with a dire disappointment with 
 regard to the anatomy of the Duckbill. At the dissect- 
 ing room in which I was then working, there arrived a 
 large jar of Australian creatures preserved in spirits. 
 Our exultation was great when among them was dis- 
 covered the body of a Duckbill. It was held up in 
 triumph, and we were gathering round it in extreme 
 anxiety, when an exclamation of horror and disgust 
 burst from our chief. The ingenious person who 
 placed the Duckbill in the jar had taken the precaution 
 to remove the whole of the interior, and so all our 
 anticipations were frustrated. 
 
 However, others have been more fortunate ; and, 
 what with the researches of Professor Owen in this 
 country, and the observations of Dr. Bennett in 
 Australia, several of the mysteries relating to this 
 creature have been disclosed. Others yet remain un- 
 solved, involving the distinction, or, perhaps we may 
 say in this case, the relationship, between mammalia 
 and birds. It is to be hoped that these very puzzling 
 difficulties may be soon explained, as, if this be not 
 
208 MONOTREMATOUS WATER TRESPASSEE8. 
 
 done, they will probably remain in their present state 
 of uncertainty. The spread of civilization over 
 Australia has had the same effect upon the Duckbill as 
 it has upon all wild animals, and it is much to be 
 feared that absolute extinction may.be expected. Only 
 lately, the curator of a New Zealand museum was 
 obliged to send to England for a preserved Maori's 
 head ; and it may be that specimens of the Duckbill 
 may have to be sent to Australia from this country. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 AMONG the birds there is also a graduated series 
 of water trespassers, corresponding in many ways to 
 the mammalia which have just been described. 
 
 There are none, however, which correspond with 
 the whale tribe, in living entirely in the water ; and 
 this for obvious reasons. The whales are enabled to 
 produce their young in the water ; and as the little 
 creatures are born alive and in the full enjoyment of 
 their muscular power, they can swim as soon as they 
 see the light, and can accompany their mothers. The 
 birds, however, lay eggs, which must be hatched by 
 constant and regular warmth. This requisite cannot 
 be supplied in the sea ; and, in consequence, the bird 
 is obliged to go on shore for the purpose of depositing 
 and hatching its eggs. 
 
 The most aquatic of birds are undoubtedly the 
 Penguins, which pass almost the whole of their time 
 in the water, and seldom come on shore except for 
 breeding purposes. They may therefore be considered 
 as analogous to the seals, which live almost entirely in 
 the water, but sleep on the land, and go ashore to 
 nurture their young. 
 
 14 
 
210 BIRD WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 A mere glance at the Penguin will show at once 
 that it belongs more to the water than to the land, 
 and not at all to the air; its structure having been 
 extraordinarily, though simply, modified. 
 
 Take, for example, the structure of the bones. In 
 flying birds, they are hollow, very light, and com- 
 municate with the lungs ; but in the Penguins they 
 are solid, heavy, and have no communication with 
 the lungs. 
 
 Then there are the wings, which are absolutely 
 useless for flight. In the first place, they are far too 
 small to support the bird in the air, as may be seen by 
 reference to the figures in Plate IV., where a couple 
 of Penguins are seen standing in the extraordinary 
 attitude which they adopt when at rest. The plumage 
 with which they are covered is not in the least like 
 that of flying birds, but consists of short and very 
 stiff feathers pressed closely together, and looking 
 just like scales. 
 
 Although these curiously modified wings cannot 
 be employed to raise the bird in the air, they certainly 
 aid its progress in the water ; and in them there is a 
 singular analogy to the same organs in the aquatic 
 ichneumon discovered by Sir J. Lubbock. As this 
 insect will presently be described in full, I shall only 
 refer to it in the present place. 
 
 These wings can also be employed for the purpose 
 of running on land, so that for a time the bipedal bird 
 is transformed into a quadruped. Mr. Darwin, when 
 at the Falkland Islands, saw a Jackass Penguin 
 (Spheniscus demersus) thus running about among 
 the tussocks on the side of the cliff", and moving 
 
PLATE IV. 
 
 CORMORANT, PUFFIN, AND PENGUIN. 
 
THE PENGUIN. 211 
 
 BO quickly that it might easily have been taken for a 
 quadruped. 
 
 The legs are set as far back as possible, so that 
 when the bird is at rest, it must stand quite erect, as 
 shown in the illustration. 
 
 The legs are very short, very powerful, and the 
 feet are broad and webbed, so that when they are put 
 to their proper use, they propel the bird with won- 
 derful velocity. This very structure, however, renders 
 the movements of the bird extremely awkward when it 
 is on shore. The feet have to be crossed over each 
 other at every step, and are brought down with a 
 peculiar slapping noise. This sound, by the way, is 
 produced in perfection by the common cormorant. 
 Several of these birds have been domesticated, and 
 their loud, slapping footsteps were very audible as 
 they went about the house. The albatross also, when 
 trying to walk upon the ship's deck, does just the 
 same thing. We see a somewhat similar mode of 
 progress, though not carried out to such an extent, in 
 the ducks, geese, and swans. 
 
 This attitude, and the peculiar shuffling waddle, 
 are utilized by the bird in a very singular manner. 
 Being unable, from its peculiar form, to sit on its eggs 
 in the manner adapted by most birds, it holds the 
 egg firmly between its legs. Then, if disturbed, it 
 shuffles off, carrying the egg with it ; and keeping it 
 in its place by the pressure of the short, stiff tail 
 feathers, which are partly bent under it. When 
 hatched, the young is fed by both parents, who are 
 so persevering in their task, that they become quite 
 thin, while the little Penguin grows rapidly into a 
 
212 . BIRD WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 downy ball of fat. No bird appears to have any par- 
 ticular nest, but there is a sort of general nest, com- 
 posed of loose sticks. 
 
 Just as the old sailor could never see any use in 
 land except to furnish ships, spars, rigging, and pro- 
 visions, so the Penguin seems to think that but for 
 the necessity of egg hatching, the land is rather a 
 nuisance than otherwise. 
 
 Indeed, Mr. Gr. Bennett, to whom we are indebted 
 for much of our knowledge respecting these remarkable 
 birds, has met with them at sea, not only out of sight 
 of land, but far from any land known to geographers. 
 Now, when it is remembered that the bird cannot fly 
 an inch, and that all that distance must be traversed 
 by swimming, the natatory powers of the Penguin are 
 very strikingly shown. Indeed, the seal itself is not 
 more at ease in the water than is the Penguin. 
 
 The analogy between the marine mammal and bird 
 is further shown by the fact that their food is of a 
 similar character, and obtained in the same way, 
 namely, by fair chase; and it is remarkable that 
 in each case, the trespasser upon the water is superior 
 in speed and agility to the rightful denizens thereof. 
 But, whereas the food of the seal consists mostly of 
 fish, that of the Penguin is found^ to consist almost 
 entirely of cuttles, the indigestible beaks of which are 
 found in the rapidly digesting stomachs of the birds. 
 I may here remark that similar remains have been 
 found within the fossil skeletons of extinct reptiles of 
 the ancient world, showing that they also fed upon 
 cuttles, and, like the Penguins, could not digest the 
 beaks, nor the scales of sundry fishes which were 
 
THE PENGUIN. 213 
 
 found accompanying the cuttle beaks, both being 
 made of very similar material. 
 
 In one or two remarkable instances, when Dr. 
 Buckland made those discoveries in geology which 
 scattered terror and mistrust among those who had 
 not sufficient mental capacity to understand their real 
 bearings, even the ink-bag of the cuttle was pre- 
 served; and with the ink of a creature that had been 
 dead for more thousands of years than we know, the 
 portrait of its destroyer was taken, and the description 
 of the remains written. So perfect, indeed, was the 
 preservation of the ink, that a professional artist to 
 whom the drawing was shown, asked where such ink 
 could be purchased. 
 
 Perhaps the reader may think that the Penguin has 
 an easier task than the seal in procuring food, the 
 former feeding chiefly on molluscs, and the latter on 
 fish. But these same molluscs, called cuttles, or squids , 
 are most active creatures ; darting through the water 
 with a rapidity that almost baffles the eye, and having 
 such a tremendous power of impetus, that they have 
 been known to spring completely over a ship. We 
 shall refer to this subject again, when we come to the 
 Air Trespassers. So, if there be any difference in the 
 powers of the two creatures, the bird has rather the 
 advantage over the mammal. 
 
 When they do go on shore, the Penguins take no 
 more exercise than they can possibly avoid ; and, for 
 the most part, stand motionless in lines so accurately 
 drawn, that any regiment of soldiers might be proud 
 of their dressing. 
 
 The most curious part of this proceeding is, how- 
 
214 BIRD WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 ever, the distinctions of rank which are carried out by 
 the birds. Instinctively, they divide themselves into 
 great masses, according to their age, sex, and con- 
 dition. For example, as Mr. Bennett says, " The 
 young birds are in one situation, the moulting birds in 
 another, the sitting hens in a third, the clean birds in 
 a fourth, etc. And so strictly do birds in similar 
 condition congregate, that should a bird that is moult- 
 ing intrude itself among those which are clean, it is 
 immediately ejected from among them" 
 
 I suppose that after the moult is complete, and the 
 ejected bird takes its place with the full-feathered 
 brigade, none of them would be more zealous in driving 
 out any Penguin that still wanted a few feathers to be 
 completely attired. We all know that a man who has 
 just escaped being blackballed when he desired admis- 
 sion to a club, becomes one of the most uncompromis- 
 ing handlers of the black ball himself, and the strictest 
 scrutinizer into the antecedents of every new candidate 
 for admission. 
 
 When the Penguin is in its natural element, the 
 sea, its movements are full of spirit and grace. It 
 feels this contrast so much, that if it be disturbed 
 when on land, it makes its way to the sea through all 
 obstacles. Mr. Darwin gives an interesting account 
 of its behaviour when cut off from its natural element, 
 
 " One day, having placed myself between a Jackass 
 Penguin and the water, I was much amused by watch- 
 ing its habits. It was a brave bird, and until reaching 
 the sea, it regularly fought and drove me backwards. 
 Nothing less than heavy blows would have stopped 
 him. Every inch gained he firmly kept, standing 
 
THE PENGUIN. 215 
 
 close before me, erect, and determined. When thus 
 opposed, he continually rolled his head from side to 
 side, in a very odd manner, as if the power of vision 
 only lay in the anterior and back part of each eye. 
 
 The bird is commonly called the Jackass Penguin, 
 from its habit, while on shore, of throwing its head 
 backwards, and making a loud, strange noise, very like 
 the braying of that animal. When at sea and fishing, 
 it comes to the surface for the purpose of breathing, 
 with such a spring, and dives again so instantaneously, 
 that I defy any one at first sight to be sure that it is 
 not a fish leaping for sport. 
 
 Vast multitudes of these birds herd together, and 
 so regular is their arrangement, and so still their 
 attitude, to which allusion has already been made, 
 that they have more than once been mistaken for 
 regiments of disciplined soldiers, drawn up at " at- 
 tention ! " 
 
 The extraordinary noise which they make soon 
 dissipates the deception, by means of the ear. Not 
 only do they produce that remarkable sound which has 
 earned for one species the popular title of " jackass/' 
 but both parents and child are very noisy when the 
 latter is being fed. Perhaps my readers may have 
 heard the loud, chattering sounds which are produced 
 by starlings under the same circumstances ; and if so, 
 they can comprehend what a noise can be made by the 
 Penguin, with its superior power of vocalization. 
 The mother bird always precedes the act of giving 
 the food with a loud clattering sound, which lasts for 
 about a minute ; and after the food has been given, 
 makes a similar clatter. Captain Fitzroy, who saw 
 
216 BIED WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 the Jackass Penguins in great numbers at Noir Island, 
 believes that those birds who are moulting, and cannot 
 therefore procure food for themselves, are fed by their 
 fully-feathered companions, as if they were young and 
 helpless. 
 
 AUKS. 
 
 Perhaps the bird which comes, or rather, which 
 came, next to the penguin in its aquatic power, is the 
 Great Auk (Alca impennis) . 
 
 This is one of the species which has become extinct 
 by the agency of man within the present generation, 
 just as did the Philip Island parrot of Australia (Nestor 
 productus) after it, and the dodo some years before it. 
 This extinction of species is one of the most curious 
 problems of zoology, especially when it takes effect on 
 such birds as the magnificent cockatoo, called the 
 Philip Island parrot, and the great auk. It can easily 
 be understood how a large, fat-bodied, slow-paced 
 bird like the dodo should be rapidly extirpated, 
 especially as it was unable to fly, and the flesh was 
 very good to eat. Moreover, the bird was a local one, 
 and its extirpation was accomplished by sailors, the 
 least accustomed of all men to weigh the future con- 
 sequences of present acts. 
 
 But the case is different with the other two birds. 
 Take, for example, the Philip Island parrot. Fifteen 
 years ago, whilst describing this bird, I mentioned 
 that " it may probably become extinct at no distant 
 period, as its singularly shaped beak renders it an 
 
AUKS. 217 
 
 object of attraction to those who get their living by 
 supplying the dealers with this and other objects of 
 natural history ; and its disposition is so gentle and 
 docile, that it readily accommodates itself to captivity." 
 The bird is now, as far as is known, extinct, and I 
 have reason to believe that the last specimen perished 
 even before these sentences were printed. 
 
 Still more extraordinary is the disappearance of 
 the Great Auk. Both the previously mentioned birds 
 were essentially local, the dodo inhabiting the 
 Mauritius and neighbouring isles, and the Philip 
 Island parrot being confined to the spot whence it 
 takes its name a mere islet only some five miles in 
 extent. Then the former bird was eminently sluggish, 
 and the latter neither very active nor wary. 
 
 But in the case of the Great Auk, the case is widely 
 different. It had a very wide range in Northern 
 regions, and was found io Labrador, Norway, Iceland, 
 Greenland, Spitzbergen, and even on the northern 
 coast of Scotland. Moreover, it was a singularly 
 active bird, scarcely less swift and agile than the 
 penguin, which it much resembled in general form. 
 Like that bird, it did not possess wings suitable for 
 flight, those members being reduced to a very small 
 size, and only useful as fins in the water. The feathers 
 are longer than those of the penguin, but the wing is 
 absolutely useless for aerial progress in both birds. 
 
 The specific name, " impennis," or wingless, al- 
 ludes to the very small size of the wing, though it is 
 not a really correct term. 
 
 Yet, in spite of its wide range and its extreme 
 activity in the water, it became extinct with a rapidity 
 
218 BIRD WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 that is absolutely startling. Within the memory of 
 middle-aged men, the bird was considered as a common 
 one, and in 1813 great numbers of them were killed 
 and eaten, having been captured at a place called the 
 Auk-Skar, in consequence of the multitudes of Auks 
 which used to'breed upon it. One of these birds was 
 taken alive at St. Kilda in 1822. 
 
 One day it was really almost as circumscribed a 
 time ornithologists woke up to the knowledge that 
 the Great Auk had disappeared from the face of the 
 earth. The sharpest watch was set in every place 
 which the bird had been known to visit, and expedi- 
 tions of skilled ornithologists scoured sea and land in 
 hopes of lighting upon the bird. All was in vain, and 
 the only remains of this once plentiful bird are to 
 be found in thirty-four skins and forty-two eggs, not 
 more than were taken in one day at the Auk-Skar in 
 1813. The birds were well known in the Orkneys as 
 the king and queen of the auks, but, as far as we know, 
 the living bird will never again receive a name from 
 anyone. 
 
 As is the case with most of the Auk tribe, the eggs 
 were laid on rocky shelves, or similar spots, and were 
 inaccessible to ordinary foes. None but the stout- 
 hearted cragsman, with his trusty rope, could descend 
 from the top of the cliff to the resting-place of the 
 Great Auk, or ascend from a boat. 
 
 Like the marine birds in general, it was accustomed 
 to seek its food among the fishes, and those who knew 
 its habits said that it fed chiefly upon the common 
 Lump-fish (Cyclopterus lumpus). It also lived upon 
 various Crustacea and similar creatures. It fed its 
 
AUKS. 219 
 
 young after the manner of the penguins, and the 
 young bird was accustomed to depend on its parents 
 for food long after it had attained its full growth. 
 
 The most familiar of these birds is the Little Auk, 
 commonly called the Puffin (Fratercula arctica) , so well 
 known for its enormous and brightly coloured beak, 
 the orange stripes of which are retained long after 
 death, although their brilliancy is much dulled. 
 
 In this bird the wings are well developed, so that 
 it is able to carry its prey out of the sea and bring it 
 ashore to its nest, which is usually made towards the 
 summit of a cliff. The Puffin breeds in burrows, 
 which it excavates for itself if it cannot find a de- 
 serted habitation of a rabbit, or cause one to be 
 deserted by turning the owner out, a nefarious feat 
 which it has been known to perform. Being a small 
 bird, and its wings not very large, it cannot carry large 
 fish through the air, but contents itself with little fish 
 somewhere about as large as an ordinary sprat. It 
 has a curious way of catching them all by the head, 
 and arranging them in a row along the side of its 
 beak, so that the look of the bird as it rises from the 
 water is not a little grotesque. In the centre of 
 Plate IV., the lower figure shows the bird diving in 
 chase of its finny prey, and the upper as rising and 
 carrying the sprats in its bill, as has just been 
 described. 
 
 The reader will probably have noticed how closely 
 the Puffin follows the habits of many aquatic mam- 
 malia, finding its food in the water, and its home in a 
 burrow, which it digs in the bank. The labourers 
 say that the bird makes wonderfully deep galleries, 
 
220 BIRD WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 and that persons who are walking near the edge of the 
 cliff can hear the Puffins uttering their peculiar grunting 
 cry beneath their feet. 
 
 While engaged in digging, they are so intent 
 upon their work that they can be taken by hand. 
 Generally, however, the Puffin resents vastly any 
 intrusion into its domicile, biting fiercely with the 
 sharp-edged beak, from which the bird has derived 
 the popular name of coulter-neb i.e., with a beak 
 resembling the coulter of a plough. 
 
 GREAT NORTHERN DIVER (Colymbus gladalis}. 
 
 Another of our water trespassers among the 
 birds is the Great Northern Diver. This bird is 
 seldom seen on the coast of England, being, as its 
 name implies, a northern species. 
 
 It is nearly as aquatic in its habits as the penguin, 
 and, like that bird, spends much more of its time in 
 the sea than on shore. As may be inferred from its 
 popular name, it is a great adept at diving, being 
 able to swim for a considerable distance under water, 
 and to endure a submersion of more than three minutes 
 without needing to breathe. It is said to be able to 
 swim at the rate of some seven or eight miles an hour, 
 and this is likely to be the case, as the swiftest boat 
 can scarcely approach near enough for a shot. I may 
 here mention that the generic name, " Colymbus," is 
 of Greek origin, and signifies a diver. 
 
 It obtains most of its food from the sea, but, as is 
 the case with many marine birds, is sometimes driven 
 
GREAT NORTHERN DIVER. 221 
 
 to the shore, where it has to put up with frogs, insects, 
 and such " small deer," in lieu of the fishy diet to 
 which it is accustomed. Stormy weather generally 
 forces the Diver into such straits for subsistence. 
 
 Not that it is afraid of the water, for even in the 
 roughest weather it may be seen sporting amid the 
 waves- with perfect confidence. But in stormy weather 
 the fish descend to such depths that the Diver cannot 
 catch them, especially as the darker surface of the 
 waves prevents the light from penetrating much below 
 the surface. Every swimmer is aware that whereas 
 on a calm day he can, when diving, see objects in the 
 water almost as plainly as if they were on land, even 
 a breath of wind that is sufficient to create a ripple on 
 the surface will cause a comparative darkness. 
 
 Near Oxford there is a well-known "lasher" i.e., 
 an artificial cataract that serves to carry off the 
 superfluous water above a lock. This lasher-pool was 
 always a much-frequented bathing-place, and one of 
 the feats to which we were accustomed was to jump 
 into the middle of the lasher, and be hurled along in 
 the boiling torrent until we came out in the smoother 
 water below. All who have done this have noticed 
 the regular transition from darkness to light. At first 
 the water is so dark that nothing can be seen, the 
 light being kept out by the thick foam on the surface ; 
 but it rapidly improves in lightness, and when the 
 smooth water is gained, the eyes can be used with 
 perfect ease. So, in the case of the Diver, the bird 
 is not daunted by the waves, but it is prevented 
 from seeing the fish at the depths to which they then 
 descend. 
 
222 BIRD WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 So familiar are they with the water, that they sleep 
 on its surface as safely as if they were on land, their 
 heads tucked comfortably in their shoulders, after the 
 manner of birds. Generally, a Diver descends below 
 the water by means of a sudden leap, and, if it be 
 pursued, comes to the surface and dives again with 
 such rapidity that the best marksman will hardly have 
 time for his aim. But it can also compress its body 
 sufficiently to allow itself to sink gradually, and if it 
 should take alarm and not see immediate danger, it 
 will then submerge itself until only its head remains 
 above the water. 
 
 The legs being short, and set very far back, the 
 bird has much of the attributes of the penguin when 
 on land, sitting bolt upright, and being almost as bad 
 a walker. Indeed, its gait hardly deserves the name 
 of a walk, but can only be called an awkward shuffle. 
 The long, lithe, and powerful neck enables its sharp 
 and powerful bill to be used with terrible effect among 
 the fishes, and to defend itself against foes, at whom 
 it strikes quickly and fiercely, as the heron does. 
 
 How efficient a weapon is this beak may be 
 imagined from the fact that within one of these birds 
 were found nineteen flounders and a salmon-trout. It 
 is no matter of surprise, therefore, that so voracious a 
 creature should be in great straits for food when it is 
 obliged to depend on frogs and insects for sub- 
 sistence. 
 
THE CORMORANT THE GANNET. 223 
 
 THE CORMORANT (Graculus carlo). 
 
 On Plate IV. may be seen two figures of the Cor- 
 morant. One is represented on the upper part of the 
 plate sitting on a rock and looking after the young, 
 while the other is diving into the water for the pur- 
 pose of catching fish. The skill of the bird in this act 
 is quite proverbial ; and, just as the cheetah has been 
 trained to capture antelopes on the ground, and the 
 falcon to chase birds in the air, for the use of man, so 
 has the Cormorant been trained to chase and capture 
 fish, not for its own use, but for the services of its 
 master. 
 
 As the nest of the Cormorant is always, if possible, 
 placed on some elevated spot, it is evident that the 
 wings of the bird must be developed sufficiently to 
 enable it to rise in the air though impeded by the 
 weight of its prey. Accordingly, we find that the 
 wings are large and powerful, but that they can be 
 folded to the body so closely that they offer no resist- 
 ance to the water, and allow the bird to assume that 
 nearly fish-like form which is so noticeable in many 
 diving birds. This form is well expressed in the bird 
 which is represented plunging into the water. 
 
 THE GANNET (Sula lassanea). 
 
 I mention the Gannet, not only for its skill in the 
 water, but for a most remarkable modification of its 
 structure by which it is able to obtain its prey from the 
 water. 
 
224 BIRD WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 It can dive to some depth and for some distance, 
 as is proved by the fact that it is sometimes caught in 
 the fishermen's nets, having been entangled in them 
 when chasing its prey. But it does not catch fish like 
 the birds which have already been mentioned. Their 
 usual plan is to swim about on the* surface of the water, 
 then to dive, and, if they are successful, to come to the 
 surface, swallow their prey, and dive again. 
 
 The Gannet, on the other hand, takes its prey much 
 after the fashion of the common kingfisher. It hovers 
 over the sea at some height, watching for fish. When 
 it sees a chance, it darts down into the water with 
 wonderful force, and almost invariably comes up with 
 the fish in its mouth. The osprey catches fish in a 
 somewhat similar manner, except that it does not dive 
 beneath the surface, and catches the prey with its 
 claws, and not with its beak. 
 
 It is evident, therefore, that the hawk does not 
 strike the water with such force as does the Gannet, 
 and, indeed, keeps itself, by its outspread wings, from 
 being dragged below the surface by the weight of the 
 fish which it has taken in its claws. But the Gannet 
 hurls itself into the water with such force that it 
 would injure itself by the shock, were it not protected 
 in some manner from the collision with the water. 
 This object is attained in the following simple and 
 effective manner : 
 
 I have already mentioned that the bones of flying 
 birds are hollow, and communicate with the lungs. In 
 the Gannet there is a further development of the idea. 
 Not only are the bones hollow, but the skin is hollow 
 also, if I may use such an expression. It is perforated 
 
THE GEEBES. 225 
 
 with a number of cells or sacs, varying greatly in size. 
 These sacs communicate with the lungs, and are filled 
 with air, this fact being evident at every respiration 
 which the bird makes. The reader will now see that 
 these air-sacs form an elastic cushion between the body 
 of the bird and the water, so that when it makes its 
 violent plunge, the shock is a very trifling one. 
 
 Moreover, this remarkable structure serves other 
 purposes. These cells, when fully inflated, contain 
 about one hundred and eighty cubic inches of air, and 
 therefore render the bird so buoyant, that it can float 
 securely on the roughest sea. Unlike the cormorants 
 and divers, which swim very low in the water, the 
 gannet floats on the surface like a cork. 
 
 Then it also acts as a protection against cold, and 
 enables the bird to remain at sea during weather so 
 inclement, that all other birds are driven to seek the 
 land for shelter. There are few instances in the 
 animal kingdom where a single and so simple a modi- 
 fication of structures should serve three such important 
 and yet diverse purposes as a spring- cushion, a life- 
 buoy, and a blanket. 
 
 THE GREBES. 
 
 There is a well-known tribe of aquatic birds called 
 the Grebes, of which we possess several indigenous 
 species, the best known and most common being the 
 Little Grebe, or Dabchick (Podiceps minor), a bird 
 which is represented on Cut 10. 
 
 They may at once be known by the peculiar form 
 
 15 
 
226 BIRD WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 of the feet, which are webbed like those of most 
 aquatic birds, except that the web of each toe is sepa- 
 rate, giving to the whole foot the appearance of a 
 ' ' palmated " leaf with three lobes. These birds have 
 many of the habits which belong to the penguins, 
 except that they have fairly powerful -wings, and can 
 fly for long distances. As their legs are short and 
 set very far back, and their bodies and necks are long, 
 they are very bad walkers, having much of the shuffling 
 gait which has already been noticed in the penguin 
 and other sea birds. Indeed, the Grebes do not 
 trouble the land much with their presence, and, except 
 when engaged in sitting on their eggs, pass nearly the 
 whole of their time in the water. 
 
 Several other species of Grebe inhabit these 
 islands, such as the Great Crested Grebe (Podiceps 
 cristatus), and the Eared Grebe (Podiceps auritus), 
 either of these popular names being equally appro- 
 priate to each bird, the ears deserving the name of a 
 crest, and the double crest that of ears. 
 
 As to the Dabchick, it is a queer little bird, with an 
 oddly contradictory way about it. It is at the same 
 time one of the shyest and boldest of birds. It fears 
 the presence of man, and yet frequents his neighbour- 
 hood in a way that few bolder birds would copy. I 
 have often noticed, when travelling by railway, that 
 in the little ponds which are so often found on the 
 edge of the line, there are two aquatic birds namely, 
 the Water Hen and the Dabchick, neither of them 
 being in the least disturbed by the swiftly-rushing 
 train, with all its accompaniments of shriek, roar, 
 rattle and thunder. 
 
CUT 10. WATEKHEN AND DABCHICK. 
 
THE GREBES. 227 
 
 It is perfectly easy to watch the habits of the birds. 
 The ponds which they frequent are generally fringed 
 with reeds, rushes, and other vegetation. Supposing 
 any one to walk casually in the direction of one 
 of these ponds, he might be absolutely unaware of 
 the presence of the Dabchick. On seeing him, or even 
 on hearing his footstep, the bird would sink itself in 
 the water, only keeping its beak above the surface, 
 and merging its outline so well among the weeds and 
 their shadows, that the sharpest eye can hardly 
 see it. 
 
 So perfect is the concealment, that even if the 
 intruder be an entomologist, and engaged in the cap- 
 ture of aquatic insects, he may be working away with 
 his net for an hour or two, and yet be unsuspecting of 
 the Dabchick's presence. 
 
 Some years ago, I was greatly struck with this 
 capability. As all Oxonians know, there is in the 
 centre of the great quadrangle of Christchurch, popu- 
 larly called "Tom Quad," in honour of the domed 
 campanile in which the bell, " Great Tom/' resides, a 
 circular pond. This pond generally goes by the name 
 of " Mercury," because in olden times there was a 
 figure of that deity in the centre. I never saw him, 
 though my recollections of Tom Quad are of some 
 forty years' date, because the undergraduates bathed 
 him so often, that he was at last removed alto- 
 gether. 
 
 Now, this pond, which was originally the basin of 
 the fountain of which Mercury formed the centre, is 
 constructed of stone, and has no shelter whatever 
 around it. Some years ago several Dabchicks were 
 
228 BIRD WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 placed in this pond, so that every opportunity was 
 offered for studying their habits. 
 
 After a while, they became used to the presence of 
 man, but for a considerable time they retained their 
 natural wariness. Whenever any one approached the 
 basin, the little birds would dive instantaneously, as if 
 they had some sheltered spot to which they could 
 retreat. Shelter, however, there was none, and the 
 water was so clear that they could be seen throughout 
 the whole of their proceedings. As there was no 
 aquatic vegetation in which they could hide, the Dab- 
 chicks always made for the shaded side of the basin, 
 and, under cover of the shade, used to rise very 
 gradually to the surface. They would only just allow 
 their heads to be seen above the water, and as they 
 kept themselves closely against the dark side of the 
 basin, they would escape the observation of any one 
 who was not specially looking for them. Indeed, so 
 well were they concealed, that I have often found some 
 difficulty in pointing out the birds, though, the basin 
 being but a small one, they were only a few yards 
 distant. 
 
 Still, if any one should wish to watch the Dabchicks 
 in their wild state, he can generally do so by approach- 
 ing very quietly the pond which they frequent, and 
 sitting absolutely still. For a time he may not see a 
 single bird, but after a while the Dabchicks appear to 
 become accustomed to the motionless object which at 
 first alarmed them, and they generally make their 
 appearance and swim about as merrily as if a human 
 being were not within a mile of them. 
 
 It is noticeable, by the way, that neither birds nor 
 
THE GEEBES. 229 
 
 wild animals appear to fear human beings when they 
 are absolutely still. To lift the hand, or even to turn 
 the head, will frighten them at once ; but as long as a 
 man sits, or even stands still, the wild animals seem 
 to have no fear of him. For this reason, the scare- 
 crows that are stuck up in gardens and fields are really 
 not of the least use, for there is no bird so stupid as to 
 be deceived by them for a single minute. If the scare- 
 crow could be made so as to move its arms in the 
 wind, it might do service in frightening the birds, but 
 as it is generally made, a stump of a tree would be of 
 quite as much use. 
 
 The rapidity with which these pretty little birds 
 dive is very remarkable, especially when their move- 
 ments are quickened by alarm. But even when they 
 are diving for food or amusement, they are wonderfully 
 quick. They pop below the surface so rapidly that 
 the eye can scarcely follow them, and all that can be 
 seen is, that where the Dabchick was a moment ago, 
 nothing is left but a little circle of ripples. Then, 
 when they again reappear, they do so almost as sud- 
 denly as they vanished, popping up to the surface like 
 cork, and nodding their heads in an absurdly self- 
 satisfied manner. Should it see anything which 
 alarms it, the little bird is no sooner up than it is 
 down again, and it will not for some time afterwards 
 show itself openly. 
 
 When alarmed on land, the Dabchick, in common 
 with most aquatic birds, prefers the water to the air 
 by way of refuge. In consequence of its wonderful 
 powers of diving, it has been called doucker, or 
 ducker. As the legs are placed very far back, the 
 
230 BIRD WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 Dabchick is a bad walker an land, shuffling along with 
 a very awkward gait, although it can get over the 
 ground with some little speed. 
 
 It is usually to be found in fresh waters, but 
 during the winter time it is driven to the sea and 
 the mouths of tidal rivers for subsistence. This habit 
 has caused it to be considered by many persons as a 
 migratory bird, and, indeed, it may be held as a par- 
 tially migratory one, only that its migrations do not 
 extend beyond the limits of the country. 
 
 The general habits of all the species of Grebe are 
 very similar, and, as the Dabchick is the most familiar, 
 I have taken it as the type of the genus. I may 
 mention that in some parts of England, any Grebe is 
 called by the popular name of loon, a title which by 
 rights belongs to the Great Northern Diver. 
 
 DIPPER (Hydrobates cinclus). 
 
 The birds which have been previously mentioned 
 all belong to one great group of aquatic birds, which 
 can at once be recognized as such by their form and 
 plumage. The webbed feet, for example, would alone 
 be a definite proof that the bird is meant for the 
 water more than the land. But we will now glance at 
 two more water trespassers, one of which belongs to 
 the thrushes, and the other to the rails, neither of 
 them having the aquatic form, the peculiar plumage, 
 nor the webbed feet. 
 
 The first of these is the Dipper, our only represen- 
 tative of the ant- thrashes which are so conspicuous in 
 
THE DIPPER. 231 
 
 other countries, and some of which are so gorgeously 
 coloured. Our species does not possess the splendid 
 plumage, but is yet a pretty bird, with its dark-brown 
 back and white and chestnut breast. It is to be found 
 in most parts of England, but, on account of its soli- 
 tary and retiring habits, is not so often seen as might 
 be supposed by reason of its frequency. 
 
 It has more than one popular name, being in some 
 places called by the appropriate title of the water ouzel, 
 in consequence of its relationship to the thrush family ; 
 and in others by the less appropriate name of the 
 water crow. 
 
 The word ' ' dipper " very well expresses the move- 
 ments of the bird. It could hardly be called a diver, 
 because diving infers the power of swimming through 
 the water, while the Dipper possesses this power in a 
 very limited degree, and, as far as is known, only uses 
 it- to descend to the bed of the stream. 
 
 The generic name of Hydrobates refers to the same 
 characteristic. It is composed of two Greek words, 
 and literally signifies <f water- walker." As for the 
 specific name, cindus, it is by no means appropriate, 
 for it signifies vibration, and was, in all probability, 
 applied by Aristotle and other Greek writers to the 
 wagtail. 
 
 The ordinary manner in which the Dipper enters the 
 water is by walking into it, clinging with its large feet 
 to the stones or other objects in the bed of the stream, 
 and searching on all sides for its prey. It does not 
 remain under water for any long time, but comes to 
 the surface, swims to the shore, and is ready for 
 another dip. Sometimes it picks up the caddis- 
 
232 BIRD WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 worms, and as it is not able to pull their tough cases 
 to pieces while in the water, it takes them ashore, and 
 there extracts the fat white grub from its dwelling- 
 place. It is worthy of notice, by the way, that the 
 length and development of the feet, which do the bird 
 such service in the water, render its gait on land a 
 peculiarly awkward one. 
 
 Objections have been raised to the peculiar move- 
 ments of the Dipper while under water, and many 
 persons have doubted whether it really does walk on 
 the bottom of the stream. Their chief argument and 
 it is certainly a strong one is, that the natural 
 buoyancy of the body would cause the bird to rise to 
 the surface, so that the action of walking must be im- 
 possible. To this argument, however, it was replied, 
 that as the bird had been repeatedly seen walking 
 under water, no amount of opposite theory could alter 
 a fact. Moreover, the action of the Dipper was not 
 that of the same bird when walking on land, for in 
 the former case the bird clings to the bed of the river, 
 and by so doing is able to force its way against the 
 stream. 
 
 Another argument might also be used, which I 
 believe has not as yet been brought forward. In the 
 " Annals of Sporting/' there is a passage which seems 
 to me to afford a key to the problem. An observer 
 was watching the proceedings of five Dippers, probably 
 the parents and their three children. 
 
 "They next entered the water and disappeared, 
 but they did not all do this at the same time, neither 
 did they do it in the same manner. Three of them 
 plunged overhead instantaneously, but the remaining 
 
THE DIPPER. 233 
 
 two walked gradually into the water, and, having dis- 
 played their wings, spread them upon the surface, and 
 by these means appeared entirely to support them- 
 selves. 
 
 "In this position they continued for some time, 
 at one moment spinning themselves, as it were, two or 
 three times round, and at another desisting, and re- 
 maining perfectly motionless upon the surface ; at 
 length, they almost insensibly sank." 
 
 This last sentence is an extremely valuable one, 
 especially as the writer had no idea that he was eluci- 
 dating one of the problems of natural history. It is 
 evident that this bird, like those which have already 
 been described, has the power of contracting its body 
 at will, so as to make itself heavier than the water. 
 This being the case, the Dipper would have no diffi- 
 culty in walking under water, the supposed buoyancy, 
 on which so much stress was laid, not existing at the 
 time, and only resumed when the bird wishes to return 
 to the surface. 
 
 The food of this bird is almost wholly composed of 
 aquatic insects, molluscs, etc., though it will occa- 
 sionally eat small fish. It has already been mentioned 
 that in searching for prey, the Dipper makes its way 
 up the stream. The reason for this proceeding is 
 evident. Did the bird walk down the stream, it would 
 not see the various insects that are carried towards it 
 by the force of the water. Moreover, whenever it 
 turned over a stone in search of prey, the hidden 
 insect would be swept away from it ; while, as the 
 bird keeps its head up the stream, the prey is carried 
 into its mouth. Within the stomachs of those Dippers 
 
234 BIRD WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 that have been dissected, the remains of aquatic insects 
 are always found, chiefly consisting of the head, wing- 
 cases, and legs of various species of water beetles. 
 
 WATER HEN, OR MOOR HEN (Gdllinula 
 
 If the reader will refer to the illustration in which 
 the dabchicks are represented, he will see that near 
 them is a Water Hen engaged in looking after her eggs. 
 She may well do so, for her nest is singularly con- 
 spicuous and very large, and the eggs are usually 
 some seven or eight in number, and of considerable 
 size. It is always placed near the water, as the bird, 
 being a really aquatic one, always takes to the water 
 instinctively when alarmed. Indeed, when it is only 
 just hatched, and looking like a shapeless ball of black 
 down, out of which a head oddly protrudes itself, it is 
 much more at ease in the water than on shore, and 
 swims and dives as well as its parents. 
 
 At a little distance, the Water Hen seems to be 
 rather a plain bird in point of plumage, just as the 
 splendidly attired magpie appears to be only black 
 and white ; but when closely examined, the adult 
 male is found to be one of our handsomest English 
 birds. In its nuptial plumage, which is in the be- 
 ginning of spring, the general colour is rich dark 
 olive-green, looking a brighter hue on the sides. The 
 head and neck are deep purple, and the legs are bright 
 green, with a crimson bar just above the knee, looking 
 exactly as if the bird wore green silk stockings and 
 crimson garters. 
 
WATER HEN, OR MOOR HEN. 2o5 
 
 There is also a patch of bright scarlet on the base of 
 the yellow bill, the scarlet portion extending over the 
 forehead, and looking singularly beautiful as the bird 
 swims to and fro, nodding its head in its own peculiar 
 manner. If the weather be calm, the scarlet patch is 
 reflected in the water, and has a most curious effect, 
 seeming to rise from the depths as the bird bends its 
 head downwards, and then sink again as it raises its 
 head. A similar effect is produced by the white patch 
 on the beak of the common coot, as I have often seen 
 when watching the birds as they swam on the lake at 
 Walton Hall. Mr. Waterton never would allow a bird 
 to be molested, and, in consequence, even these birds, 
 which are generally wild and shy, allowed themselves 
 to be approached closely without showing the least 
 alarm. 
 
 The Water Hen is quite as good at concealing itself 
 as is the dabchick, and is full of artifice. I once de- 
 tected one of these birds in a very ingenious ruse. I 
 was with a friend in a boat on the Isis, near Sandford, 
 when a Water Hen that was sitting on the bank took 
 alarm, and flew into the water with the usual impetuo- 
 sity of these birds. It dived as soon as it struck the 
 water, and made as though it were intending to cross 
 to the other side of the river. Not caring particularly 
 about the bird, I happened to be looking towards the 
 bank from which it had plunged. Presently the artful 
 bird came to the surface under the shadow of the weeds 
 that overhung the bank, and quietly stole off between 
 them and the bank itself. It had doubled when under 
 water, thinking that it had induced us to fancy that it 
 was crossing to the opposite side, and that we should 
 
236 BIRD WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 never dream of looking for it on the bank which it had 
 quitted so precipitously. 
 
 I once employed the same ruse very successfully. 
 There was a game very popular at Oxford. We used 
 to jump into the river, and try to catch each other 
 under water a sort of aquatic ' ' prisoners' base/' and 
 with some of the same rules. There was one very 
 good swimmer of whom I was rather afraid, as he 
 immediately followed me. It must be remembered 
 that to catch your predecessor is easier than to avoid 
 being caught by your successor. You can see the 
 man whom you are chasing, but you do not know what 
 your pursuer is doing, or how near he may be. So, 
 as soon as I entered the water, I gave a strong curl and 
 twist of the body, so as to bring me under the bank, 
 where I held on to the lowest step of the bathing- 
 ladder. My pursuer consequently jumped over me, and 
 while he made a momentary pause, and was looking 
 for me ahead, found himself unexpectedly seized by 
 the ankle. Unfortunately, that is a trick which cannot 
 be played twice. 
 
 The Water Hen has another method of concealing 
 itself, which is even superior to the art of the dabchick. 
 When it is really anxious about its safety, and dives, 
 it swims to some place where there is a patch of weeds 
 or aquatic vegetation, and rises very slowly, with its 
 head stretched upwards. It does not allow even its 
 head to appear above the surface, but only shows the 
 beak as far as the nostrils. Bishop Stanley says that 
 when these rather combative birds fight, the van- 
 quished one acknowledges his defeat by diving and not 
 appearing again. He merely keeps his beak above the 
 
WATEE HEN, OR MOOR HEN. 237 
 
 water for the purpose of respiration until he has 
 recovered, and then makes off. 
 
 How well it can dive is evident from the fact that 
 one of these birds was caught in a net with which a 
 river was being dragged, and another was taken upon 
 a hook by Mr. Morris, who mentions that they have 
 been found upon night-lines set for fish. The first of 
 these birds was apparently dead, its feet clinging with 
 the death-grip to the meshes. It was relieved with 
 much difficulty, and laid on the ground, when it was 
 found that life was not extinct, but that the bird was 
 too weak to be able to stand. In the hope that it 
 might recover, it was placed among the flags on the 
 river bank, when it immediately sprang to its feet and 
 ran off into shelter, as if nothing had happened to it. 
 Similar examples of simulated death in the Water Hen 
 have been noticed by many observers. 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 
 As every one knows, who has paid the least attention 
 to practical Natural History, there are very many 
 insects which can almost invariably be found in the 
 water, and very seldom elsewhere. Such, for example, 
 are to be found in the great groups of water beetles, 
 water boatmen, water gnats, water scorpions, etc., etc. 
 Now as all insects breathe atmospheric air, it is evident 
 that any insect which is found in the water must be a 
 trespasser, and therefore entitled to a notice in this 
 book. These insects are, however, so numerous, that 
 I can only select one of each kind as an example of 
 the entire group. 
 
 Any one who has looked into a pond, or the still 
 parts of a stream, must have noticed the vast number 
 of beetles that inhabit the water; some spinning in 
 mazy circles on the surface, and seldom going below it ; 
 while others, with long oar- like legs, are perpetually 
 coming up from the depths below, and diving down 
 again out of sight. The general structure of all these 
 latter beetles is in all important points the same, and 
 so we will take one species as a representative of 
 them. 
 
GEEAT WATER BEETLE. 239 
 
 GREAT WATER BEETLE (Dyticus marginalis) . 
 
 It is impossible to point to a more perfect example 
 of design than this creature, which is made for two 
 elements only, namely, water and air, and is quite 
 helpless when on land. The whole of the insect is 
 covered with a very hard shelly skin, composed of the 
 horny substance called " chitine/' which is, I believe, 
 peculiar to the insect tribes. The surface of the 
 insect has such a polish, and is so hard, that to hold 
 one of these beetles in a living state is not at all an 
 easy matter ; and even when they are dead and dry, 
 they are very apt to slip through the fingers. They 
 are absolutely impervious to water, which has no hold 
 on their surface ; and, if the beetle be captured, as 
 it comes up after a dive, it will be found that not a 
 drop of water has adhered to its polished surface. 
 
 The wing-cases, or elytra, as they are technically 
 named, are very large, somewhat convex, and come 
 well over the sides, to which they cling so tightly, that 
 no water can penetrate the junction. Under the elytra 
 are the ample and powerful wings, which, in spite of 
 their size, are packed so closely as to leave space for 
 the curious structure which enables the insect to 
 remain under water for a considerable time. 
 
 The reader is probably aware that insects have no 
 lungs, and do not breathe through nostrils as do the 
 higher animals ; but that their whole body is perme- 
 ated with air tubes opening into certain apertures 
 along the sides, called spiracles. 
 
 It is evident, therefore, that the body of the insect 
 
240 INSECT WATER TEESPASSEES. 
 
 must be very light in proportion to its bulk, and must 
 have a very strong tendency to float. Accordingly, 
 any one who watches these insects will see that they 
 cannot keep themselves below the surface without 
 continuous exertion; and that as soon as they cease 
 from action, they rapidly float upwards. This buoyancy 
 has a use to which reference will presently be made. 
 
 The question now presents itself, how the supply of 
 air is to be renewed below the surface of the water. This 
 is done in exactly the way to which reference was made 
 during the description of the whales namely, by carry- 
 ing a supply[of air below the water. This supply is kept 
 in the space between the wing-cases and the body; and 
 as the spiracles open into it, the insect can take with it 
 a supply of air that is sufficient to last it for some time. 
 
 Of course, the beetle is obliged to act just as the 
 whales and seals do, i.e., come to the surface at inter- 
 vals for breath, and this it can do with great rapidity. 
 If alarmed, it just rises to the surface with its tail 
 upwards, protruding the ends of the elytra for a 
 moment, ejects the air that has been used, and takes 
 in a fresh supply. This is done with such speed, that 
 the rising to the surface and the subsequent descent 
 seem to be one and the same action. 
 
 Perhaps the reader may have noticed when looking 
 at a still pool, that bubbles of air are almost continually 
 rising to the surface. The large bubbles, which appear 
 at rare intervals, are almost entirely due to the gases 
 caused by decomposing matter at the bottom of the 
 pool. But the very small bubbles, which are scarcely 
 perceptible, except when watched for, are mostly caused 
 by the respiration of aquatic insects. The air traverses 
 
GREAT WATER BEETLE. 241 
 
 the whole of the body, and then, after having done its 
 work, is ejected in a series of tiny bubbles. So that 
 when these bubbles are seen, they will form an indi- 
 cation to the observer of the wealth of animal life that 
 exists below the surface. 
 
 Owing to the great buoyancy of the Water Beetle, 
 it is obliged, if it wishes to remain below the surface, 
 either to continue the action of diving or to cling to 
 some object which will prevent it from being floated 
 upwards. The males are furnished with a remarkable 
 apparatus for this purpose. Three joints of the fore 
 legs are very much flattened and rounded, and are 
 covered on their under surface with a great number of 
 circular suckers, which act exactly like those of the 
 cuttle-fish. These suckers cling so firmly, that, as I 
 have seen myself, they retain their hold long after the 
 death of the owner, and may be seen sticking to the 
 stones of the pond after the beetle itself has putrefied 
 and floated off. 
 
 When the Water Beetle is not alarmed or engaged 
 in the chase of prey, it is fond of floating at the 
 surface of the water with its head downwards, its 
 swimming legs stretched out at right angles to the 
 body, and the tips of its elytra just projecting in the 
 air. It is not easy to see the insect in this attitude, 
 because it is exceedingly wary, takes alarm at the least 
 movement, and dives below. On a fine summer's day, 
 it affords rather an amusing sight to steal up very 
 gently to a pond, and take up a place where the wate 
 can be observed closely. In doing this, the chief 
 precaution is to avoid throwing the shadow on the 
 water ; for so readily do these creatures take alarm 
 
 10 
 
242 INSECT WATEE TRESPASSERS. 
 
 that even the shadow of a passing bird or butterfly 
 will send them below. 
 
 If the approach has been properly made, the surface 
 of the water will be seen to be thickly studded with 
 these beetles, all lying motionless, and apparently 
 enjoying the warm sunbeams. The multitude of these 
 insects which will find room in a small pond must be 
 seen to be believed. A casual passenger will scarcely 
 know that there is a single beetle in the pond, for his 
 approach will have sent them all below, the only 
 aquatic insects visible being the whirlwigs and the 
 water gnats, who seem to be incapable of fear, and 
 traverse the surface of the water as freely as if no 
 intruder were near. 
 
 There is a little pond near my house which admi- 
 rably illustrates the habits of these insects. On a fine 
 day, the whole surface is covered thickly with these 
 creatures, scarcely any of them descending, but others 
 ascending in all parts of the pond, and immediately 
 floating motionless at the top. Then, if the spectator 
 but raises an arm, all is flurry and confusion, and the 
 water is filled with the rapidly descending insects. A 
 few moments more, and except the whirlwigs and 
 water gnats, there is not a sign of life in the pond. 
 
 The Water Beetles, of which the Great Water Beetle 
 is a type, are very numerous, and vary greatly in 
 size j some measuring a full inch in length, while 
 others are scarcely the eighth of an inch long. 
 
 They are all predacious creatures, finding their 
 food chiefly among the larvae of the various water 
 insects. They are not at all fastidious as to the pecu- 
 liar food which they eat ; and have no hesitation in 
 
THE WATER BOATMAN. 243 
 
 attacking and devouring their own kind. It is in 
 consequence of this voracity that they are furnished 
 with such powerful wings; for when they have ex- 
 hausted the supply of food in one pond they can easily 
 fly to another. 
 
 THE WATER BOATMAN (Notonectd 
 
 There is another large group of water trespassing 
 insects, which are popularly and appropriately called 
 Water Boatmen, and equally appropriately, though 
 not, perhaps, as intelligibly, by the scientific title of 
 NotouectidaB. This term will presently be explained. 
 They belong to the order called Heteroptera ; and, 
 although they agree in many points with the water 
 beetles, they are very diverse in others. 
 
 Both groups of insects pass the greater part of 
 their time in the water, find their food in the water, 
 prey upon living beings, and are exceedingly voracious. 
 Both, also, are furnished with wings, by means of 
 which they can transport themselves from one piece 
 of water to another. But they feed in a different 
 manner and swim in a different manner. 
 
 First, as to the feeding. The water beetles seize 
 their prey in- their jaws, and tear it to pieces ; the 
 mandibles being strong enough to pierce the human 
 skin and draw blood. The Water Boatman, however, 
 goes on a different principle. It has not jaws like 
 those of the water beetle ; but the parts of the mouth 
 which in an insect are numerous and complicated, are 
 modified into a short, but very sharp proboscis. When 
 
844 INSECT WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 the Water Boatman is hungry, it goes in search of some 
 unfortunate insect ; and having overtaken it, clasps it 
 in its fore legs, and draws it tightly against its head, 
 by the same action driving the proboscis into it. The 
 juices are then sucked, and when they are exhausted, 
 the Water Boatman throws off its now useless prey, and 
 goes off in search of another. 
 
 I have often watched these Water Boatmen em- 
 ployed in capturing and killing the water gnats which 
 may be seen traversing the surface of any still river or 
 pond. The water gnat is active, but seems to be 
 powerless against the Water Boatman, which rises from 
 below, clasps the unfortunate insect, and almost before 
 the eye can detect its movements, has the proboscis 
 buried in its body. 
 
 The time occupied in sucking an insect varies 
 considerably. I have often watched the process, and 
 have found that, whereas in some cases five minutes 
 is enough for a water gnat to be sucked dry, in another 
 case the operation lasts for a full quarter of an hour. 
 I apprehend that the difference of time is caused by 
 the greater or less hunger of the captor. 
 
 Although the Water Boatman is not a large insect, 
 the proboscis is strong and sharp enough to inflict a 
 severe prick upon the human hand. I fancy that in 
 some species, at all events, some kind of a poisonous 
 fluid must be injected into the wound. There is one 
 'of these insects belonging to the genus Corixa, which 
 is as large as the present species, but wider and flatter. 
 I have more than once been pricked by the proboscis 
 of the Corixa, and have always found that the sharp 
 smart of the prick was followed by a dull aching pain, 
 
THE WATER BOATMAN. 
 
 215 
 
 which, very much resembled that which generally fol- 
 lows the sting of a wasp after the first pang has gone off. 
 
 Now for a few words as to the special aquatic 
 capacities of the creature. 
 
 In the first place, it has the curious habit of 
 swimming on its back. If it be taken out of the water 
 
 CUT. XI. WATER BOATMAN, WATER SCOBPION, SWIMMIN& ICHNEUMON 
 LAEVA OP GNAT, AND WHIELWIG 
 
 and examined, it will be found that the wing-cases are 
 so formed, that, when closed, they present a most 
 curious resemblance to the keel of a boat. This is not 
 the case with all Water Boatmen, for in some, such as 
 the Corixa, which has just been mentioned, the back is 
 flat. But even in these cases the boat-like form is 
 
246 INSECT WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 very perceptible, and the difference between the two 
 forms is just that of the keeled rowing-boat and the 
 keel-less canoe. 
 
 Another very remarkable point is the structure of 
 the rowing legs, or oars, as they may be called. The 
 last pair of legs are reserved for this purpose, the first 
 pair being chiefly used for catching prey, the middle 
 pair for crawling, and the last for swimming. I 
 strongly recommend the reader to capture one of these 
 insects, which may be found by hundreds in every 
 pond, and to examine the structure of their swimming 
 legs. I cannot but think that they gave the first idea 
 of oars, as used at the present day, i.e., propelling 
 instruments set at right angles to the central line of the 
 boat, having broad ends and a very powerful leverage. 
 The superior power of the oar over the paddle is the 
 reason why the latter has been gradually abandoned 
 in favour of the former. 
 
 Now, in the leg of the Water Boatman all the ele- 
 ments of the oar are found. 
 
 Firstly, there is the leverage. An oar is a lever, 
 the fulcrum of which is the rowlock, the shorter arm 
 being within the boat, and the longer outside it. The 
 shorter arm being pulled by the rower's hands, causes 
 the longer to describe a considerable arc in the water, 
 and the end of the oar being flat and thin, so as to 
 offer the greatest possible resistance with the least 
 weight, the boat is urged onwards. 
 
 Now, let us take the Water Boatman, and see how 
 the rowing legs of this insect comply in every respect 
 with the boat-oar which has been slowly developed 
 through a series of years. In the case of the insect, 
 
THE WATER BOATMAN. 247 
 
 the fulcrum, instead of being a rowlock affixed to the 
 side of the boat, is formed by the horny shell of the 
 insect's side. The short lever is represented by that 
 part of the limb which passes through the shell into 
 the interior of the thorax, and the stout muscles of 
 the thorax, which are fixed to the leg, take not only 
 the office, but the exact position of the arms of a human 
 boatman. 
 
 Next, we come to a small but important point. 
 All of my readers who have been trained to the use or 
 a boat, and to 
 
 " Feather their oars with skill and dexterity," 
 
 must remember how much trouble they had to take in 
 order to turn the oar at the end of the stroke, so as to 
 present the edge, and not the flat side of the blade, to 
 the air, as the oar is drawn back for another stroke. 
 It is one of these things which looks absurdly easy, 
 but in which the very ease betrays the consummate 
 skill of him who handles the implement. 
 
 In the rowing legs of the Water Boatman we find a 
 provision for feathering exactly like that of the human 
 boatman, except that the rowing limb, as made by 
 nature, is infinitely superior to the oar which is formed 
 by art. Supposing that a boat-builder could invent 
 an oar in which the blade should be very much longer, 
 wider, twice as strong, and not half as heavy as the 
 blade of a wooden oar, and that as soon as the stroke 
 was made the blade vanished altogether, leaving 
 nothing but a thin, tapering spike of wood, a tre- 
 mendous advantage would be given to the boat's crew 
 which first made use of the improved implement, 
 
248 INSECT WATEE TRESPASSERS. 
 
 and the speed of rowing would be very much in- 
 creased. 
 
 This is exactly what is done by the Water Boatman, 
 and I strongly recommend the reader to catch a few 
 specimens, put them in a glass vessel of water, and 
 watch the action of the rowing legs. The blade of the 
 oar in the insect is found in a fringe of very stiff hairs, 
 with a slight curve backwards. The joints of the leg 
 are so constituted, that the limb has only one set of 
 movements, which are almost exactly like those of a 
 human rower, and the effect is very remarkable. 
 
 As the stroke is made by which the Water Boatman 
 is propelled, the bristly fringes are expanded, so as to 
 " catch " the water, in the language of oarsmen, while 
 their slight curve enables them to " hold " it to the 
 end of the stroke. No sooner is the stroke over, than 
 the leg gives a slight turn in the socket, and, as the 
 limb is thrown forward preparatory to another stroke, 
 the bristly blade collapses, the sharp edge of the leg 
 is turned towards the water, and so the insect is 
 enabled to send its legs forward with the slightest 
 possible friction against the water. 
 
 Only one point more with regard to those natural 
 oars. My rowing readers will remember that the 
 grease-pot is part of the essential furniture of a boat, 
 and that the leather and "button" of the oar have 
 to be frequently lubricated. There are few things 
 which worry an oarsman so much, or which impedes 
 his progress more, than the want of grease. In the 
 first place, the friction is increased very greatly, entail- 
 ing much needless exertion; and in the next place, 
 the squeaking sound of each stroke is nearly as irri- 
 
THE WATER BOATMAN. 249 
 
 tating to the senses as that of a slate pencil when held 
 by an awkward child. 
 
 Now, the natural oar of the insect has its grease- 
 pot as well as the artificial oar of the human being. 
 The joints, especially the principal one at the thorax, 
 are lubricated with a natural grease exactly analogous 
 to the " synovia/' or oily fluid, which diminishes the 
 friction in the joints of human beings. It is worthy 
 of notice, too, that in artificial machinery man has to 
 imitate the absolutely perfect machinery of nature. 
 I have always thought, when looking at a steam- 
 engine at work, and seeing the oil-cups above each 
 important part, that the engineer was only executing 
 a clumsy imitation of nature, and that the greatest 
 engineer of coming times would be a man who was 
 versed in the anatomy of the human frame. 
 
 The air which serves the purpose of respiration 
 while it is beneath the surface, is carried between the 
 wing-cases and the body, exactly as has been narrated 
 of the water beetle. Fortunately for observers of 
 nature, the wing-cases are sufficiently translucent to 
 enable the progress of the air to be seen through 
 them. I believe that I was the first to describe this 
 progress, through actual observation of some Water 
 Boatmen that I kept in an aquarium. 
 
 The discovery was quite a matter of accident. I 
 had been keeping some Water Boatmen in a bottle 
 which was standing on my desk, and happened to get 
 one of the insects between the eye and the light. 
 The translucent character of the elytra at once was 
 evident, and the course taken by the air was perfectly 
 visible. 
 
250 INSECT WATER TRASPASSEES. 
 
 In order to obtain a supply of air, the insect rises 
 to the surface of the water, protrudes the end of its 
 tail, and takes in the required supply. By degrees 
 the air-bubble which then appears under the elytra is 
 pushed gradually forward, and,, when it has done its 
 duty, escapes in a series of very tiny bubbles at the 
 spot where the bases of the elytra are pressed against 
 the breast. 
 
 THE WATER SCORPION (Nepa cinerea). 
 
 In the lower corner of the same illustration may 
 be seen the very remarkable insect called the Water 
 Scorpion. This name is given to it in consequence of 
 the peculiar outline of the creature, which certainly 
 does bear some resemblance to that of the scorpion. 
 I well recollect how startled I was, when, as a boy, I 
 first found this insect. I was watching the inhabitants 
 of a certain fish-pond at Radley, when I saw an object 
 that I had taken for a piece of dead leaf begin to move 
 about. In those days there were no books to give 
 information on such subjects, and the scorpion-like 
 claws and the sting- like projections of the tail, rather 
 deterred me from touching it. However, it was so 
 curious an insect, that I got it out of the water with a 
 stick, and very soon found that it could do no harm 
 whatever. 
 
 It does not possess the activity of the predacious 
 insects which have already been mentioned, and trusts 
 to craft rather than speed for procuring its food. I 
 have no doubt that the insects on which the Water 
 Scorpion feeds are deceived, just as I was, by its 
 
THE WATER SCOBPION. 251 
 
 resemblance to a dead leaf. When any luckless insect 
 comes within reach, the two fore legs are struck 
 smartly at it, and almost to a certainty the prey is 
 inclosed in the limb, the joints of which fold closely 
 upon one another. Then, the prey having been seized, 
 it is firmly held while the beak of the capfcor is driven 
 into its body, and its juices sucked, as has already 
 been narrated of the water boatman. 
 
 The manner in which the Water Scorpion obtains 
 air for respiration is worthy of notice. On referring 
 to the illustration, the reader will see that there is a 
 dangerous-looking spike projecting from the tail. 
 This is a compound instrument, forming a sort of 
 channel, along which air can be introduced to the 
 respiratory system while the body is under water. 
 For this reason the Water Scorpion is generally found 
 close to the bank, so that it can be protected from 
 foes by its wonderful resemblance to a dead leaf, and, 
 while resting in the mud, protrude its spiky tail above 
 the surface, and so take in the needful air. 
 
 I may here mention, that there is an allied insect 
 that has, as far as I know, no popular name, but is 
 scientifically called Ranatra linearis. One of these 
 insects was taken by a young lady of my acquaintance, 
 and she, not knowing its name, called it " Daddy," 
 from its resemblance to a Daddy-long-legs fly with- 
 out the wings. 
 
 She kept the insect in a glass globe, and ' ' Daddy " 
 soon became quite an important personage in the 
 house. He used to catch prey with a wonderfully 
 sharp stroke of the fore legs. Various aquatic larvse 
 and insects are its usual food, and I have seen it prey 
 
252 INSECT WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 upon the fresh- water shrimps, in spite of their shelly 
 armour. 
 
 The insect used to crawl very gently and quietly 
 towards its prey, and as soon as it came within reach, 
 would raise its fore legs well over its head, and deliver 
 a blow so rapid that the eye could hardly follow it. 
 " Daddy " was of a very combative nature, and would 
 strike at anything which annoyed it. Irritating the 
 insect with a pencil was rather a favourite amusement, 
 and certainly, the courage of " Daddy/' and the force 
 of the blows which he delivered on the pencil, were 
 well worthy of notice. Like the preceding insects, 
 the Eanatra is furnished with large wings, which are 
 packed with great neatness beneath the elytra. 
 
 THE WHIRLWIG BEETLE (Gyrinus natator) . 
 
 We will now pass to a few examples where insects 
 are trespassers upon, rather than beneath, the water. 
 
 The reader will recollect that mention has been 
 made of the Whirlwig Beetles, so called from their 
 perpetual gyrations upon the surface of the water. 
 
 These curious insects look exactly as if they were 
 encased in burnished steel and then oiled, so hard, 
 polished, and slippery are they. The modification of 
 structure which enables the insect to whirl about in 
 so active a manner is well worth investigation. 
 
 The two fore legs are rather long and slender, and 
 are used, like those of the preceding insect, in cap- 
 turing prey. The middle and last pairs are exceed- 
 
THE WHIKLW1G BEETLE. 253 
 
 ingly short, wide, and flattened into a paddle-like 
 form, by means of which the insect can take those 
 short and quick strokes which propel it so swiftly over 
 the surface of the water, and enable it to turn with 
 such agility. When the insect is taken out of the 
 water, these paddle-legs are tucked under the body, 
 so that it only appears to have two legs i.e., the first 
 pair, which project in front of the head. 
 
 It may be easily imagined that an insect whose 
 legs are thus modified does not make much progress 
 on land. Its attempts at walking are almost as awk- 
 ward as those of the sloth, for all the crawling that it 
 can do is managed by the two fore legs, the other two 
 pairs only moving the body by a series of jerky hitches. 
 
 On the water, however, it skims over the surface 
 with consummate ease, forming graceful curves, like 
 those of a practised skater, and gliding about with an 
 equally apparent absence of effort. This perpetual 
 movement is necessary to enable the Whirlwig to take 
 its prey, which consists mostly of the tiny insects that 
 fall upon the water and cannot immediately free them- 
 selves. It is a very sociable insect, a solitary specimen 
 being rarely seen, and the Whirlwigs appear to take as 
 much pleasure in their sociable swim as do the gnats 
 in the perpetual rising and falling of their airy 
 dance. 
 
 It has been said that in their gyrations they are so 
 active that they never strike against each other. This 
 is by no means the case. I have repeatedly seen 
 collisions take place, but without the least damage to 
 either party, the hard and polished armour of their 
 bodies effectually protecting them. 
 
254 INSECT WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 As if to carry out the curious similitudes in art and 
 nature which have been indicated when mentioning 
 the resemblance of the water boatman to a keeled, and 
 the water beetle to a keel-less boat, the Whirlwig bears 
 an equally striking resemblance to the Welsh coracle, 
 its swimming legs also resembling paddles instead of 
 oars. 
 
 The wings of the Whirlwig are large, and the 
 insect can use them with wonderful readiness, by 
 jumping out of the water by a violent jerk of the four 
 swimming legs, and instantly taking to wing. So 
 quickly is this done, that although the Whirlwigs are 
 continually darting into the air, they escape detection, 
 being mistaken for ordinary flies. The water boat- 
 man, by the way, can perform a similar feat, and when 
 it takes to wing, it produces a loud, deep, humming 
 sound like that of the hornet. It has quite a startling 
 effect if the insect should happen to pass close to the 
 ear. 
 
 The peculiar eyes of the Whirlwig have often been 
 described. Generally, the compound eyes of the in- 
 sects are restricted to two clusters ; but in the Whirl- 
 wig they are again divided, so as to form four 
 clusters. Two of these occupy the usual position, and 
 are above the surface of the water when the insect 
 swims. The other pair are set almost on the under- 
 side of the head, and are, in consequence, always sub- 
 merged. 
 
 Perhaps we may understand the position of the 
 eyes better by an illustration. The profile of the 
 Whirlwig's head bears a close resemblance to that of 
 a fish say a perch. If we then suppose that the 
 
THE WATER GNAT. 255 
 
 upper cluster of compound eyes occupies the same 
 position as the eyes of the fish, the lower clusters will 
 be placed at the angles of the lower jaw, just at their 
 junction with the upper jaw. Thus the insect is 
 specially fitted for its water-trespassing life, by pos- 
 sessing one set of eyes for the water and a second for 
 the air. 
 
 At the bottom of the illustration, and occupying 
 the middle, is seen a creature which has some resem- 
 blance to a centipede. This is the larva of the Whirl- 
 wig, and the projections from the side are the gills 
 or branchiae, as they are scientifically termed. This 
 larva is always in motion, so as to make the water 
 impinge against the gills. Generally, it does so by 
 means of a graceful serpentine curve, in which the 
 white gills stream about like white plumes waving in 
 the wind. Sometimes it will wriggle its way upwards 
 for several inches, and then sink to the bottom, the 
 gills being stretched out on either side of the body, 
 and helping to support it. 
 
 These larvse are much eaten by the water scorpion, 
 who finds plenty of nourishment in their fat, soft 
 bodies. 
 
 THE WATER GNAT (Gems IdCUstris). 
 
 Again I take a single species as a type of several 
 others the insect which is represented as walking on 
 the surface of the water. There are many insects be- 
 longing to the Heteroptera, which are grouped together 
 under the general and appropriate name of Hydro- 
 metridaa, or Water Measurers. They all have slight 
 
256 INSECT WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 bodies and very long legs, and in some, such as 
 Hydrometra stagnorum, both the body and legs are so 
 exceedingly delicate, that the insect looks almost like a 
 shadow flitting over the surface of the water. Take 
 half an inch of a fine needle, support it on four black 
 hairs, and stretch out two hairs in front of the head, 
 stain the needle black, and there is a very fair imita- 
 tion of the Hydrometra. 
 
 Slight and delicate as is this creature, it is a very 
 predacious one, and I have seen them seizing and 
 carrying off their prey quite as ferociously as f ' Daddy" 
 used to do. The Hydrometra feeds almost entirely 
 upon the small insects that fall into the water. It 
 comes gliding up to them like a shadow, and almost 
 as silently, picks up its prey with the very ends of its 
 fore legs, and, holding the captured insect out at the 
 full stretch of its legs, makes for the shore, where it 
 sucks the juices, and then goes off in search of more 
 prey. 
 
 It is worthy of remark, that the process of sucking 
 seems to have no effect whatever upon the outward 
 aspect of the victim. I have seen plenty of water 
 gnats killed and sucked by the water boatman, and 
 when the exhausted prey is rejected, the keenest eye 
 cannot detect any change of form. It could at once 
 be " set " and dried, and in that case would look as 
 well as if it had been killed by poison or boiling 
 water. 
 
THE SWIMMING ICHNEUMON FLY. 257 
 
 THE SWIMMING ICHNEUMON FLY (Polyuema natans) . 
 
 In the lower corner of the same illustration may be 
 seen a square space marked off, so as to separate it 
 from the rest of the figures. In it are two winged 
 insects one moderately large, and the other very 
 small. These are representations of the Swimming 
 Ichneumon, the smaller figure giving it of its real size, 
 and the larger showing it as it appears when 
 magnified. 
 
 As we have already seen, there are plenty of swim- 
 ming insects. These, however, all propel themselves 
 by means of their legs, which are modified for that 
 purpose, and their wings are kept closely hidden 
 under the elytra. In the Swimming Ichneumon, how- 
 ever, we have a most remarkable anomaly in the 
 history of insects. The ichneumons belong to the 
 Hymenoptera i.e., the order which contains the bees, 
 wasps, ants, etc. ; and that one of these creatures 
 should swim, using its wings instead of fins, appears 
 to be an anomaly. Yet this is just what the Swimming 
 Ichneumon does, and its di.covery forms an epoch in 
 the history of entomology. 
 
 As the reader will see from the account which 
 will presently be given, the insect was discovered 
 almost simultaneously by two individuals within a 
 week, but as one of them, Sir J. Lubbock, Bart., had 
 the precedence by a few days, the discovery belongs to 
 him. 
 
 Similar examples of nearly simultaneous discovery 
 
 17 
 
258 INSECT WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 are familiar to all students of science. One such 
 instance occurred to myself. I had settled a doubtful 
 point in the anatomy of insects by dissection of the 
 humble bee. According to custom, the description of 
 dissection was written in full, and entered in the book. 
 Some six months afterwards, the same discovery was 
 made in France, and published. But as, in all matters 
 of science, the individual who publishes the discovery 
 first has the credit of it, this particular one belonged 
 to France, and not to England. 
 
 The following account of the discovery of the 
 Swimming Ichneumon was read before the Linnaean 
 Society on May 7, 1863, and afterwards printed in the 
 " Transactions " of that Society. 
 
 " On one of the early days in August, I was enjoy- 
 ing myself by watching the animals in a basin of pond 
 wnter. 
 
 " It is customary to regard the inhabitants of 
 fresh water as less beautiful and varied than those of 
 the sea. But though our inland lakes and rivers can 
 boast no sea anemones, no starfishes, medusae, shrimps, 
 nor sea urchins, they still are full of beauty and 
 variety. 
 
 1 ' Without counting the rarer forms, almost every 
 weedy pool contains specimens of daphnia, cy clops, 
 diaptomus, and asellus among Crustacea, the hydra 
 among polypes, the lovely green volvox, and many 
 other alg89, besides numerous desmidiae and diato- 
 macese, with insects almost innumerable. Besides the 
 perfect insects, such as water beetles, notonecta., nepa, 
 and other hemiptera, there are larvae of dragon flies, 
 beetles, phryganeas, and ephemeras, the beautifully 
 
THE SWIMMING ICHNEUMON FLY. 259 
 
 transparent larvae of corethra, and many other species 
 of diptera. But though most of the great orders are 
 more or less richly represented, no aquatic species of 
 hymenoptera or orthoptera had, till now, been dis- 
 covered. 
 
 ' ' The female of Agriotypus armatus, indeed, has 
 been observed to descend the sides of rocks in the 
 Clyde to a considerable depth, and to remain there 
 several minutes. Even this species, however, cannot 
 be considered as truly aquatic, or as being entirely at 
 home in the water, since there is no evidence that it 
 knows how to swim. Mr. Smith also reminds me that 
 Smiera (Chalcis) femorata and S. sispes are said to be 
 parasites on the aquatic larvae of Stratiomys, in which 
 case the perfect insect probably seeks its prey under 
 water ; but I am not aware that it has been actually 
 observed to do so. 
 
 " The species of Hymenoptera have been estimated 
 at about 30,000 in number, and Mr. F. Smith (than 
 whom there is no better authority) informs me that 
 about 12,000 have been already described, 3,500 of 
 which live in Great Britain. From the interest attach- 
 ing in mr.ny cases to their habits, from their marvel- 
 lous instincts, and their curious relations to other 
 animals (no order presenting more parasites and vic- 
 tims of parasites), the peculiarities of Hymenoptera 
 have received more attention than those of almost any 
 other group of invertebrata. 
 
 " Great, therefore, was my astonishment, on the 
 occasion to which I allude, when I saw in the water a 
 small hymenopterous insect, evidently quite at its ease, 
 and actually swimming by means, of. its wings. At 
 
260 INSECT WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 first I could hardly believe my eyes; but having found 
 several specimens and shown them to some of my 
 friends, there can be no doubt about the fact. More- 
 over, the same insect was again observed, within a 
 week, by another entomologist, Mr. Duchess, of Step- 
 ney. This gentleman mentioned it to Dr. Sclater, and 
 from his description and sketch, there can be no doubt 
 that the insect observed by him belongs to the same 
 species. 
 
 "It is a very curious coincidence that, after re- 
 maining so long unnoticed, this little insect should 
 thus be found, almost simultaneously, by two indepen- 
 dent observers. Perhaps this may, in part, at least, be 
 accounted for by supposing that the insect was un- 
 usually abundant this summer. Yet Mr. Duchess ap- 
 pears to have met with only one specimen. Mine were 
 altogether twenty-one in number, and the females 
 were more than twice as numerous as the males. 
 
 ' ' As the motion in Polynema natans is caused by the 
 wings, it might almost be called a flight; owing, how- 
 ever, to the density of the medium, and partly, 
 perhaps, to the direction in which the wings act, 
 the movement, though not inelegant, is slow, and 
 is rather a succession of jerks than a continuous pro- 
 gression. 
 
 " The insect is provided with tracheae, and respi- 
 ration appears to take place through spiracles in the 
 usual manner. Most of those insect larvae which 
 spend much of their time under water are either pro- 
 vided with gills, or carry down with them a supply of 
 air attached to their body, and from which the tracheae 
 can be replenished. Our insect possesses neither of 
 
THE SWIMMING ICHNEUMON FLY. 261 
 
 these advantages ; nor can much respiration take place 
 through the skin, which is thick and chitinous. 
 
 (t Moreover, it has some difficulty in passing from 
 air to water, or vice versa : a bubble of air would 
 quite destroy its equilibrium when under water, and a 
 drop of water would equally prevent free motion in the 
 air. The difficulty is, however, mitigated by the fact 
 that the air in the tracheae requires changing only at 
 considerable intervals. A common house fly placed 
 under water ceased to move in half an hour. My 
 specimens, however, of Polynema natans lived under 
 water several hours without suffering any apparent 
 inconvenience. One, which I put in a bottle full of 
 water at 7 o'clock in the morning, was quite lively at 
 7 o' clock in the evening, after having therefore been 
 no less than twelve hours at least under water. I say 
 at least, because I had no means of knowing how long 
 it had been there before my experiment began. Pro- 
 bably, however, this was about the limit of its endur- 
 ance ; for four other specimens which I treated in the 
 same manner at about 6 o'clock in the evening, were 
 apparently dead at the same hour on the following 
 morning ; and the individual above-mentioned was 
 itself motionless at 9 o'clock, or after fourteen hours 
 of submersion. I then, however, put it in a dry bottle, 
 and next morning it was as lively as ever. Wishing 
 to see whether it retained any unpleasant recollections 
 of its drowning, I gave it the opportunity of again 
 entering the water, which it immediately proceeded 
 to do. 
 
 " I was unfortunately unable to ascertain whether 
 they could fly : taking my opportunity when they 
 
262 INSECT WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 were out of the water, I teased several specimens of 
 Polynema natans with the point of a needle; but never 
 succeeded in making one take to its wings at least, 
 not in air. When walking on the water, however, 
 they sometimes started off suddenly ; but always kept 
 close to the surface, so that it rather seemed as if they 
 were carried by some tiny gust of air." 
 
 Sir John Lubbock then proceeds to remark that 
 the insect has no peculiarity which indicates an aquatic 
 life, such as we see in the boat-like form and the oar 
 or paddle-like legs of the insects. No one would 
 therefore think, in case of seeing a Swimming Ichneu- 
 mon in the open air, that it had habits differing so 
 greatly from those of its kinsfolk in general. " Per, 
 mit me to say, in conclusion, that if Polynema natans 
 and Prestwichia aquatica had been extinct species, no 
 palaeontologist would have suspected that they were 
 aquatic. In the present state of our knowledge there 
 is nothing in their structure which would have sug- 
 gested such an idea." 
 
 The wings are made after a curious fashion, but 
 certainly have no aquatic look about them. The 
 upper pair are about as long as the body, and are flat, 
 covered with hairs, and edged with a deep fringe of 
 bristles. No nervures are perceptible, even with the 
 aid of a magnifying glass, if we may except a slight 
 thickening on one of the edges. The second, or 
 lower pair of wings, could scarcely be taken for wings 
 if removed and viewed independently of the insect. 
 When the insect is at rest, these wings are crossed over 
 the back, and the hairs with which they are edged make 
 a radiating fringe round the whole of the abdomen. 
 
THE SWIMMING ICHNEUMON PLY. 263 
 
 The generic name, Polynema, refers to this pecu- 
 liarity. It is formed from two Greek words, the 
 former of which signifies " many/' and the latter, a 
 thread or filament. Some of these hairs or bristles 
 are even longer than the breadth of the wing. There 
 is a closely -allied species, Mymar pulchellus, in which 
 these hairs or bristles are more than twice as long as 
 the wing is wide. 
 
 The writer also calls attention to the very imperfect 
 state of our entomological knowledge. The order oi 
 the Hymenoptera is one of the most popular and best 
 studied in all entomology, inasmuch as in it we have 
 the best workers, and most interesting species that 
 are as yet known to the world. The bees, wasps, and 
 ants are proverbial for their industry and the wonderful 
 structures which they erect ; while the Ichneumons are 
 equally interesting on account of their parasitic habits. 
 Yet, here is an indigenous Ichneumon which escaped 
 observers for many years, and at last was only found, 
 as it were, by chance. 
 
 Another point which is to be considered, is the 
 object for which the Polynema enters the water. The 
 obvious reply to such a query is, that it does so for 
 the purpose of meeting with subaquatic insects in 
 which to deposit its eggs. There are, however, two 
 objections to the theory, either of which seems fatal ; 
 the first being, that the male enters the water as freely 
 as the female ; and the second, that the larvae of all 
 known Hymenoptera breathe atmospheric air, and 
 could not exist beneath the water. 
 
264 INSECT WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 THE GNAT. 
 
 There are many more insects which are water 
 trespassers, but our space warns us to be brief. We 
 will therefore be content with two examples of insects 
 which are water trespassers in their larval states ; but 
 which, when they have attained their perfect condi- 
 tion, would soon die if they fell into the water and 
 could not extricate themselves. 
 
 Perhaps the best-known, and certainly the most 
 plentiful of these insects, is the common Gnat (Culex 
 pipiens), so well known from the beautiful plumy 
 antennae of the male, and the venomous proboscis of 
 the female. With the perfect insect we have nothing 
 to do, it being a denizen of the air and not of water ; 
 and we are at present only concerned with it in its 
 earliest forms. 
 
 It begins its water trespassing career while it is 
 still in the egg form ; and I cannot but think that this 
 is the most curious of its three, or perhaps four, diffe- 
 rent modes of trespassing, each of which will be very 
 briefly described. 
 
 The egg itself very much resembles a skittle in 
 form ; and, if placed in water, would sink and never 
 be hatched, for want of warmth and air. Yet it must 
 be placed in the water, because the larva when hatched, 
 finds its food in the water, and on land is absolutely 
 helpless ; so that if it were hatched ashore, it could 
 never make its way to the water. 
 
 The solution of this rather difficult problem is 
 
THE GNAT. 265 
 
 another of the many instances in which nature has 
 anticipated art. A single plate of iron will sink, but 
 a number of plates, if arranged in a definite form, so 
 as to cause the weight of their united bulk to be less 
 than that of a corresponding bulk of water, will float. 
 The iron ships, and iron caissons, and iron docks 
 of the present day, are familiar examples of this 
 fact. 
 
 Now, the eggs of the Gnat are arranged on exactly 
 the same principle. They are placed side by side, and 
 glued to each other with a fluid secreted by the mother 
 insect, and which is not soluble in water. Taught by 
 instinct, the Gnat, without even seeing the eggs, builds 
 them up into a boat-like form, and then leaves the 
 little vessel to float on the water. And, as every 
 practical entomologist knows, the egg-boat is built on 
 exactly the same principle as the best life-boats of the 
 present day, righting itself if it be upset by force. 
 Any number of these boats may be obtained from the 
 surface of a pond, or even a water-butt; and they 
 make very interesting objects for the magnifying 
 glass. 
 
 After a short space of time varying according to 
 the warmth of the weather the larvae are hatched, 
 and are liberated from the egg by means of a little 
 lid which opens at the end, and allows them to drop 
 into the water. In this form they are probably familiar 
 to all who have used their eyes. Tkere must be few 
 people, indeed, who have not seen in rain-water these 
 curious little larvae, looking, with their large heads 
 and slender bodies, something like the conventional 
 dolphins of ancient art. They swim by a series of 
 
266 INSECT "WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 waggling movements, bending themselves almost 
 double, and then suddenly straightening the body. 
 
 Although they live in the water, and find their 
 food there, they cannot breathe in it as can those 
 larvae which respire by means of gills, and are obliged 
 to have access to atmospheric air, just as are the 
 aquatic insects which have been described. This is 
 done after a curious manner. The breathing- tubes 
 with which the whole body is permeated open into 
 -two large tubes, which run along the sides. These 
 tubes pass into the tail, and the orifice is surrounded 
 with a star-like fringe of radiating hairs. When the 
 larva wishes to breathe, it ascends to the surface, and, 
 head downwards, just protrudes the tip of the tail 
 above the surface, where it is upheld by the hairy 
 fringe. 
 
 The process of breathing may be easily examined 
 by taking a little glass tube, such as is used by homoeo- 
 pathic chemists, heating it in a spirit lamp or a gas 
 flame, and squeezing it until it is nearly flat. If, then, 
 it be nearly filled with water, and a Gnat larva placed 
 in it, the creature can be examined with a tolerably 
 high power of the magnifying glass. Unless the 
 tube be flattened, the lens cannot be brought near 
 enough to allow of a sufficiently high power to be 
 used. 
 
 After a while, the larvse assume the pupal state. 
 There is not very much difference in their appearance 
 or their actions. Their shape remains much the same, 
 except that the part which comprises the head and 
 thorax of the future insect, is now very large, seeing 
 that it contains the loug legs and wings. It still 
 
THE RAT- TAILED FLY, Oli DRONE FLY. 267 
 
 respires atmospheric air, but does so in a different 
 manner. Instead of obtaining air through the tail, it 
 breathes through some little tubes which are placed 
 in the thorax. The body is much curved, and the 
 creature, although it can move about, has not its 
 former activity, and is unable to eat. 
 
 The large size of the pupal skin is the last feature 
 in the water trespassing habits of the Gnat, as with- 
 out it the perfect insect would never be able to free 
 itself from the water. As it is, when the Gnat is fully 
 developed it rises to the surface, and then, with a 
 powerful movement, splits the skin throughout a con- 
 siderable portion of its extent. The split skin opens 
 out, and forms a sort of boat, which is very buoyant. 
 The Gnat slowly draws itself out of the skin, and, 
 standing upon its cast garment, moves its wings in 
 the air until they are dry and firm, and then takes 
 flight. 
 
 THE RAT-TAILED FLY, OR DRONE FLY (Eristdlis 
 
 Here we have another of the numberless examples 
 in which a slight and simple modification of form 
 enables a creature which breathes atmospheric air to 
 exist while under water. 
 
 We are all familiar with the common Drone fly, 
 which is so plentiful in the summer time, and which 
 looks so very much like a bee. In its perfect state it 
 is a denizen of air, darting along with such velocity 
 that the eye can scarcely follow it. But in its pre- 
 liminary stages it is a dweller in the water, or rather 
 
268 INSECT WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 in the mud, and perfectly motionless, as we shall pre- 
 sently see. 
 
 These larvae are not at all pretty objects, looking 
 in miniature very much like brown soda-water bottles, 
 with necks some four feet long. As in the gnat larva, 
 that of the Drone fly breathes through the tail,and avery 
 curious tail it is. The gnat larva being able to swim 
 through the water, and ascend to the surface whenever 
 it desires, has nothing abnormal in the shape or size 
 of the body, the chief peculiarity being the star-like 
 fringe by which the orifice of the breathing tubes is 
 kept in contact with the air. 
 
 The larva of the Drone fly, however, passes a very 
 curious existence. It lives in soft mud, mostly that 
 which is obtained by the decomposition of leaves in 
 the shallow water at the edge of a pond. Into this 
 very unfragrant material it burrows with its head 
 downwards, and there remains until its larval life is 
 over. The problem now remains, how it is to obtain 
 a supply of air. This is done by means of the extra- 
 ordinary appendage which has gained for it the popular 
 title of "rat-tailed" maggot. 
 
 The end of the body is modified into a tube, which 
 can be lengthened or shortened at the will of the 
 owner, and through this tube run the air-vessels which 
 supply the body, When all is quiet, the larva elon- 
 gates the tube, so that the tip of it projects just above 
 the surface of the water, and it is thus enabled to 
 breathe, just as the elephant does when it walks 
 across the bed of a stream, and only keeps the tip of 
 its trunk above the water. 
 
 Here, again, we find that art has been anticipated 
 
THE EAT-TAILED FLY, OR DRONE FLY. 269 
 
 by nature. At the present day we are able to execute 
 subaquatic works of great magnitude such, for 
 example, as the Dover piers by means of the diving 
 apparatus. This is nothing more than an imitation of 
 the Rat-tailed larva's air-tube, the diver being sub- 
 merged for hours at a time, and supplied with air 
 through an elastic tube. 
 
 Should anything occur which might alarm the 
 insect, the tail is instantly and swiftly withdrawn, so 
 that scarcely a trace of its presence is left. I once 
 found quite a preserve of these larvse in a neglected 
 water-butt which was nearly filled with dead leaves, dead 
 insects, and other debris. They were so thickly planted 
 in the fetid mud, that their tails looked just like a 
 number of fine grasses set closely together. It was 
 curious to see the effect of a tap on the edge of the 
 barrel. In a moment every tail was withdrawn, and 
 the few inches of water that was left above the mud 
 became on a sudden quite clear and bright. 
 
 The best way of observing the remarkable struc- 
 ture of the telescopic tail, with its double air vessels, is 
 to place one of the grubs with its head downwards in 
 a glass tube, at the bottom of which there is an inch 
 or so of mud. The grub will at once make its way 
 down, and the tube should then be filled with rain- 
 water for some three inches above the mud. The 
 water will soon clear itself, and by means of the mag- 
 nifying-glass the structure of the tail can easily be 
 made out. With a little management this tube may 
 be so arranged as to bring a moderate power of the 
 microscope say the half- inch object-glass to bear 
 upon it. 
 
270 INSECT WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 It is interesting to draw off the water gradually, 
 and see how the grub instinctively shortens the tail, 
 the peculiar elasticity of the air-tubes, with their wire- 
 like coils of filaments, keeping them always open, no 
 matter how much they may be contorted. Then, in 
 order to test the extremest length to which the tube 
 can be stretched, water should be very gently added . 
 As the depth of the water increases, so does the grub 
 stretch out its tail, and the extent to which it can be 
 thus elongated must be seen to be believed. 
 
 When this larva is about to change into its pupal 
 state, it wriggles itself out of the water, and crawls 
 upon the ground, in which it buries itself. It then 
 changes into a pupa, and, not needing the tail any 
 longer, respires through four little tubes in the thorax, 
 very similar to those which have been mentioned as 
 belonging to the gnat. 
 
 Besides these, there are very many insects, such 
 as the Dragon fly, the May fly, and the Stone fly, 
 which pass their larval state in the water, although 
 the perfect condition is that of a denizen of air, and 
 in no sense may be reckoned as water trespassers. 
 I do not, however, take any detailed notice of these 
 in the present work, because, as long as they re- 
 main in the water they are practically water dwellers, 
 and not trespassers, breathing the water by means of 
 gills, and net being dependent for respiration on 
 atmospheric air. 
 
WATER SPIDERS. 271 
 
 WATER SPIDERS. 
 
 Under the present head I rank two members of 
 the Arachnida : one a trespasser in, and the other 
 upon, the water. 
 
 The first of these creatures is the Water Spider 
 (Argyronetra aquatica) , a being which affords another 
 of the many examples in which nature has preceded 
 the art of man. In the rat-tailed fly we have already 
 seen that the diving machinery of modern days has 
 been anticipated by the elongated air-tube of the 
 larva, and in the present case we have an exact 
 analogy with the diving-bell itself. I will first give a 
 brief account of the habits of the Water Spider, and 
 then show the analogy between its habitation and 
 the diving bell. 
 
 I must premise, in the first place, that the Water 
 Spider has the power of swimming and diving, and 
 that it obtains its prey in the water. If any ordinary 
 land spider be thrown into water, it will float for a 
 considerable time, being buoyed up by the numerous 
 air-bubbles which are entangled among the hairs 
 of its body. The Water Spider, in addition to this 
 airy envelope, can carry with it a large bubble of 
 air, which is sufficient for its respiration for some 
 little time. 
 
 I have often watched the Spider take its bubble 
 beneath the water. It comes to the surface, and waits 
 there for a moment or two, as if to collect its forces. 
 It then gives a sort of jerk of the body and kick of 
 
272 INSECT WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 the legs, and at once dives. If watched, it will be 
 seen to have stretched its last pair of legs well be- 
 hind the body, and by their aid to have inclosed a 
 large bubble of air, which completely envelopes the 
 abdomen. Burdened for it is a burden with this 
 bubble of air, the Spider dives with manifest exertion, 
 and is lost to sight. 
 
 Not that when it dives it always takes this air- 
 bubble with it. In fact, as a general rule, it dives 
 without the large bubble, and only has its body 
 studded with the minute bubbles which have already 
 been mentioned. They completely alter the Spider's 
 appearance. 
 
 Out of the water the Spider has nothing con- 
 spicuous about it, and no one who did not know the 
 creature would ever suspect that it had anything in its 
 mode of life which distinguished it from other spiders. 
 But, as soon as it dives, the multitudinous air-bubbles 
 which surround the body make it look exactly as if it 
 were clothed in an envelope of quicksilver globules, 
 which have a curiously glittering appearance as the 
 Spider descends into the water. 
 
 The generic name, Argyronetra, refers both to the 
 appearance and the shape of the body. It is com- 
 pounded of two Greek words, the former signifying 
 silver, and the latter a spindle. This name is given to 
 it in consequence of the form of the body, which ends 
 in a point, and is altogether of a spindle-like shape. 
 If I wished to use strictly scientific language, I should 
 say that the generic name of the Spider was given to 
 it because its body was fusiform ; but I prefer to 
 express the same idea in simple English terms. 
 
THE WATER SPIDERS. 273 
 
 Many years ago, as a child, I used to watch the 
 Water Spiders diving into the dark, still pools with 
 which the Cherwell abounds, and to wonder where 
 they could be going with their glittering suit of 
 bubbles. As far as I know, when it dives without 
 the large air-bubble, it is either in search of prey or 
 going home. But, when it carries the large bubble 
 within its hind-legs, it is engaged in supplying its 
 subaquatic home with air. Briefly told, this is the 
 story of its home : 
 
 The female Spider, when she is about to lay her 
 eggs, dives to some depth, and searches for a suitable 
 locality among the submerged portions of aquatic 
 vegetation. She then spins an oval cocoon, shaped 
 very much like an empty egg-shell with the end cut 
 off, and having the opening downwards. Having 
 completed this task, she then ascends to the surface, 
 takes down a large bubble of air in the manner that 
 has already been described, and, still laden with it, 
 enters the cocoon. She then releases the bubble, 
 which rises to the top of the cocoon, which is air- 
 tight, and, of course, expels a corresponding quantity of 
 water. Several similar journeys then take place, and in 
 a short time the cocoon is filled with air, and becomes 
 a subaquatic chamber in which the Spider can live. 
 
 Perhaps some of my readers may remember the 
 old diving-bells. In the present bells a constant 
 supply of air is kept up by means of pumps anc* 
 tubes; but in the older bells no such plan was 
 adopted. A quantity of air was forced into strong ves- 
 sels, which were lowered by ropes to the bell. The 
 divers then took the vessels into the bell, and set the 
 
 18 
 
274 INSECT WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 air free. Thus, there is an exact analogy between the 
 old diving-bell and the home of the Water Spider the 
 cocoon representing the bell, and the bubble enclosed 
 by the legs taking the place of the air vessels. 
 
 Perhaps the reader may ask what may be the real 
 object of this structure, seeing that the Spider can 
 catch its prey in the water, eat it ashore, and hide 
 itself on land like any of its terrestrial brethren ? As 
 has already been stated, the cocoon does act as a place 
 of refuge, but its chief object is to serve as a protec- 
 tion for the young. For, singular to state, not only 
 does the mother Spider, herself an air-breathing crea- 
 ture, pass much of her time under the water, but her 
 eggs are hatched and her young are nurtured beneath 
 the water, and never go into the outside air until 
 they are strong enough to shift for themselves. On 
 an average, one hundred little spiders are hatched 
 simultaneously in this subaquatic residence. 
 
 When the Spider deposits her eggs, she fastens 
 them to the top of the cocoon, so that they receive the 
 benefit of any air that is contained in it, and then 
 covers them with a circular plate of very tough threads. 
 Similar coverings may be seen on the eggs of many 
 terrestrial spiders, especially those which belong to the 
 genus Agelena. 
 
 Some twelve years ago, I mentioned that a gradual 
 but steady destruction of the Spider was taking place, 
 in consequence of the great demand for it as an inha- 
 bitant of the fresh-water aquarium. This destruction 
 has gone on so fast, that in many localities where the 
 Water Spider was once plentiful, an absolute extirpa- 
 tion has taken place. 
 
THE PIRATE SPIDEE. 
 
 Indeed, so difficult is it at the present day to pro- 
 cure the Water Spider, that I have been unable to give 
 an illustration of the creature and its cocoon. In 
 spite of much search and orders to dealers, not a 
 specimen could be obtained ; and, as I did not choose 
 to have an illustration which was not drawn from the 
 actual object, I was forced to omit it altogether. 
 
 THE PIRATE SPIDEE (Lycosa piratico). 
 
 There is a very large genus of spiders called 
 Lycosa. This name is derived from a Greek word, 
 signifying a wolf, and is given to these creatures on 
 account of their roving and predatory habits. Popu- 
 larly, they are called Wolf Spiders, and we have nearly 
 twenty species in England. They are very plentiful, 
 and may be found on almost any piece of ground, 
 especially if it be uncultivated. Being mostly dark- 
 coloured, they escape observation, unless the ground 
 be carefully watched, and then they may be detected 
 as they run with great speed, and pounce upon any 
 stray insect that comes in their way. They spin no 
 web for the capture of insects, though some species 
 line their hiding-places with a silken mantle, and all 
 are in the habit of enveloping their eggs in a silken 
 bag, and carrying it about with them. The celebrated 
 Tarantula is one of the Wolf Spiders. 
 
 Among these also we have an aquatic representa- 
 tive which is popularly called the Pirate Spider, because 
 it exercises its depredations on water, and not on land. 
 Like the Water Spider, it has a furry covering, which 
 
276 INSECT WATER TRESPASSERS. 
 
 entangles air among the hairs, and so enables it to 
 run over the surface of the water. Sometimes it will 
 take advantage of a dead leaf or bundle of weeds 
 floating on the water, and make that extemporized 
 raft its headquarters, sallying out to secure prey, and 
 then returning to the raft on which it can take its meal 
 in peace and quiet. 
 
 Although the Pirate Spider can run on the surface 
 of the water without sinking, it can also dive when it 
 is alarmed. Its usual plan of diving is to make use of 
 some water plant, run down its stem, and cling there 
 until it thinks the danger to be past. It can remain 
 below the surface for a considerable time, and, as 
 far as is known, is able to breathe by respiring the aiv 
 with which its body is surrounded. 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 upn Vkt 
 
 I THINK that we cannot do wrong if we accept the 
 insects as the most perfect types of the denizens of air. 
 How perfect they are in this respect can only be 
 appreciated by dissecting one of the fully- developed 
 insects, and examining its internal anatomy. 
 
 I suppose that there are few people who have seen 
 the large-bodied dor beetle, cockchafers, or humble- 
 bees upon the wing, who have not been struck with 
 the ease of their flight, in spite of their large and ap- 
 parently heavy bodies. This is specially notable in the 
 case of the larger bombylidae, or humble-bee flies, and 
 the hawk moths, which dash through the air so rapidly 
 that the eye can scarcely follow their movements. 
 
 On opening the body, the problem is at once 
 solved. I have already mentioned the system of air 
 vessels with which the whole of an insect is permeated. 
 Along each side, and just under the skin, runs a large 
 tube, into which opens the " spiracles/' or little 
 mouths that communicate with the outer air. From 
 these main tubes spring a vast number of smaller 
 
278 TRESPASSERS UPON THE AIR. 
 
 tubes that penetrate every portion of the body, and 
 often cause great trouble to the dissector. They sur- 
 round and cling to all the internal organs, which they 
 envelope as if in a network of entangling meshes. 
 
 Even in the larvse, which do not fly, this structure 
 is to be found, but it is in the flying insects that it is 
 developed to the highest extent. Not only do these 
 vessels penetrate into every part of the body, even 
 into the delicate antennge and the membranes of the 
 wings, but they are in many parts of the body swollen 
 into large vesicles, which occupy a considerable amount, 
 of space, and materially lighten the body. 
 
 One of the most remarkable instances of these 
 vesicles is to be found in the common Stag Beetle. 
 
 Considering the enormous size of the head and 
 mandibles in a fully developed male, it would be 
 'natural to suppose that even if the insect were able to 
 raise itself in the air at all, it would be overbalanced 
 by the weight of the fore part of the body, and must 
 fly with its head downwards. Yet, not only can the 
 insect fly with its head upwards, but I never saw one 
 fly in any other attitude, and as the Stag Beetle swarms 
 in my neighbourhood, I have had plenty of opportuni- 
 ties of watching its habits. 
 
 The large, square head is necessary in order to 
 afford support for the muscles which move the power- 
 ful jaws. Here I may parenthetically remark, that it 
 has been said that the male Stag Beetle does not use its 
 jaws for offensive purposes, and cannot be induced to 
 bite. If that be the case, I can only say that it has 
 bitten me without being induced, for I have frequently 
 received very severe pinches from the antler-like jaws. 
 
THE STAG BEETLE. 279 
 
 Take one of these insects, kill it by the " death- 
 bottle/' or by dashing it into boiling water, lay open 
 the head and jaws, and a most beautiful structure will 
 present itself. The jaws are then seen to be quite 
 hollow, the hard, horny material being a mere shell 
 enclosing a row of the air vesicles which have already 
 been mentioned. A similar arrangement will be found 
 in the head, so that strength and bulk are beautifully 
 united with lightness. Any of my readers who are 
 students of comparative anatomy will remember that 
 in the elephant these three qualities are combined in a 
 very similar manner, the bulk of the skull being com- 
 posed of bony, comb-like cells. 
 
 The thorax has many of these cells, and in the 
 abdomen they occupy a very large space, especially 
 towards the base of the abdomen, where it joins the 
 thorax. If a large beetle be rendered insensible by 
 chloroform, and the upper part of the head removed, 
 these vesicles can be plainly seen, swelling and lessen- 
 ing with every inspiration and expiration. 
 
 We may be justified, therefore, in taking the in- 
 sects as best representing the denizens of air. 
 
 Next to them come the Birds, in which there is a 
 lightness of structure analogous to that of the insects. 
 I have already mentioned that in the flying birds the 
 bones are hollow, and connected by certain apertures 
 with the air of the lungs. In Bennett's " Whaling 
 Voyage," a curious adventure is narrated, which very 
 well illustrates this peculiarity of structure. 
 
 "Another bird which we noticed at the same 
 time is a nondescript, but nearest allied to the alba- 
 tross family. It is the size of the lesser albatross ; 
 
80 TRESPASSERS UPON THE AIR. 
 
 its plumage uniformly deep black ; its beak and 
 legs white. 
 
 f ' The example we obtained was shot in the wing 
 and brought on board alive, fighting savagely with its 
 beak and feet. 
 
 " With a view to preserving its plumage uninjured, 
 I endeavoured to destroy the bird by compressing its 
 windpipe, but found that as the breathing became 
 laborious, a loud whistling sound was emitted from 
 some part of the. body, and, upon close investigation, 
 found that the bone (humerus) of the wing, which was 
 fractured across, projected through the skin, and ad- 
 mitted within its tube a forcible current of air when- 
 ever the lungs made an effort at respiration. 
 
 "The bird was, in fact, breathing through its 
 broken wing ; and so sufficient was the supply of air 
 which the lungs received through this novel channel, 
 that I was wearied with my attempts to suffocate my 
 prize, and had to destroy it in another manner. 
 
 " The free communication which exists between the 
 air cells of the lungs and the cavities of the bones in 
 birds, offers an easy elucidation of this phenomenon, 
 although such an application of the economy must be 
 regarded as singular/' 
 
 In connection with this subject, I may remind the 
 reader that the bone of an albatross' wing is much in 
 fashion as a pipe stem, being light, strong, and 
 tubular. 
 
 In the Flying Mammalia, this modification of 
 structure is not found, but we shall presently see that 
 in them a similar effect is produced by different 
 means. 
 
281 
 
 CHEIROPTERA, OR BATS. 
 
 The only members of the mammalia which can 
 really rival the birds or the insects in the air are those 
 remarkable beings which are popularly called Bats, 
 and of which we have several representatives in our 
 own country. 
 
 In the insects, the organs of propulsion through 
 the air are variously modified projections from the 
 thorax some membranous and transparent, as in the 
 bees and flies, and some covered with scales, as in the 
 moths and butterflies. In the birds, the organs of 
 propulsion are the fore limbs, the structure of which is 
 modified for the purpose, and which are clothed with 
 feathers. In the Bats, the organs of flight are also 
 the fore limbs, which are modified in a very simple but 
 effectual manner. None of the mammalia being 
 clothed with feathers, but either having the skin 
 naked, scaled, or hairy, the order of Nature would be 
 infringed if the Bats were gifted were feathered wings 
 like those of birds. 
 
 Another mode of flight has therefore to be employed, 
 and this is chiefly done by a modification of the fore 
 feet. In the birds, the fore limbs are not used for 
 progression on land, and consequently the feet are so 
 altered in shape as scarcely to be recognized as such, 
 except by the eye of the comparative anatomist. It 
 is the foot of the bird, for example, which supplies 
 the principal or primary feathers of the wing, the 
 secondaries being attached to that part which cor- 
 
282 
 
 TRESPASSERS UPON THE AIE. 
 
 responds with the fore arm of man. Any one can 
 examine this structure by stripping the feathers and 
 skin from the wing of a fowl before it is cooked. 
 
 In the Bat, however, the foot, instead of being 
 flattened and crushed into a mere support for the 
 feathers, is developed in a most extraordinary manner, 
 the most being made of every joint. The accom- 
 panying figure, will explain this structure at a 
 glance. 
 
 SKELETON OF VAMPIKE BAT. 
 
 Each portion of the limb is greatly elongated, 
 while the toes are so long and so delicate, that they 
 look as if they had been passed through a wire- 
 drawing machine. The great toe, or thumb, is the only 
 one which is not elongated, and it is furnished with a 
 sharp, curved claw, by means of which the Bat is able 
 to draw itself along a level surface whenever it wishes 
 to walk. 
 
 There is another point about the skeleton of the 
 arm, which assists materially in enabling the Bat to 
 
CHEIROPTERA, OR BATS. 283 
 
 be an air trespasser. In human beings the fore arm 
 is composed of two bones, called the radius and ulna, 
 and by their means the hand is able to rotate and 
 execute the different movements for which it was 
 designed. In the Bat, however, this rotating power 
 is not only needless, but would be absolutely injurious, 
 as it would make the limb incapable of acting as an 
 instrument of flight. The ulna, therefore, is prac- 
 tically absent, being represented only by a very tiny 
 piece of bone pressed against the radius, and, as a 
 consequence, the hand cannot rotate. 
 
 The reader will now perceive that there is no 
 necessity for these bones to be hollow like those of 
 the birds, their great attenuation giving them the 
 requisite lightness. No new structure is therefore 
 required in order to convert a mammal into a winged 
 creature, a slight modification of existing structures 
 being amply sufficient for the purpose. A further 
 adaptation is to be seen in the thorax, which is very 
 large in proportion to the animal, and has the upper 
 portion of the breast bone greatly developed, so as to 
 afford an attachment to the powerful muscles which 
 are needed to move the wing. 
 
 The next point is to furnish the developed limb 
 with a wide, flat, and light substance that will take 
 the place of the bird's feathers. This is managed in 
 an equally simple manner. In the first place, the toes 
 or fingers are webbed to the tips, like the feet of 
 frogs. This, however, would not afford a sufficient 
 surface, and so the webbing, if it may be so called, 
 extends from the thumb to the neck, and from the 
 fingers to the feet, so that when the limbs are ex- 
 
284 TRESPASSERS UPON THE AIR. 
 
 tended the surface is very large in proportion to the 
 weight of the animal. 
 
 There is at least one genus of Bat which possesses 
 still further means of lightening the body. 
 
 " In the genus Nycteris a curious faculty is ob- 
 served, namely, the power of inflating the sub- 
 cutaneous tissue with air. The skin adheres to the 
 body only at certain points, where it is connected by 
 means of a loose cellular membrane. It is therefore 
 susceptible of being raised from the surface on the 
 back as well as on the under parts. These large 
 spaces are filled with air at the will of the animal, by 
 means of large cheek-pouches, which are pierced at the 
 bottom, and they communicate with the subcutaneous 
 spaces just mentioned. 
 
 " When the animal, therefore, wishes to inflate its 
 skin, it inspires, closes the nostrils, and then, con- 
 tracting the cavity of the chest, the air is forced 
 through the openings in the cheek-pouches under the 
 skin, from whence it is prevented from returning 
 by means of a fine sphincter, with which those open- 
 ings are furnished, and by large valves on the neck 
 and back. 
 
 " By this curious mechanism, the Bat has the power 
 of so completely blowing up the spaces under the 
 skin, as to give the idea, as Geoffrey observes, of a 
 little balloon furnished with wings on head and feet." 
 The foregoing passage is taken from Mr. Bell's 
 article on the Cheiroptera, in the " Cyclopaedia of 
 Anatomy and Physiology." 
 
 The reader will remember that some of the sea- 
 birds have the same capacity of inflating a series of 
 
CHEIROPTERA, OE BATS. 285 
 
 air cells beneath the skin. The various diodon 
 fishes possess a similar power; but in them it is 
 probably used as a means of defence, the swollen 
 body causing the multitudinous spikes with which it 
 is armed to stand out like the prickles of a rolled-up 
 hedgehog 1 . 
 
 It has been proved that the wings possess more 
 points of interest than is generally known. 
 
 They are almost as elastic as if made of India- 
 rubber, and nearly as delicate as goldbeaters' skin, 
 so that, when the creature is at rest, they fall of 
 their own accord into folds that occupy very little 
 space, and do not interfere with their owner's move- 
 ments. 
 
 They also act as a cradle for the infant young; 
 but one of their principal uses, in addition to that of 
 flight, is their power of directing the course of the Bat 
 as it flies through the air. Anatomists have often 
 been struck with the fact that, according to the usual 
 custom of nocturnal animals, the insect-eating Bats 
 have very small eyes. Taking as examples of dark- 
 ness-loving and predatory creatures, the owls, the 
 lemurs, and even the domestic cat, we find that the 
 eyes are very large, and we might naturally expect 
 that we should find a similar structure in the Bats. In 
 them, however, the eyes are very small, and there is 
 reason to suppose that they are not much brought into 
 requisition in the capture of flies, moths, and other 
 insects which form the chief food of the Bat. 
 
 Many years ago, a series of experiments were 
 instituted by Spallanzani, who had been struck with 
 the fact that Bats could fly with confidence in a 
 
286 TRESPASSERS UPON THE AIR. 
 
 perfectly dark room, and even after they had been 
 blinded. He then stretched threads across the room 
 in various directions, and found that the Bat, blind as 
 it was, never by any chance touched one of them. 
 He then proved that neither smell nor hearing could 
 assist the animal, and therefore concluded that the 
 Bat must possess a sixth sense, at present unknown 
 to us. 
 
 Cuvier, however, read these experiments in a 
 somewhat different manner. He looked to the wings 
 themselves for an explanation of this wonderful power 
 of guidance without sight, and found the whole surface 
 of the delicate membrane to be an enormously ex- 
 panded organ of touch, possessing exquisite sensibility, 
 and being capable of detecting by the sense of touch 
 the presence of external objects. In all probability, 
 therefore, the Bat depends but little, if at all, upon its 
 eyes for the capture of prey, and is guided almost 
 entirely by the sensitive surface of the wings. Perhaps 
 the reader will call to mind the fact that the moles 
 are practically blind, and that when they pursue and 
 capture their prey they are guided by the sensitive 
 snout, which performs the same office for them that 
 the wing does for the Bat. 
 
 In our own Bats the external ear is of considerable 
 size, and is formed by a membrane very similar to that 
 of the wing, so that it may probably assist the animal 
 in guiding its flight. The most prominent example 
 of this structure is to be found in our common Long- 
 eared Bat (Plecotus auritus), the ears of which are 
 nearly as long as the body, and can be thrown into 
 most graceful curves at the will of the owner. 
 
THE VAMPIRE BAT. 287 
 
 Other Bats, again, such as our Horseshoe Bat, have 
 membranous growths of a like nature about the nos- 
 trils, which, if we may judge from analogy, perform 
 the same office as the membrane of the wings. 
 
 THE VAMPIRE BAT (Vampirus spectrum). 
 
 We will now proceed to examine one or two species 
 of the Bat, taking as opposite types the blood-sucking 
 Vampire and the fruit- eating Kalong. I intentionally 
 put aside our own species, which are all insect-eaters, 
 pursuing their prey through the air in the hours of 
 darkness. 
 
 The Vampire Bat is a West Indian animal, and is 
 plentiful about Guiana and the regions of tropical 
 America. It is best known by the blood-sucking 
 habits, from which it derives its popular name of 
 Vampire; but I cannot think that it has no other 
 means of subsistence. Blood-sucking may be a luxury, 
 like champagne-drinking, but I do not think that a 
 Vampire Bat lives on blood any more than a human 
 being on champagne. 
 
 Indeed, if the Vampires had nothing to depend 
 upon but the blood of mammalia, I think that they 
 would soon be in as bad a case as would be the so- 
 called " carrion " crows, if they had nothing to live 
 upon but the flesh of dead animals. As far as can be 
 understood of the animal's habits, it must make its 
 ordinary food of insects, and only drink the blood of 
 other animals when it gets a chance of doing so. 
 
238 TRESPASSERS UPON THE AIR. 
 
 Indeed, I feel sure that, just as there are millions 
 of mosquitoes, fleas, leeches, and similar bloodthirsty 
 creatures, which never taste blood in the whole course 
 of their lives, so it is with the Vampire, whose oppor- 
 tunities of blood-sucking are quite exceptional. 
 
 It will, however, seldom neglect a chance which 
 offers itself, and man, horse, or mule are equally 
 sufferers from its predilection for blood. It does not 
 cause much, if any pain, insinuating its needles of 
 teeth into the skin, and quietly drinking the blood as 
 it pours from the tiny apertures. 
 
 With animals, the Yampire generally attacks the 
 shoulder or the flank, but with human beings the 
 great toe is the favourite point of assault. The Vam- 
 pire almost always waits until its intended victim is 
 sleeping, and then draws off the blood so gently and 
 quietly, that the sleeper is not disturbed. 
 
 It seems to be rather capricious in its taste. 
 Somewhere about the year 1813, Mr. Waterton, who 
 was then travelling in Guiana, wished to have practical 
 experience of a Vampire's bite. Accordingly, for many 
 months he exposed himself to the attacks of the Vam- 
 pires, by sleeping in an open shed, through which the 
 bats used to pass freely, and were seen hovering over 
 the traveller's hammock. But not a Vampire would 
 touch him. They bit a native servant who was sleep- 
 ing within a few yards of his hammock ; they bit a 
 young English lad, about twelve years of age ; they 
 nearly killed an unfortunate jackass, and they did kill 
 the fowls ; but they would not touch Mr. Waterton. 
 Some years ago, when telling me the story, he jokingly 
 remarked, that perhaps the Vampires showed their 
 
PLATE V. 
 
 VAMPIRE BAT, KALONG, OPOSSUM MOUSE, HEPOONA ROO, AND SUGAR SQUIRREL. 
 
THE KALONG, OB FLYING POX. 289 
 
 good sense, for there was very little blood to be got 
 out of him. 
 
 THE KALONG, OE FLYING FOX (Pteropus rubricollis). 
 
 There are several species of Kalongs, which are 
 spread over a considerable portion of Asia and the 
 neighbouring islands. 
 
 On looking at one of these animals, the difference 
 in the eye is at once apparent. As I have already 
 mentioned, the eye is small in the insect-eating bats ; 
 but in the Kalong, which is a fruit eater, it is large, 
 round, soft, and full. They are very large when com- 
 pared with the carnivorous bats, some species having 
 been known to measure five feet across the expanded 
 wings. 
 
 Not needing to catch its prey by aerial evolutions, 
 the Kalong has a very different flight from that of the 
 insect-eating bats. As we know, from watching our 
 own species, which are all insect eaters, the flight of 
 the latter is quick and erratic, while that of the 
 former is slow and majestic, like that of some large 
 bird. 
 
 They are nocturnal in their habits, though not such 
 utter haters of light as the insect-eating bats. Our 
 own species are scarcely ever seen in the day-time; 
 for as soon as the early rays of the sun show them- 
 selves, the bats retire to the dark corners in which 
 they love to assemble. Hollow tree-trunks, disused 
 chimneys, clefts in rocks, and similar localities, are 
 their favourite hiding-places. The Kalongs, on the 
 
 19 
 
290 TRESPASSERS UPON THE AIR. 
 
 contrary, resort to the most open and unprotected 
 spots, such as the highest branches of trees. To these 
 they hang themselves, bat-fashion, with their heads 
 downwards, and their wings wrapped round their 
 bodies. 
 
 Whether the bats can or cannot swim, as can most 
 of the mammalia, has long been a disputed point 
 among naturalists, and one which the nocturnal habits 
 of the animals render extremely difficult of determina- 
 tion. It is known, however, that one of these fru 
 givorous bats does possess the power of swimming ; 
 and we may therefore infer that other species may be 
 equally able to cope with the water. Nearly in the 
 centre of Plate V. may be seen two Kalongs, repre- 
 sented as hanging from the branch of a tree, and 
 just above there is another, which is about to 
 settle. 
 
 On account of their large size they are very con- 
 spicuous, and look very much like great bunches of 
 fruit growing from the boughs. I have a photograph 
 of an Indian fig-tree, the upper branches of which are 
 thronged with Kalong bats. They hang in regular 
 rows, and the resemblance which I have just men- 
 tioned is so strong, that every one to whom I have 
 shown the photograph has, as a matter of course, 
 taken them for large fruits. 
 
 Mr. Bennett, in his " Whaling Voyage/' mentions 
 that if they are disturbed by striking the trunk of the 
 tree, they spread their wings, and fly off to some other 
 place of refuge. One peculiarity in their flight is the 
 regularity with which it is accomplished, the bats flying 
 in long lines, and not singly or in a shapeless group. 
 
THE COLUGO, OR FLYING LEMUR. 291 
 
 The cry of this bat is much like the short, sharp bark 
 of the deer. 
 
 Living upon fruit, they do very great damage to 
 the crops; and in spite of nets, baskets, and other 
 protections, they will sometimes manage in a single 
 night to strip a tree of every ripe fruit, leaving the 
 unripe alone. I have seen this bat eating apples, and 
 a very curious sight it was. The animals were hang- 
 ing by their hind legs, and seemed to consider that to 
 be the most agreeable position for taking their meals. 
 Their large brown eyes looked rather excited as they 
 fell on the fruit ; but, as soon as the repast was finished^ 
 they were closed again, the head tucked up against 
 the breast, and the animal was fast asleep. 
 
 In Tunis and the neighbourhood, there is a very 
 large species of these fruit-eating bats, called the 
 Edible Kalong (Pteropus edulis). As its name implies, 
 it is used for food ; so that the owners of the fruit- 
 trees revenge themselves for the loss of their crops 
 by eating the robbers. The flesh of this Kalong is 
 said to be very delicate and white. I may mention 
 here that the generic name of Pteropus is formed from 
 two Greek words, and signifies wing-footed. 
 
 THE COLUGO, OR PLYING LEMUR (GoleOpitheCUS 
 
 Although there is no aquatic form of the monkey 
 tribes, we have one which may well take its place as a 
 trespasser in the air, namely, the singular animal 
 called the Colugo, or Flying Lemur, which inhabits 
 many of the islands of the Indian Archipelago. 
 
292 TRESPASSERS UPON THE AIR. 
 
 In a sort of way, many monkeys are partial tres- 
 passers upon the air, being able to fling themselves 
 from one branch to another, and so to pass through 
 considerable distances. The Gibbons are specially 
 celebrated for their aerial feats, being able to launch 
 themselves through distances of forty feet or so. 
 
 These animals, however, do not possess auy capa- 
 bility of sustentation in the air ; and, if they were to 
 miss their aim, would fall heavily to the ground. The 
 Colugo, however, has a power of sustentation which 
 may be called a modified flight ; and, although it can- 
 not rise in the air, it can at all events pass for con- 
 siderable distances through it, and direct its course. 
 
 Putting aside the very great length of the fore 
 limbs, and especially of the fingers, the structure of 
 the Colugo is wonderfully like that of the bats. In- 
 deed, so close is the resemblance, that naturalists were 
 long undetermined where to place it : whether at the 
 end of the monkey tribe, or at the head of the bats. 
 
 In this animal the skin of the sides is modified into 
 a membrane much resembling the wing of the bat, 
 except that it is covered with hair upon the upper 
 surface. This membrane extends to both pairs of feet. 
 It also passes from the hind feet to the tip of the tail, 
 and from the fore feet to the neck, so that when the 
 limbs are extended, a very large and flat surface is 
 presented to the air, not so large as that of the bat 
 tribes, but still of very great extent. 
 
 Like all the monkey tribe, the Colugo is arboreal 
 in its habits, but has a rather peculiar mode of passing 
 from tree to tree. It does not take the trouble to 
 descend to the ground, run to the desired tree, and 
 
CUT 12. COLUGO. 
 
THE COLUGO, OR PLYING LEMUR. 293 
 
 ascend it, but takes exactly an opposite course. It 
 ascends to one of the topmost branches, makes a spring 
 in the direction of the spot which it wishes to reach, 
 and spreads out its limbs to the fullest extent. It 
 then skims through the air much after the manner 
 of an oyster- shell or a piece of slate when used in 
 making f{ ducks and drakes/' and can in this manner 
 pass over a distance of a hundred yards or so without 
 coming to the ground. 
 
 Perhaps the reader may say that the oyster-shell or 
 slate rotates, while the Colugo cannot do so.* That is 
 true enough, but the rotatory motion has nothing to 
 do with the skimming movement of the missile 
 through the air. It only serves, according to the 
 well-known law by which the arrow and the rifle-bullet 
 are kept steadily in their course, to preserve the mis- 
 sile in its proper position ; and as the Colugo can do 
 this by means of the inflection of its body, rotation is 
 not needed, and is therefore not employed. In point 
 of fact, the Colugo is sustained in the air on precisely 
 the same principle as is a boy's kite, the relationship 
 of forces being identical in either case, although they 
 are applied in a rather different manner. 
 
 A figure of the Colugo, shown as it appears while 
 passing through the air, is given in Cut 12. The 
 reader will notice the singularly close resemblance be- 
 tween this animal and the flying petaurist, which is 
 shown in the lower corner of Plate V. 
 
 Among the points in which the Colugo resembles 
 the bat tribe, two may be specially mentioned. In 
 the ordinary monkey, the mammae are placed upon 
 the breast, whereas in the Colugo they are set upon 
 
294 TRESPASSERS UPON THE AIR. 
 
 the lower part of the abdomen, exactly as in the 
 bats. 
 
 The second point is the position assumed while 
 the animal is at rest. The ordinary monkeys, whether 
 of the Old or New World, gather themselves up into 
 as small a space as possible, just as birds tuck their 
 heads on their shoulders, and so court their sleep. 
 But the Colugo acts exactly as the bats do, and when 
 it retires to rest, it slings itself from a branch by its 
 hind legs. It is, therefore, no matter of surprise that 
 naturalists should so long have been perplexed as to 
 the real position of this extraordinary animal. 
 
 In size the Colugo equals a large cat, and when it 
 is walking or climbing among the branches, the mem- 
 branous skin which converts it into a living para- 
 chute clings so tightly to the body by its own elasticity, 
 that it is scarcely visible. The name Galeopithecus is 
 formed from two Greek words, and literally signifies 
 weasel monkey. 
 
 THE SQUIRREL PETAURIST, OR SUGAR SQUIRREL (PetdUTUS 
 
 sciureus) . 
 
 We have already seen that there are examples of 
 water trespassers among the Marsupial or Pouched 
 animals, and shall now find that several air trespassers 
 are among them. 
 
 These animals are comprised in an Australian 
 group, which is technically named Petaurist, from a 
 Greek word signifying a rope-dancer, and alluding to 
 
THE SQUIRREL PETAUEIST, OE SUGAR SQUIREEL. 295 
 
 the manner in which they balance themselves on the 
 slender branches of the trees which they frequent. 
 
 One of the prettiest of these animals is shown in 
 the lower corner of Plate V., and is popularly known 
 as the Sugar Squirrel, though it is not a squirrel, or 
 even a rodent, and though the sugar-cane is not an 
 Australian plant. 
 
 The general structure of this animal is very much 
 like that of the colugo ; and, indeed, it would be easy 
 to put a colugo among a number of petaurisfcs, and for 
 the distinction between them not to be noted, except 
 by a tolerably skilled naturalist. In the petaurists, 
 the skin is extended exactly as it is in the colugo, 
 the principal difference lying in the tail. In the 
 colugo, the skin-membrane extends to the end of the 
 tail, but in the petaurists it gets no further than the 
 root of the tail. This organ, however, is clothed with 
 very long and dense hair projecting on either side, and 
 answering the same purpose which is fulfilled in the 
 colugo by the skin membrane. 
 
 The animal which is represented in the illustration 
 is a pretty little creature, measuring about eight 
 inches from the nose to the tip of the tail. It is 
 rather remarkable that the tail is just as long as the 
 body, and as it is clothed with very long hair, it adds 
 much to the power of sustentation as the creature 
 takes its sweeping flights. 
 
 The power of flight, if we may so call it, in this 
 creature is very remarkable, one of these animals 
 having been seen to leap across a river forty yards in 
 width, though it only started from an elevation of 
 thirty feet. 
 
296 TRESPASSERS UPON THE AIR. 
 
 It is a lively and playful little animal as soon as the 
 dusk sets in, but remains perfectly quiet during the 
 daytime. These nocturnal habits are common to all 
 its kind. One of these curious marsupials, which 
 belonged to a friend of mine, used to spend the whole 
 of the day in a bag which was hung from the back of 
 a chair. In this curious hammock it lay quietly sleep- 
 ing until the evening, when it began to move, and by 
 scratching or kicking showed its desire to be released. 
 As soon as the bag was opened, the animal went to 
 the place where a saucerful of bread and milk was 
 placed for it, and then began its graceful gambols. 
 
 The largest of these animals is the Petauriste 
 ( Petaurista taguanoides) . 
 
 In spite of its size it is seldom seen in a living 
 state by white men. In the first place, it is nocturnal 
 in its habits; and so completely can it trust to its 
 wing-like membranes, that it seldom comes to the 
 ground, passing through the air from tree to tree. 
 
 Moreover, it dwells during the day in hollow trees ; 
 and trusts so completely to the security of its hiding- 
 place, that even when the axe lays open its dwelling, 
 it refuses to stir, but crouches in the furthest corner. 
 It is no coward, however, for it can and will fight in 
 the most desperate manner when fairly driven to bay, 
 using both its teeth and claws with great force and 
 quickness. Even the dexterous native hunter does 
 not dare the combat, but as soon as he has cut a 
 sufficiently sized hole in the tree-trunk, he seizes the 
 animal by the tail, swings it round and dashes its head 
 against the tree before it has recovered itself sufficiently 
 to think of using its teeth or claws. 
 
THE SQUIRREL PETAURIST. 297 
 
 The specific name of Taguanoides, or taguan-like, 
 is given to the animal in consequence of the resem- 
 blance which it bears to the Taguans, or Flying 
 Squirrels of the Old World ;" a similitude, indeed, 
 which is so close, that a sketch of one of these animals 
 would be no very unfaithful representation of the 
 other. 
 
 Scarcely smaller than the Petaurist is the Hepoona 
 Roo (Pelaurus Australia), sometimes called the Great 
 Flying Phalanger. 
 
 I may here mention that the general name of 
 Phalanger is applied to the whole of this group, on 
 account of the length of the phalanges, or joints of 
 the toep. 
 
 The present species is a native of New Holland, 
 and was at one time plentiful ; though, like all wild 
 animals, it became scarce in the presence of civili- 
 zation. The full length of the body rather exceeds a 
 yard ; but very nearly half of this measurement be- 
 longs to the long and woolly tail. 
 
 It is a prettily coloured animal; but the beautifully 
 contrasting tints of the fur are scarcely to be seen 
 except when the animal spreads itself for flight. In 
 that case the cream-white of the under surface affords 
 an admirable contrast to the deep, warm brown of the 
 upper surface. When the animal is at rest, the only 
 indication of this contrast of colour is a waving line of 
 cream-colour along the sides, marking the edge of 
 the flying membrane. The colour of the fur is, how- 
 ever, very variable ; and in some cases, both surfaces 
 are nearly white. 
 
 The smallest of the Petaurists is the pretty little 
 
298 TEESPASSEES UPON THE AIR. 
 
 animal which is popularly called the Opossum Mouse 
 (Acrooates pygmceus) . 
 
 It is barely as large as our common mouse, measur- 
 ing about three inches from the nose to the root of the tail. 
 The tail is as long as the body, and is stiffly feathered on 
 either side ; so that it not only aids in sustaining the 
 body in the air, but also acts as a rudder whereby its 
 course can be directed. The distances through which 
 this beautiful little creature can project itself are really 
 wonderful ; and it can alter its aerial course with so 
 much ease, that most persons who see it for the first 
 time, have some difficulty in believing that it is not a 
 bird. 
 
 A figure of the Opossum Mouse is given on Plate Y., 
 on the same level with the suspended kalongs. 
 
 FLYING SQUIEEELS OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 Nature, as well as history, repeats herself. This 
 fact is specially familiar to entomologists, who find the 
 same types of form and colour repeated through many 
 of the various orders. In the mammalia, we have a 
 similar repetition in the flying lemur, which belongs 
 to the monkey tribe; the flying petaurist, which 
 belongs to the marsupials ; and the flying squirrels, 
 which belong to the rodents. 
 
 And, so close is the resemblance, that I am certain 
 that if thirty or forty living specimens of all these 
 three groups were placed in a room wherein they had 
 ample space to exercise themselves, and to display 
 their forms to the best advantage, not one in a hun- 
 
PLYING SQUIRRELS OP THE OLD WORLD. 299 
 
 dred of ordinary spectators would be able to say which 
 was monkey, which was rodent, and which was mar- 
 supial. 
 
 It is rather a remarkable fact, too, that the largest 
 species of these groups resemble each other in size as 
 well as in form. Take, for example, average speci- 
 mens of the colugo, the petauriste, and the taguan, 
 and there will be but an inch or two difference between 
 them, either in length or breadth. Again, not only 
 are all these animals furnished with the skin membrane 
 that enables them, to take their aerial flight ; but their 
 toes are elongated in a manner very similar to that 
 which we have seen in the phalangists. 
 
 In the Taguan, the membrane is greatly developed, 
 reaching to the roots of the toes of the fore feet, and 
 to the heel of the hind feet. The habits of this and 
 the other flying squirrels are almost identical with 
 those of the petaurists, except that the former are 
 not nocturnal in their habits. Their generic names 
 all allude to their power of flight. For example, 
 the Taguan belongs to the genus pteromys, or winged 
 mouse ; the word which is here translated as mouse 
 being widely used in Greek to represent any rodent 
 animal of moderate size. Other Taguans and Assapans 
 belong to the genus sciuropterus, or winged squirrels. 
 
 Like most of the active rodents, the Flying 
 Squirrels are very capable of domestication, and will 
 soon learn to prefer the society of human beings who 
 are good to them, to that of their own kind. There 
 is a singularly interesting account of a tame Flying 
 Squirrel, given by Miss Eden, in her charming work, 
 "Up the Country," Vol. II., p. 130. As her little 
 
300 TRESPASSERS UPON THE AIR. 
 
 biography does not refer directly to its flying powers, 
 I cannot insert it in this work. 
 
 Suffice it to say, that she describes her pet as 
 being the ' ' most coaxing animal she ever saw ;" and 
 narrates the manner in which he would persist in 
 making his way into her room at night. Although 
 shut up in an apartment at some distance from that of 
 his mistress, he contrived to break a window, to make 
 his way into the garden, where he had never been 
 before, and then to scramble up the wall until he 
 came to the open window of his mistress's room. He 
 was so very fond of her that he woke her by licking 
 her face. 
 
 She had the broken window stopped up, shut him 
 up afresh, and again courted sleep. In a few minutes, 
 however, she was again awoke by the Squirrel patting 
 her ear ; whereupon she gave up the attempt at 
 coercing him, rolled him up in the mosquito curtain, 
 and allowed him to remain there for the rest of the 
 night. 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 , and 
 
 PASSING by the birds, which may be considered 
 as naturally denizens of air, and which may not 
 therefore be counted among the trespassers, we come 
 to the next great class of animated beings i.e., the 
 Eep tiles. 
 
 As the word Reptile, being formed from the Latin 
 word Repo, signifies something which creeps, we 
 would scarcely expect to find among them any species 
 which were trespassers on the air. 
 
 Another example of Nature repeating herself now 
 comes before us. I had seriously debated with myself 
 whether I ought not to include in this work the many 
 Reptiles which in the ancient times of this world occu- 
 pied the same place which the bats do at the present 
 day. As, however, the book would extend to an in- 
 convenient length if the various extinct species were 
 recorded in it, I shall only give a very brief notice of 
 them. 
 
 The reader will naturally call to recollection the 
 
302 PLYING REPTILES, PISHES, AND MOLLUSCS. 
 
 wonderful Flying Lizards, which seem to have been so 
 plentiful in the ancient times, and which we now know 
 by the general term of Pterodactyls. This word sig- 
 nifies wing-fingered, and the name is given to the 
 animals because, like the bats, they were enabled to 
 f y by means of a membrane which was stretched be- 
 tween the elongated joints of the fore limbs. 
 
 It is worthy of notice, by the way, that in these 
 reptiles of an extinct age, the wing seems to have de- 
 pended for its power principally on that joint which in 
 the animals of the present time is the weakest 
 namely, the fifth, or, as we should call it, the " little " 
 toe or finger. In the various Pterodactyls, however, 
 the first four toes are only moderately elongated, 
 whereas the fifth is not only drawn out until it is 
 nearly as long as the head, neck, and body put to- 
 gether, but its two basal joints are as thick as those ot 
 the arm itself, and rather longer. 
 
 Of the habits of these creatures little can be known, 
 but the shape of their teeth shows that they must 
 have been carnivorous, seizing their prey and swallow- 
 ing it without any power of mastication. They varied 
 much in size, some species being about as large as a 
 pigeon, while others measured several feet across the 
 extended wings. How these extraordinary animals 
 looked when in life, the reader may easily see by 
 visiting the Extinct Animals' Department in the 
 grounds of the Crystal Palace, where the art of Mr. 
 Waterhouse Hawkins has reproduced the forms of 
 these and various other animals, which are now known 
 only by their fossil remains, and shows us how strange 
 and almost grotesque were the creatures which in- 
 
PLYING DEAGON. 303 
 
 habited the earth before we have any traces of man's 
 presence upon it. 
 
 One of the Flying Lizards of the olden time was 
 remarkable for having a very long tail. 
 
 FLYING DEAGON (Draco volans). 
 
 At the present day we have no examples of Reptiles 
 which can really fly, though we have some which, like 
 the Flying Squirrels, are able to sweep for some dis- 
 tance through the air. 
 
 These animals are known by the popular name of 
 Flying Dragon, in consequence of their resemblance to 
 the conventional dragon of fables. There are several 
 species of them, all agreeing in form and general 
 habits, and all being quite little creatures, the body 
 only measuring a few inches in length. The tail is 
 very long, very slender, and tapers to a sharp point. 
 
 The structure by which these reptiles are enabled 
 to pass through the air is very remarkable. As the 
 reader may see, by reference to Cut 13, the sides 
 of the body are expanded like those of the flying 
 squirrels, but the expansion is obtained in a different 
 manner. In the flying squirrel, the skin of the sides is 
 expanded with a membrane, which is opened ty 
 stretching out the legs ; but in the Flying Dragon the 
 ribs are employed for the purpose. 
 
 I suppose that the reader knows the difference be- 
 tween the two kinds of ribs. There are the " true " 
 ribs, which occupy the upper part of the chest, and 
 which have their ends resting on the breast-bone; 
 
304 PLYING BEPTILES, PISHES, AND MOLLUSCS. 
 
 and the " false " ribs, which occupy the lower part of 
 the chest, and which have their ends free. It is by 
 means of the latter set of ribs that the expansion of 
 the sides is managed. 
 
 The false ribs, instead of being, as they usually 
 are, much shorter than the others, are greatly length- 
 ened, or, to be more accurate, they are furnished with 
 very long and slender appendages. These additional 
 bones are so joined to the ribs that they can be spread 
 out laterally, or laid against the sides at the pleasure 
 of the animal. When they are spread, they very much 
 resemble the sticks of an opened fan, and as they are 
 connected with each other by a membrane which is 
 formed from the skin of the sides, they offer a very 
 wide surface to the air. 
 
 The movements of the Flying Dragon are curiously 
 like those of the flying squirrels of the Old World, and 
 the flying marsupials of Australasia; and, indeed, if 
 the Flying Dragon and the opossum mouse were simul- 
 taneously to spring from one tree to another, their 
 sweeping flight would be almost identical, and it 
 would not be easy to distinguish between the two 
 animals. 
 
 There is another point in the structure of the 
 Flying Dragon which has been thought to have some 
 effect in increasing its buoyancy when in the air. In 
 common with many arboreal lizards, it possesses a large 
 pouch under the throat, which it is capable of inflat- 
 ing to a very great extent. When the lizard is pre- 
 paring to launch itself into the air, it inflates this 
 sac simultaneously with spreading its wings, if we 
 may use this term to express its peculiarly constructed 
 
CUT 13. FLYING DRAGON AND FLYING FROG. 
 
FLYING FROG. 305 
 
 side. Many naturalists have thought that the prin- 
 cipal object of this sac is to increase the buoyancy of 
 the animal while in the air. It does probably have 
 that effect, but I do not think that buoyancy is its 
 chief object, for the reason that the inflatable pouch 
 is found in many lizards which do not possess the 
 expansible sides, nor the power of skimming through 
 the air. 
 
 The Flying Dragons are tolerably plentiful in 
 Borneo, Java, and the Philippine Islands, 
 
 FLYING FROG. 
 
 I presume that my readers are familiar with the 
 pretty Tree Frogs, which are now so plentiful in 
 ferneries. Their habits are curiously contrary to those 
 of the ordinary frogs, for they abandon both earth 
 and water for the trees, and lead an arboreal, and not 
 a terrestrial or aquatic life, as do their fellows. 
 
 In order to enable them to ascend trees, they are 
 furnished with sucker-like appendages at the tips of 
 their toes, and with these they can cling firmly to any 
 smooth object, such as the trunk of a tree, the surface 
 of a leaf, or even a flat piece of glass. 
 
 In the last- mentioned case, it is interesting to 
 examine with a magnifying lens the structure of the 
 suckers as they are pressed against the glass, and to 
 note how instantaneous is their action of exhausting 
 or admitting the air at will. This structure, indeed. 
 is absolutely necessary for the creature's existence. It 
 lives upon insects, and if it were to depend for its 
 
 20 
 
306 PLYING REPTILES, FISHES, AND MOLLUSCS. 
 
 subsistence upon those which come within its reach, 
 it would stand a very good chance of starving. But, 
 aided by these marvellous developments of the feet, 
 it is able to spring at a passing insect, to catch it, and 
 to affix itself instantaneously to another branch or leaf. 
 
 There are many species of Tree Frogs, spread 
 over a large portion of the earth, but the most re- 
 markable at present known is the Flying Frog of 
 Borneo, which was discovered by Mr. A. K. Wallace 
 in 1865. It was brought to him by a Chinese work- 
 man, who saw it skimming down from a high tree, in 
 a slanting direction, evidently upborne by the webs of 
 its enormously long toes. 
 
 If the reader will refer to Cut 13, he will see the 
 Flying Frog shown in the act of passing through the 
 air, its toes being widely spread,, so as to stretch 
 the membrane which connects them. In proportion 
 to the size of the reptile, the extent of surface which 
 can be thus opposed to the air is very great. The 
 body of the Frog is about four inches in length, while 
 the web of each hind foot covers a space of four 
 square inches, and if the webs of all four feet be put 
 together, they will be seen to equal a space of twelve 
 square inches. It is evident enough, therefore, that 
 a creature which is only four inches in length, and 
 which is able to spread a flat membrane of twelve 
 square inches, would be upborne for some distance 
 through the air,, if it only projected itself with some 
 force. 
 
 In this curious reptile, then, we have another or 
 the many ways in which a very simple variation of 
 structure is sufficient to make the creature a trespasser. 
 
PLYING PISHES. 307 
 
 Except that the limbs do not seem to be moved when 
 the Frog passes through the air, there is but little 
 difference between the structure of the bat' a wing and 
 the membrane of the Flying Frog, each being nothing 
 but an existing membrane developed and expanded by 
 being attached to the lengthened toes. In order, also, 
 to assist in the buoyancy of the creature, the body is 
 capable of considerable inflation. 
 
 In life it is a very handsome species. The back is 
 rich deep green, and the under surface yellow. The 
 webs are black, adorned with streaks of yellow. 
 
 Probably these enormously developed feet are used 
 foi* swimming as well as for flight, and in that case they 
 will form a remarkable analogy with the wings of the 
 extinct Pterodactyls, which are proved with tolerable 
 certainty to be organs adapted to the water as well as 
 to the air. 
 
 FLYING FISHES. 
 
 Passing from the reptiles to the next class of 
 beings, we come to the Fishes, and shall find among 
 them several examples of air trespassers. 
 
 The first in order of these creatures is necessarily 
 the Flying Fish (Exocoetus volitans), which we will 
 take as an example of some thirty species, all re- 
 sembling each other in general form and habits. They 
 are only found in the warmer seas, and Mr. Bennett, 
 who has observed these fishes very carefully, states 
 that he has never seen them further north than lat. 
 36 N. 
 
308 FLYINQ REPTILES, FISHES, AND MOLLUSCS. 
 
 They have long been famous for their powers of 
 leaving the water; and, indeed, the generic name, 
 Exocoetus, which is formed from two Greek words, 
 signifying sleeping out, was given to these fishes by 
 the earlier naturalists, because they believed that the 
 Flying Fishes left the sea at night, and went on shore 
 to sleep. 
 
 In all these fishes, the pectoral fins are enormously 
 developed, so that when they are extended they look 
 exactly like wings, and perform very similar functions. 
 Whether urged by fear, as some persons think, or by 
 sport, as others think, these fishes are in the habit of 
 springing out of the water, and of being upborne by 
 their wing-like fins in the air. 
 
 The mode in which this feat is achieved is identical 
 in principle with that which enables the air trespassers 
 which we have already noted to support themselves in 
 their aerial journeys. Just as in the Fljing Colugo, 
 the Flying Squirrels, the Flying Marsupials, the 
 Flying Dragons, and the Flying Frogs, the membranes 
 bv which they support themselves in the air are folded 
 closely to the body while the creatures do not require 
 to use them, so in the Flying Fishes the great pectoral 
 fins are folded into a very neat and compact form 
 v hile the fish is swimming, and do not interfere in the 
 least with their owner's progress through the water. 
 Whether or not they are used in swimming is a 
 doubtful point, but in all probability they can be used 
 in guiding the course and balancing the body, just as 
 if they had been no larger than those of ordinary 
 fish. In some species the ventral fins are also very 
 large, so that the creature appears to have four wings. 
 
FLYING PISHES. 309 
 
 The mode by which the Flying Fish propels itself 
 through the air is this. By means of the backward 
 and forward movements of the tail, it springs com- 
 pletely out of the water, just as the salmon does when 
 it makes its leap. Simultaneously, it spreads its wing- 
 like fins, and is borne upon their wide surface to a 
 considerable distance. See Cut 14. 
 
 When alarmed, it has been known to pass over a 
 space of two hundred and fifty yard^, and to remain 
 in the air for half a minute. The average length of 
 flight appears to be about one hundred and fifty 
 yards. The fish dashes into the air with such force 
 that its wings produce a distinctly audible ru filing 
 sound. 
 
 Accounts are very conflicting concerniog the move- 
 ment of the wings. It is certain that they possess 
 some power of directing their course in the air, as is 
 their function in the water. But whether or not the 
 wings are moved like those of birds seems to be an 
 open question, witnesses differing diametrically in 
 their accounts. I never saw the Flying Fish alive, 
 but I should very much doubt whether its flight is 
 more than that of the flying dragon i.e., a mere sus- 
 tentation in the air until the force of the spring is 
 exhausted. 
 
 The Flying Fishes are sociable, a solitary one being 
 seldom seen ; and when a number of them are seen 
 starting into the air at once, they present a very pretty 
 sight, their broad, white, transparent wings gleaming 
 in the sun in beautiful contrast with their blue bodies. 
 
 The force with which these fishes can drive them- 
 selves out of the water is so great, that they not 
 
310 FLYING KEPTILES, PISHES, AND MOLLUSCS. 
 
 only shoot to considerable distances, but can impel 
 themselves to such a height that they can pass com- 
 pletely over the hull of a ship, and frequently are 
 known to strike among the rigging or against the sails, 
 and fall upon the deck. As their flesh is in much 
 repute, the sailors will sometimes hang lanterns on the 
 rigging at night, for the purpose of attracting the 
 Flying Fish, which, when starting out of the water, are 
 sure to make for the light, as do many other creatures 
 which are more nocturnal in their habits. 
 
 Perhaps the best time to see the Flying Fish in 
 perfection is when a shoal of them is chased by the 
 splendid and voracious Coryphene, a fish which the 
 sailors will persist in calling by the name of dolphin. 
 The Coryphene, as soon as it sees its prey, dashes at it 
 like a greyhound at a hare, springing out of. the water 
 as if it too were about to take a flight. The Flying 
 Fishes soon see that they are pursued, and when they 
 drop upon the water, spring off again at an angle, 
 just like a hare doubling upon a greyhound, hoping 
 thereby to elude their terrible pursuer. 
 
 But the Coryphene is too sharp-sighted to be de- 
 luded in that manner, and as the Flying Fishes alter 
 their direction, so does the Coryphene alter its own 
 course. In their power of flight the Fishes have 
 some advantage over their enemy, but the advantage 
 does not hold good for long. The speed of the Cory- 
 phene is fully twice as much as that of the Flying Fish, 
 and its endurance much greater. Their flights become 
 shorter and shorter, while the leaps of the pursuer 
 seem to become, as Capt. Hall says, more vigorous at 
 each bound. 
 
CUT 14. FLYING FISHES, FLYING GURNAKD, FLYING SQUID. 
 
FLYING FISHES. 311 
 
 At last, the poor Flying Fishes become too ex- 
 hausted to continue the race, and, one by one, they 
 fall into the jaws of the Coryphene, which exactly 
 times its leaps so as to receive them as they fall back 
 into the water. 
 
 There are one or two points about the air trespass- 
 ing structure of the Flying Fish which are worthy of 
 notice. The first is, that the pectoral fins or wings 
 are set very much higher on the back than those of 
 ordinary fishes, so that when the fish is in the air the 
 centre of gravity is much below them, and the balance 
 is rightly preserved. 
 
 The organ of propulsion in the Flying Fish is the 
 tail, which is large, and lengthened into two long and 
 sharply-pointed lobes, the lower much exceeding the 
 upper in length. It is thus formed into an exceedingly 
 powerful instrument, and it is by the violent sidewa} s 
 movement of the tail that the fish can project itself 
 into the air. It is worthy of remark that the tail of 
 its terrible pursuer, the Coryphene, is constructed 
 after a similar principle, the lobes being long, and each 
 running to a sharp point. 
 
 Yet another point in which the air trespassing 
 power of the Flying Fish is increased. The reader will 
 remember that I have already mentioned sundry con- 
 trivances for ensuring buoyancy when needed. A 
 similar provision is found in the Flying Fish. The 
 air-bladder is of very great size, and when fully 
 inflated, occupies nearly the entire cavity of the 
 abdomen. Besides this, there is a corresponding 
 arrangement which renders the fore part of the fish 
 equally buoyant, and this is done by means of a mem- 
 
312 PLYING REPTILES, FISHES, AND MOLLUSCS. 
 
 branous structure in the mouth, into which air can be 
 drawn through the gills. 
 
 Thus we have in the Flying Fish another instance 
 of the wonderful and yet simple manner in which a 
 slight alteration or development of existing structures 
 enables an animal to adapt itself for a time to a dif- 
 ferent kind of life. 
 
 There is a well-known group of fish called by the 
 popular name of Gurnards, and which have the pectoral 
 fins enlarged or otherwise modified in a most singular 
 manner. Many of them are exceedingly beautiful 
 creatures, the pectoral fins being adorned with spots 
 and stripes of brilliant scarlet, crimson, green, or blue. 
 No idea can be formed of the real beauty of these 
 lovely fishes unless they are seen alive, and this can 
 now be done in the great aquaria which are built in 
 different parts of England. 
 
 Several of these fishes are known as Flying Gur- 
 nards, because, like the Flying Fish, they are able to 
 propel themselves for some distance through the air, 
 upborne on their enormous pectoral fins. Those fins 
 are, however, not long and sharply pointed, like those 
 of the Flying Fish, but they afford the same propor- 
 tionate surface to the air by being rendered very broad 
 and rounded. In them the membrane does not extend 
 quite to the end of the rays, which project like a fringe 
 from the outer top of the wing. 
 
 It is worthy of notice that, in order to increase the 
 width of the fin, and at the same time to give it the 
 necessary strength, the rays are not only very long, 
 but are greatly increased in number. 
 
FLYING FISHES. 313 
 
 One of these fishes is represented in the middle of 
 Cut 14, and is shown in the act of flying, its pec- 
 toral fins being extended to the utmost. When the 
 fish is swimming, the fins are laid along the body and 
 directed downwards. I have seen the Gurnards in the 
 Crystal Palace use their fins like legs, crawling with 
 their aid upon the bed of the tank. 
 
 The species which is shown in the illustration is 
 the common Flying Gurnard (Dactylopterus volitans), 
 and is common enough in the Mediterranean. It 
 sometimes reaches the length of fifteen inches, and is 
 altogether larger than the Flying Fish. It is a lovely 
 creature when living, its beauties, however, being 
 mostly confined to the pectoral fins. The body is 
 mostly brown, tinged with red below and on the sides. 
 The pectoral fins are black, but covered with spots 
 and mottlings of light azure, so that when spread they 
 look very much like the wings of some gorgeous 
 butterfly. 
 
 Altogether four species of Flying Gurnards are 
 known, but the present species is a good example of 
 all four. 
 
 Other fishes have the power of springing out of 
 the water, and shooting for some distance through 
 the air. 
 
 There is, for example, the Gar-fish, a long, slender, 
 and almost eel-like fish, which has both its jaws drawn 
 out to a very great length, wonderfully attenuated, 
 and very sharp at the tip. Mr. Bennett, while describ- 
 ing the island of Raitea, has the following remarks 
 on this fish : " Gar-fish infest the harbours in large 
 shoals, often darting through the air in a horizontal 
 
314 
 
 FISHES, AND MOLLUSCS. 
 
 direction, and with a force which has caused their 
 long and slender jaws to penetrate the planks of a 
 boat." 
 
 FLYING CUTTLES. 
 
 Perhaps the reader may have seen the Cuttles 
 which at one time caused such a sensation at the 
 aquarium at the Crystal Palace, and the discussion 
 which arose in the journals as to the right pronunci- 
 ation of the name " octopus." They may not be 
 aware that some of these molluscs have the power 
 of leaving the water and darting through the air ; 
 and that they can skim as far as can the flying fish 
 itself. 
 
 As far as the semi-aerial part of its life goes, the 
 Flying Cuttle has many points in common with those 
 fishes. It is gregarious, not only in the sea, but when 
 it takes its leaps into the air, at which times great flocks 
 of them come flying out all at once. As is the case 
 with the fish, this simultaneous flight is mostly caused 
 by attacks of a marine foe, mostly the albacore, which 
 is also one of the enemies of the flying fish. Like the 
 various fishes that are able to rise into the air, includ- 
 ing the gurnards, the Flying Cuttles have their foes 
 of air as well as those of water ; and, while flying from 
 the attack of the albacore below, are snapped up by 
 the various sea birds which hover above. 
 
 These flying molluscs belong to a group which are 
 popularly called Squids, and which, as a rule, are 
 about as large as the flying fish. Sometimes, however, 
 they reach to an enormous size, as has been casually 
 
PLYING CDTTLES. 315 
 
 mentioned on page 28, when treating of the spermaceti 
 whale. 
 
 Dr. Schewediawer's account has been recently 
 corroborated by a communication sent by the Rev. 
 Mr. Harvey to the Natural History Society of Montreal. 
 Some fishermen saw floating near St. John's, New- 
 foundland, something which they took to be a wreck, 
 and struck it with a gaff. It proved to be a gigantic 
 cuttle, shaped, and moving like a squid ; and on being 
 struck, it wrapped two enormous arms over the boat. 
 These the men cut off with an axe, when the creature 
 moved off, ejecting at the time its ink to such an 
 extent as to darken the water for some distance. 
 They afterwards saw it with its tail in the air, the 
 width of which they estimated at ten feet. 
 
 They considered that the total length of the 
 creature must have been about sixty feet. This seems 
 an enormous measurement, but is carried out by the 
 dimensions of the arms, which were brought ashore. 
 The people not knowing the value of the acquisition, 
 destroyed one, and had already cut off six feet of the 
 other, when Mr. Harvey rescued it. The portion 
 which he saved measured nineteen feet in length ; and 
 if we add to that the six feet which were lost, and the 
 ten feet which the men estimated to have been left on 
 the cuttle, their measurement is not very far from 
 correct. The arm was not much more than an inch in 
 diameter, except at the tip, where, however, it was 
 six inches. The arm was plentifully beset with 
 suckers. 
 
 A clergyman told Mr. Harvey that while he was at 
 Lauraline, two Cuttles were thrown ashore in the 
 
316 TLYING REPTILES, PISHES, AND MOLLUSCS. 
 
 winter of 1870, one measuring forty feet in length, 
 and the other forty-five. 
 
 We will now see how the Squid is able to propel 
 itself into the air. 
 
 All those who watch the Cuttles in the aquarium, 
 must have noticed their remarkable mode of progres- 
 sion. As long as they are on the bed of the tank, or 
 near the sides, they crawl, or haul themselves about, 
 using their tentacles by way of legs or arms. But they 
 may occasionally be seen to shoot through the water, 
 with their tentacles trailing behind them. 
 
 This is done by means of the " siphon/' a tube 
 which is connected with the respiratory apparatus. 
 For the purpose of respiration, water is drawn into the 
 body through the siphon, passes over the gills, and is 
 then expelled through the aperture into which it 
 entered. When this is done gently, no effect is pro- 
 duced in the movements of the animal. But if the 
 water be violently ejected, the Cuttle is propelled back- 
 wards by direct action, on exactly the same principle 
 as a rocket is impelled through the air. Even the 
 large-bodied and comparatively sluggish Cuttles can 
 thus shoot at some pace across a tank ; while the 
 slight-bodied, active Squids can drive themselves with 
 such velocity as to project themselves into the air. 
 
 Here is an extract from Mr. Bennett's <( Whaling 
 Voyage/' in which he gives a very good account of 
 the Flying Squid. There are one or two trifling 
 errors, which I will mention at the end of the extract. 
 
 " Many different kinds of Loligo are called by 
 sailors Flying Squid, from a habit they have of leaping 
 from the water, and proceeding through the air to 
 
FLYING CUTTLES. 317 
 
 some distance in a horizontal direction, like the flying 
 fish. 
 
 " The head of this cephalopod is a plane, circular 
 disc, surrounded by long arms, furnished on their 
 upper surface with many small circular suckers, which 
 hold with a tenacious grasp. The eyes are large, very 
 perfectly formed, and lodged in capacious cartilaginous 
 orbits. The mouth, like that of most of the cuttle 
 fish tribe, is horny, and shaped like the beak of a 
 parrot. A slender neck connects the head with the 
 body, and is received into the latter as into a capa- 
 cious sheath. The trunk is conical, tapering to a 
 point at the tail, smooth, and composed of a dense 
 white semi-cartilaginous structure, covered with a 
 delicate membrane, or skin, beneath which are de- 
 posited the brilliant colours this mollusc often dis- 
 plays. 
 
 " Near the tail there is a broad fin-like appendage, 
 which can either be expanded horizontally on either 
 side, or folded neatly upon the abdomen. The interior 
 of the back contains an elastic horny rod, or substitute 
 for the ' sepia bone' that occupies the same part in 
 other tribes of cuttle fish. It extends the entire 
 length of the body, and is flattened at its anterior 
 extremity, whilst its caudal end is shaped like a cup, 
 the whole bearing some resemblance to the instrument 
 used for tasting wine from casks. This elastic struc- 
 ture, and the membranous expansion on each side of 
 the tail, are apparently the two principal agents em- 
 ployed by the animal in its protracted leaps through 
 the air. Whether the fin-like appendage is also em- 
 ployed in swimming is very questionable. 
 
318 FLYING REPTILES, FISHES, AND MOLLUSCS. 
 
 " One kind of Loligo, which we captured in the 
 Pacific Ocean, in lat. 34 N., measured six inches in 
 its entire length. The upper surface of the body is 
 grey, freckled with purple, the under white j iris 
 silvery, pupil jet black and prominent. It has eight 
 arms and two tentacles. Each arm is furnished with 
 a double row of suckers on its entire length, and all, 
 with the exception of the first or dorsal fins, have a 
 loose membrane floating from their posterior surface. 
 The two tentacles are round, slender, and twice the 
 length of the arms, and have at their extremity a 
 broad sickle- shaped membrane, covered with two rows 
 of yellow hooks of different sizes. 
 
 " This individual leaped from the sea over the 
 high balustrades of the ship, and alighted on the 
 deck, at a time when vast flocks of the same species 
 were seen leaping around, and after striking with 
 violence against the bows of the vessel, the sea being 
 comparatively smooth. The creature was much in- 
 jured by the violence with which it had struck the 
 deck, and showed little animation : it did not attempt 
 to leap or swim when put into a bucket of sea- water, 
 though it emitted a quantity of inky fluid through a 
 canal in the body, opening by a large orifice imme- 
 diately below the neck. This secretion is contained in 
 a narrow oblong bag of silvery hue, and placed imme- 
 diately below the stomach. 
 
 " The prehensile power of the suckers on the arms 
 was retained for a considerable time after the death of 
 the animal ; from which I should judge that, like the 
 buckles of the sucking fish, their function in a great 
 measure depends upon solely mechanical causes. 
 
PLYING SPIDERS. 319 
 
 " A second species,, which we also obtained in the 
 Pacific, resembled the above in size and form, but its two 
 long tentacles were furnished at their extremities with 
 rows of suckers (acetabula), instead of horny, hooked 
 appendages. The prevailing colours of this species are 
 silver- white and steel-blue, spread with red spots and 
 tints of violet and purple, a brilliant and very beautiful 
 spot of emerald green being placed immediately above 
 each eye. We noticed examples of this family of 
 cephalods from the Equator to lats. 34 N. and 160 S., 
 Pacific Ocean.-" 
 
 In this interesting account there is one decided 
 error, namely, in thinking the posterior fins or flaps 
 at either side of the sharply-pointed tail to be the 
 instrument of locomotion. This is not the case, for 
 the animal always flies tail foremost, and must in that 
 case turn round in the air, which would decrease its 
 impetus. The real organ of propulsion is the siphon 
 which has just been described. 
 
 The species which Mr. Bennett first mentioned 
 belonged to the genus Onychoteuthis, or Hooked Cuttle, 
 so called from the hooks upon the ends of the 
 tentacles. 
 
 FLYING SPIDERS. 
 
 The last of the air trespassers for which I have 
 space are those little spiders which are known as 
 Gossamer, and which float so plentifully in the air 
 that they sometimes become very annoying to per- 
 sons who are out in the open air. 
 
320 PLYING REPTILES, FISHES, AND MOLLUSCS. 
 
 The end of summer or the beginning of autumn 
 is the best time for witnessing this remarkable pheno- 
 menon. Sometimes the Gossamer threads are so 
 numerous that a number of them become attached to 
 each other, and form large, light, flake-like masses. 
 In the early morning, before the dew is off the grass, 
 the fields present a wonderfully beautiful appearance, 
 the ground being covered, as far as the eye can see, 
 with snowy- white flakes, every line of which is studded 
 with multitudinous dewdrops glittering in the sun- 
 beams like rubies, sapphires, and emeralds. 
 
 This is one of the many beauties of nature that is 
 lost by those who do not rise early, and I am quite 
 sure that no one who has tasted the pleasures of a 
 country walk just after sunrise will be likely again to 
 waste the sweet morning hours in bed. 
 
 The reader will probably have noticed that I have 
 mentioned Flying Spiders in the plural, and not the 
 singular number. The reason is, that the term Gos- 
 samer Spider is only a general one, which is applicable 
 to a considerable number of species, mostly while the 
 creature is still young and light. The mode in which 
 the ascent is made is as follows : 
 
 The little Spider climbs a branch or plant, or even 
 a large stone, and raising its abdomen upwards, pro- 
 ceeds to emit from its spinnerets a fine thread. This 
 streams upwards in the air, which radiates from the 
 heated ground, and when the spider feels the upward 
 pull, it loosens the hold of its feet, and sails away into 
 the air, than which it and its thread parachute are a 
 trifle lighter. 
 
 As to the mode of its descent, I imagine that to be 
 
FLYING SPIDERS. 321 
 
 caused by the deposition on the thread of the moisture 
 which is floating in the air, and which may be seen on 
 the threads as I have described, glittering like rows of 
 gems. 
 
 The reason for these aerial excursions is not very 
 well ascertained, but, in all probability, food has some- 
 thing to do with it, as if the threads be intercepted 
 while in the air, and carefully examined, they will often 
 be found to have captured very minute insects, which 
 have adhered to their viscid surface. These insects 
 are so small that they are scarcely visible to the naked 
 eye, and would, in all probability, not be captured in 
 any other way. In size they are very suitable to their 
 captor, who is seldom larger than the tiny spiders 
 which are popularly called money-spinners, and which 
 are thought by some persons to bring good luck to 
 those on whom they may happen to settle. 
 
 A very good account of the Gossamer Spiders and 
 of their flight, may be found in Mr. Blackwall's splendid 
 work on the British Spiders. 
 
 21 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 (Smith 8bpgp&*4r*. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 TRESPASSERS PROM THE WATER UPON THE EARTH. 
 
 I SHALL divide this subject into two portions namely, 
 Trespassers upon the Earth,, and Trespassers in the 
 Earth. The former portion will comprise those re- 
 markable creatures which breathe by means of gills, 
 and are properly denizens of the water, but which are 
 able, by means of a simple modification of the breathing 
 organs, to exchange the water for the land, and to 
 live for a considerable time on shore without needing 
 to return to the water. 
 
 We will begin with the celebrated Climbing Perch 
 (Anabas scandens). This remarkable fish is spread 
 over a considerable part of Asia, and is tolerably 
 plentiful in Ceylon. 
 
 The reader may remember that I have already men- 
 tioned, when treating of air trespassers, that the gur- 
 nard is able to use its large pectoral fins like legs, and 
 
THE CLIMBING PERCH. 323 
 
 with their assistance to crawl along the bed of the 
 tank. In the Climbing Perch, not only the pectoral, 
 but the ventral fins are used for this purpose, the 
 sharp points of the rays being very strong, and 
 enabling the fish to hitch itself along the ground, 
 much as the snakes do by means of the projecting 
 edges of their ventral scales. 
 
 Aided by these modified fins, the Climbing Perch 
 is able not only to crawl about on the bed of the river, 
 but to go ashore and walk on the dry land, travelling 
 for considerable distances, and making its way over 
 obstacles which no fish would be thought likely to sur- 
 mount, and which would be absolutely insurmountable 
 by many an inhabitant of the land. 
 
 We shall presently revert to this part of the 
 subject. 
 
 This modification of the fins is seen to be developed 
 in a most remarkable manner in the Walking Fish 
 (Antennarius hispidus), which is shown on Cut 15, just 
 below the figure of the Climbing Perch. This is one 
 of a large group of fishes in which the pectoral fins 
 are set at the end of a pair of arms or legs, caused by 
 an elongation of the carpal bones. The external aper- 
 ture of the gills is exceedingly small, being reduced to 
 a little slit which is so small as almost to escape obser- 
 vation. The well-known Frog Fish, or Fishing Frog 
 (Lophius piscatorius) , belongs to this group. 
 
 One species, which was obtained by Mr. F. D. 
 Bennett at Oahu, remained alive for many hours after 
 it had been taken out of the water. " During this 
 time, its abdomen and throat remained distended to a 
 great size ; but previous to death, both air and water 
 
324 EAETH TRESPASSERS. 
 
 were evacuated from the mouth, and the body col- 
 lapsed. Dissection proved that the cavity of the 
 stomach was the part thus distended. This fish has 
 no ribs, though it has a very distinct sternum. Its 
 swim bladder is small, and of ovoid form. 
 
 ' ' The native name for the fish is obu te tai, or the 
 Sea Belly, expressive of the power it has of inflating 
 the abdomen to a large size." 
 
 These fishes are all tropical, and are mostly found 
 upon the vast masses of floating seaweed wldch are so 
 characteristic of these seas. Their peculiarly formed 
 leg- like fins aid them in walking over the weeds, and 
 they are further aided by their power of inflating the 
 body. 
 
 Perhaps the reader may ask for the reason why the 
 Climbicg Perch should be able to pass so much of its 
 time upon the land. It is to be found in the climate 
 and physical geography of the country in which they 
 live. The climate is hot, and the supply of water is 
 uncertain. Hence, if fishes are to exist at all, the 
 conditions of existence demand that they should not 
 require much water for respiration, that they should be 
 able to procure that limited supply of water wherever 
 it may be found, and that the means of transit shall be 
 supplied to them. If all or any of these conditions be 
 missing, this group of fishes must perish. 
 
 Now in the warmer parts of Asia, where these 
 fishes most abound, the supply of water is very un- 
 certain, and the pools become less and less in pro- 
 portion to the want of rain, sometimes drying up 
 altogether. Thus, the fish is in the proverbially 
 unpleasant position of being not only out of water, 
 
CUT 15. CLIMBING PERCH AND WALKING FISH. 
 
THE CLIMBING PERCH. 325 
 
 but without water ; and, if it did not possess some 
 special modification of structure, it would soon die. 
 
 This modification is to be found in a remarkable 
 apparatus, called, in learned language, the " super- 
 branchial organ/' a term which I will explain as 
 simply and briefly as possible. 
 
 It is composed, as too many scientific terms are, 
 of one Latin word and one Greek word. In this case, 
 the combination of the two signifies something that is 
 over the gills. If the respiratory apparatus of any of 
 these fishes be examined, it will be seen to be modified 
 in rather a remarkable manner. The aperture of the 
 gills is small and narrow, so that when the fish is out 
 of the water, there is but little loss of moisture by 
 evaporation. If the side of the head be opened, a 
 supplementary apparatus will be found just above the 
 gills, consisting of a number of very thin plates spring- 
 ing from one of the bony arches which support the 
 gills. Between these plates a considerable amount of 
 water is entangled, and serves to keep the gills moist 
 while the fish is out of the water. 
 
 In fact, there is a remarkable analogy between the 
 stomachs of the camel and the respiratory apparatus of 
 the Climbing Perch. In both cases there are excep- 
 tional conditions which require an exceptional structure. 
 In both cases the creature has to endure occasional 
 deprivation of water ; and in both cases it would die 
 if it did not possess some means of retaining an amount 
 of moisture sufficient to support life while it seeks for 
 fresh supplies of water. 
 
 Now, the camel has, as all naturalists know, a 
 stomach which is specially modified for the retention 
 
32G EARTH TRESPASSERS. 
 
 of water, so that the animal can at one time take in 
 enough water to serve it for three days, even in the 
 dry sands and under the burning sun of the African 
 desert. Thus provided, the camel is able to pass 
 through the desert which no other animal could 
 cross. The springs are very few, and some are several 
 days' journey from each other; but the camel can 
 cross the interval between them, sustained by the 
 internal supply of water, which can be gradually intro- 
 duced into the system as it is wanted. Here, again* 
 is another analogy with the blood reservoir of the 
 whales, which has already been described. 
 
 The water pools are to the Climbing Perch what 
 the springs are to the camel; and so we have the 
 remarkable fact that a fish is not only able to live out 
 of water, but to travel over land. Nor is this all that 
 it can do, for there is no doubt that the fish can not 
 only travel on land, but can really climb trees. A 
 report was current many years ago that it did possess 
 this power ; but it was thought to be one of the many 
 popular but false notions about living creatures that 
 had gradually fallen into disbelief. 
 
 It is now, however, certain that the Climbing 
 Perch does ascend the trunks of the palm-trees, for 
 the purpose of getting at the water which is generally 
 found lodged at the junction of the leaves with the 
 stem. In some species of palms this supply of water 
 is so plentiful that the name of Traveller's Trees has 
 been given to them. As long as any of these trees 
 can be found, a traveller need not fear thirst, as all he 
 has to do is to pierce the base of the leaf, and to hold 
 a vessel to receive the water which pours from it. 
 
THE CLIMBING PEECH. 327 
 
 The Climbing Perch would, therefore, find it no diffi- 
 cult matter to obtain the small quantity of water 
 which is needful for filling its respiratory reservoir. 
 From this remarkable habit, the fish has received the 
 name of Paneiri, or Tree-climber. 
 
 The life led by these fish during the dry season, 
 is very remarkable. They remain in their pools until 
 they are so far dried up that nothing but a little mud 
 is left at the bottom. They then find themselves 
 obliged to migrate in search of water j and always 
 choose the early morning for this purpose, so as to 
 avoid the hot rays of the sun. 
 
 In these expeditions they can travel to great 
 distances, and will pass over very rough ground. The 
 worst part of their journey is always that which is 
 nearest the pool. The cattle and wild animals come 
 to drink, and, as the water is gradually dried up, they 
 have to wade through the mud, into which their feet 
 sink, leaving deep holes. The burning rays of the sun 
 soon dry the mud, and bake it into a mass nearly as 
 hard as brick ; beside breaking it into wide and deep 
 cracks. The fishes cannot avoid these cracks, and all that 
 they can do is to make their way in and out of them. 
 
 Mr. Morris, who has supplied much useful informa- 
 tion on this subject, calculates that in travelling sixty 
 yards over this ground, the fishes had used sufficient 
 muscular exertion to have taken them half a mile over 
 level soil. Many of them lose their lives in these 
 pits ; not because they cannot climb out of them, but 
 because the crows, hawks, and other birds pounce 
 upon them while they are struggling to release them- 
 selves. 
 
328 EARTH TEESPASSEES. 
 
 How they find their way to the water is not known . 
 Their eyes being so close to the ground, they have but 
 little range of vision ; so that they cannot guide them- 
 selves by sight. Perhaps their sense of smell may 
 have something to do with it ; or they may possess a 
 sense which is unknown to us, by which they are 
 guided to the water. 
 
 This seems to be the case with the Crustacea, as 
 regards their food. If a number of shrimps and 
 prawns are in a tank, and a tiny piece of meat be 
 gently fplaced in the water and allowed to sink, the 
 creatures take no notice for some little time. But if 
 one of them happens to swim across the track of the 
 meat, it becomes all life and animation ; waves its 
 antennae here and there, like a dog hunting by scent, 
 and then, having got on the track, follows it up, and 
 seizes its food. A piece of shrimp or prawn will do 
 just as well as any meat, the Crustacea being terrible 
 cannibals. 
 
 If the water were quite still, there would be little 
 difficulty in understanding that the scent might be left 
 in it. But at the Crystal Palace aquarium the water 
 is perpetually driven through the tanks by a steam- 
 engine, spirting into them with such force that the 
 water is divided into a number of currents, crossing 
 each other in all directions, as may be seen by the 
 myriads of tiny air-bubbles which sparkle in it like 
 those of newly-opened soda-water. Not a drop of 
 water remains still for a second. The tiny column of 
 water through which the piece of food passed, and in 
 which its scent might have remained, was dispersed 
 over the entire tank before it escaped at the outlet . 
 
CEABS AS TRESPASSERS. 329 
 
 and yet the shrimps gave no sign until they came to 
 the narrow track of their food. It is possible, there- 
 fore, that the Climbing Perch may be attracted to the 
 water by a sense analogous to that which enables the 
 Crustacea to discover their prey. 
 
 The fishes can live for five or six days without a 
 fresh supply of water, and so have plenty of time in 
 which to make their migrations. When on shore they 
 keep the gill-covers open, so that the oxygen of the 
 atmosphere can play upon them, and they only need 
 just enough of the water to keep them moist. The 
 reader will remember that several of our own fish, such 
 as the carp, can live for several days if kept in wet 
 moss. 
 
 CRABS AS TRESPASSERS. 
 
 I suppose that there are few, if any, of my readers 
 who have not seen living crabs and lobsters on the 
 marble slab of a fishmonger's shop ; and have, per- 
 haps, when children, been quite astonished when they 
 found that lobsters were not red until they were 
 boiled. 
 
 Now these creatures had all been out of the sea for 
 many hours, and were yet lively and strong, as anyone 
 could testify who put his finger between their claws. 
 33 ow was it, then, that they were able to sustain life 
 under such conditions, while fish which came from the 
 sea at the same time were all dead ? This is a very 
 fair and reasonable question, and deserves a definite 
 answer. 
 
 The reader will remember that the climbing 
 
330 EARTH TRESPASSERS. 
 
 perch is able to sustain life while out of the water by 
 an apparatus which keeps the gills moist, and enables 
 them to perform their functions. A similar provision 
 is to be found in the crabs and lobsters, although it is 
 carried out in a different manner, which can be under- 
 stood by any one who will take the trouble of opening 
 a lobster. 
 
 When the shell of the " head," as it is called, is 
 removed, there are seen on either side a number of 
 whitish pointed objects, which go by the popular name 
 of "lady's fingers," and are rejected as uneatable. 
 If one of these fingers be removed and bent, it will be 
 seen to consist of a vast number of delicate plates set 
 very closely side by side. These are the gills or 
 respiratory apparatus of the lobster; and, as long as 
 they are kept moist, the creature can live. 
 
 Being protected as they are by that portion of the 
 shell which encloses them, and is technically known 
 as the carapace, there is but little evaporation ; while 
 their great comparative volume enables them to retain 
 a considerable amount of water. Should they become 
 at all dry, their moisture "may be renewed by a short 
 dip in the water, and the animal has another lease of 
 life. 
 
 Not all the Crustacea can thus endure a long 
 absence from the water ; but there are several species 
 which can survive without water for many days ; and 
 there are some which live almost entirely on land, and 
 only pay occasional visits to the water. 
 
 One of this species, the Robber Crab (Birgus latro), 
 presents a curiously exact parallel to the climbing 
 perch : not only being able to live for a considerable 
 
THE BOBBER CEAB. 331 
 
 time without water, but also possessing the ability to 
 climb trees, which power it shares with others whose 
 form seems less adapted for such a feat. 
 
 This Crab is found in the various islands of the 
 Indian Ocean; and is a very odd-looking creature, 
 appearing something like a compromise between a 
 lobster, a crab, and a river cray-fish. It has very long 
 and powerful legs, very large claws, and a very little 
 abdomen. 
 
 It is almost as complete a trespasser as is the 
 whale or the dolphin, for it passes almost the whole of 
 its time upon land, and only visits the sea once in 
 twenty-four hours, when it takes a dip, and then 
 returns to its home. This home is essentially terres- 
 trial, for it consists of a deep burrow excavated by the 
 Crab, and in this retreat it passes the greater part of 
 its time. 
 
 Most of the Crustacea are carnivorous, as is seen in 
 sea crabs, lobsters, and shrimps, which make short 
 work of a drowned sailor if they can get at him. 
 When a disfigured corpse is thrown ashore, the fishes 
 generally have the credit of the defacement, but it is 
 really due to the crabs, lobsters, and shrimps. The 
 reader is perhaps aware that " shell fish/' as they are 
 called, which are supplied by our fishmongers, have 
 been caught in traps which were baited with butcher's 
 offal. 
 
 The Robber Crab, however, is vegetarian, and lives 
 almost entirely on cocoa-nuts. 
 
 I have placed this Crab at the head of its kind 
 because I think it to be the most extraordinary example 
 of trespassing that can well be imagined. Let the 
 
332 EARTH TEESPASSEES. 
 
 reader just imagine himself cast on a desert island 
 with no tools, with nothing to eat but cocoa-nuts, and 
 these on the top of a palm-tree which waves about 
 in every breeze. I know that, under such circum- 
 stances, nine out of every ten men would starve to 
 death. 
 
 Putting aside the difficulty of climbing the tree, 
 even if a cocoa-nut happened to fall, they could not 
 easily get at its contents. Cocoa-nuts, when fresh 
 from the tree, are surrounded with a thick coating of 
 hard, matted fibre, which bears about the same rela- 
 tion to the nut itself as the fruit of a peach does to its 
 stone. A human being would find himself rather at a 
 loss to get at the interior of a nut ; and yet the Robber 
 Crab can supply itself with nuts, and open them as 
 easily as the attendant at a fishmonger's shop opens 
 oysters. 
 
 Should no nut have fallen, the Crab can climb the 
 tree and fling the nuts down, descending afterwards to 
 feed on the banquet which it has provided for itself. 
 It begins by inserting its claws into the outer coating, 
 and tearing it away piecemeal. When it has thus ex- 
 tracted the nut from its covering, it sets to work at 
 the task of opening it. Anyone who has seen a cocoa- 
 nut is aware that at one end there are three circular 
 spots, much softer than the shell of the nut, these 
 being, in fact, the apertures through which the young 
 palm plant springs when the nut is buried in the 
 ground. One of these is much softer than the rest, and 
 into it the Kobber Crab fixes its claw. Holding the 
 nut in this manner, the Crab bangs it against a stone, 
 breaks the shell, and then feasts on the contents. 
 
THE LAND CRAB. 333 
 
 Nor is this all. In its burrow, the Crab requires a 
 bed in order to be comfortable, and this bed it pro- 
 cures by taking the outer covering of the nut, tearing 
 it into fibres, and carrying it in bundles into its 
 burrow. The amount of this fibre which a single Crab 
 will thus stow away is so great that the Malay sailors 
 are in the habit of robbing them in order to obtain 
 material for caulking the seams of their vessels. 
 
 As may be supposed from the strength which is 
 needed in tearing up the outer cover of the nut and 
 breaking the shell, the Ecbber Crab is a large species. 
 When full grown it is about two feet in length, and 
 when it walks it stands a full foot from the ground. 
 The flesh of these Crabs is considered to be excellent. 
 
 The reader may probably be aware that there are 
 many species of Crab which go under the collective 
 name of "Land Crab," because, like the preceding 
 species, they pass the greater part of their time on 
 land, only visiting the water at intervals for the pur- 
 pose of moistening the gills. Some of them are so 
 remarkable for their speed when on shore, that they 
 have gained the name of Eacer Crabs. They can 
 easily beat a man on foot, and to capture one of these 
 creatures is a most difficult task, requiring the assist- 
 ance of several persons, who drive it backwards and 
 forwards until it is tired. Being gifted with this 
 speed of limb, they think nothing of a long journey, 
 and accordingly make their habitations at a consider- 
 able distance from the sea. In a favourable spot, the 
 earth will be absolutely riddled with their burrows, 
 even though the spot be several miles from the sea. 
 
334 EARTH TRESPASSERS. 
 
 Sometimes the locality which is selected is not agree- 
 able to the human inhabitants of the place. For 
 example, in several parts of Ceylon, they have chosen 
 to burrow in the public road, and have become absolute 
 nuisances. They could not be extirpated, and, in 
 consequence, a number of labourers were perpetually 
 employed in filling up all the holes which the Land 
 Crabs make. 
 
 Sometimes they had a grewsome way of choosing 
 the cemeteries for their burrowing places. As the 
 flesh of the Land Crab is considered a delicacy, the 
 European residents are careful in ascertaining the 
 dwelling-place of the Crabs which are brought to their 
 tables. The negroes, however, are by no means fas- 
 tidious, saying, with some justice, "Land Crab eat 
 black man, black man eat he." For the Land Crabs 
 follow the general custom of Crustacea, and are car- 
 nivorous in their nature, eating anything in the way of 
 animal substances that they can get, so that a dead 
 negro affords a great feast for them. 
 
 These crabs are so completely acclimatized to the 
 land, that even when they have to cast off" their shells 
 at the moulting season, they retire to their burrows 
 for that purpose, block up the entrance, and remain 
 there until the new shell has hardened. 
 
 Perhaps there are a few of my readers who are not 
 acquainted with the curious Crustacea called Hermit 
 Crabs, or Soldier Crabs, which inhabit the shells of 
 dead molluscs, and walk about with perfect ease, 
 trailing their borrowed habitations behind them. They 
 are very common along our coasts, and mostly inhabit 
 
THE HERMIT CRAB. 335 
 
 the shells of whelks or periwinkles. The dog whelk 
 is a very favourite shell with them. They are forced 
 to occupy this curious habitation, because they have 
 the abdomen quite soft, and without any shelly cover- 
 ing, so that if they could not procure an artificial pro- 
 tection, they would be liable to great danger. In order 
 to enable them to hold themselves firmly in their habi- 
 tation, they are furnished with some claspers at the 
 end of the tail. 
 
 The boatmen and fishermen of our coasts firmly 
 believe that the Hermit Crabs are the young of 
 lobsters, and no amount of reasoning can persuade 
 them to the contrary. 
 
 In our country they never attain any great size, the 
 whelk being the largest shell that they are likely to 
 find. In the tropical seas, however, they grow to a 
 very great size, and inhabit the shores in vast numbers. 
 We shall see, from the following description by Mr. 
 F. D. Bennett, in his " Whaling Voyage," that, like 
 the Robber Crab, which has just been described, the 
 great Hermit Crabs of the tropics possess the power 
 of climbing trees. I may here add that the Robber 
 Crab itself is allied to the Hermit Crabs, but as its tail 
 is covered with shelly plates, like those of the ordinary 
 lobster, it does not need any additional protection. 
 
 " The entire island is covered with Hermit Crabs, 
 or Land Lobsters (Ccenobati Sp.), occupying the shells 
 of Turbo argyrostoma. They bore a general resem- 
 blance to the largest species of Pagurus we found in 
 the reef waters of the Society Isles, but different 
 essentially from it in generic character, as well as in 
 possessing terrestrial habits. 
 
336 
 
 EARTH TRESPASSERS. 
 
 " The anterior and crustaceous portion of the 
 animal (or that usually protruded from its tenement), 
 is bright red, while the posterior and covered part of 
 the body is flaccid, and of a yellow colour. The left 
 forceps claw is larger than the right, though both are 
 shorter than the first pair of legs ; the eyes (ophthalmic 
 peduncles) are long, and admirably adapted to afford 
 a wide range of vision when the Coenobita is closely 
 retracted within the shell it inhabits. 
 
 ' ' Their odour is peculiar and disagreeable. 
 
 " They were for the most part assembled in dense 
 crowds, beneath bushes, or in shallow excavations at 
 the roots of trees ; though some of them, notwith- 
 standing the cumbrous shells they carried, were clus- 
 tered on the branches or in the crevices of trees. It 
 was evident that, with- the assistance of their forceps 
 claws, they could climb a perpendicular height with 
 great facility. 
 
 "It is a curious fact, that the most unique and 
 elegant univalve sea shell in my collection was 
 gathered from the branch of a tree, whither it had 
 been conveyed by one of these creatures. When 
 alarmed, they retreated, bearing their shells with 
 them, but if touched, they shrank into the cavity of 
 their dwellings and remained motionless. They some- 
 times, though very rarely, used their forceps in self- 
 defence. When irritated, they produce a shrill croak, 
 alternating with a rapid succession of sipping sounds. 
 
 "We preserved several of them alive for many 
 weeks. They ate both animal and vegetable sub- 
 stance, as fish, land crabs, yams, and cocoa-nut. It 
 was amusing to see them feed, uipping off, with much 
 
THE HERMIT CRAB. 337 
 
 nicety, a portion of the food with their forceps, and 
 carrying it to their mouth, where it was received by 
 the two small appendages in front of that organ. 
 
 " Night was their most busy time. When removed 
 from their borrowed tenements., they easily regained 
 them, and resumed their former position, while the 
 vast number of empty shells strewn over the land 
 indicated how frequently they changed their habitation 
 during their progress to a mature growth." 
 
 In some places the shore is so covered with these 
 Hermit Crabs, that when they are alarmed, and scuttle 
 off for shelter, they make a great rattling as they 
 bump their temporary house over the stones and 
 among the empty shells which are strewn upon the 
 shore. 
 
 In connection with the land-trespassing powers of 
 the climbing perch and other fishes, it may here be 
 mentioned that the Eels have great power, not only of 
 existing on land, but of travelling over it. They 
 wriggle themselves along with a sinuous movement 
 like that of the serpent tribe, and can proceed for a 
 considerable distance and with tolerable speed. They 
 appear to prefer the early dawn for their migration, 
 probably because the dew is still on the ground, and 
 moistens the grass through which they thread their 
 way. 
 
 The power of living out of the water is due to a 
 modification of the breathing apparatus, which is 
 identical in principle, if not in details of structure, to 
 that which produces the same effect in the fishes and 
 Crustacea which we have lately examined. For the 
 
 22 
 
338 EARTH TRESPASS BBS. 
 
 Eel, indeed, such a structure is absolutely necessary, 
 and that for the same reason which makes it useful in 
 the climbing perch. 
 
 Although the Eels live much in rivers, they find a 
 larger supply of food in ponds and ditches than in 
 rivers; and accordingly, such places are generally 
 well stocked with Eels. For example, not far from 
 my house there is a little^ muddy, narrow ditch, 
 scarcely seven or eight feet wide, running parallel 
 with the Thames, and only divided from it by the 
 river wall. This ditch is a favourite resort for Eels, 
 which find their way into it through the channels by 
 which the ditch communicates with the river ; and, 
 being there, prefer their new quarters. 
 
 Such fortunate Eels as these would not need to 
 migrate. Being able to exist in salt water as well as 
 in fresh, they do not feel themselves discommoded 
 by the sea water which flows into their ditches every 
 tide. They have plenty of frogs and aquatic inhabit- 
 ants for food ; and, owing to its connection with the 
 river, the ditch never runs dry. 
 
 But it is a different business when the Eel gets 
 'into ponds unconnected with springs, or into ditches 
 that have no communication with rivers. In a time of 
 lengthened drought they are sure to dry up, and then 
 the Eels must perish, unless they could find some way 
 of travelling to the water. Accordingly, the power of 
 existing without water for a time is given to them by 
 the modification of the breathing organs ; while the 
 means of transit is afforded by the sinuous movement 
 of the snake-like body. 
 
 On Cut 1 7, two species of Eel are shown, the upper 
 
THE EELS. 339 
 
 figure representing the River Eel, and the lower, the 
 marine Conger Bel. In the opinion of fishermen, the 
 power of existing out of the water is anything but 
 agreeable to them ; for the Conger lashes so furiously 
 with its tail, and snaps so fiercely with its powerful 
 jaws, that if it be a large one, they are obliged to 
 kill it before they dare to haul it on board. 
 
 Mention may also be made here of the curious little 
 West Indian fishes called by the name of Four-Eyes, 
 in which an adaptation of the organs of vision exists 
 similar to that found in the Whirlwig beetle. When 
 undisturbed, they seem to spend more of their time 
 ashore than in the water, lying stranded on the shallow 
 bank as shown in Cut 16. If alarmed, they scuttle 
 into the water, returning in shoals to land as soon as 
 the cause of their fear is removed. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 TRESPASSERS WITHIN THE EARTH. 
 
 We now come to the second division of this subject, 
 namely, those creatures which pass most or a con- 
 siderable portion of their time under the surface of the 
 ground, and resort there for food or safety, or both. 
 The actual proprietors of the dominion of Earth, we 
 may take to be these annelids, of which the common 
 
340 EARTH TRESPASSERS. 
 
 Earth-worm of the land, and the Lug- worm of the sea, 
 may be accepted as typical examples. 
 
 The animal which at once suggests itself to the 
 mind is that which not only shares the domain of 
 earth with the worms, but feeds upon them, and there- 
 fore must be able to follow them wherever they go, 
 namely, the common Mole. This animal has long 
 been such a favourite of mine, and its life has always 
 appeared to me to be so exceedingly wonderful, that I 
 have already written much about it, and do not wish to 
 repeat myself. I will therefore restrict myself entirely 
 to the modifications of structure which enable it to 
 trespass upon the domain of earth. 
 
 It is evident that the first requisite for an earth 
 burrower is the possession of effective digging tools, 
 and these are found in the two fore legs of the Mole. 
 The hind legs are quite insignificant and feeble, all 
 their strength seeming to have been lent to the front 
 pair of limbs. In them, the bones are short, strong, 
 and there is a supplementary bone at the shoulder, 
 which affords attachment to the muscles used in 
 digging, as well as giving a powerful leverage. 
 
 Then the shape and general structure of the fore 
 paws, armed with their formidable nails, is worthy of 
 notice, as producing a digging tool which is almost, if 
 not quite, unrivalled. The muscular strength pos- 
 sessed by the Mole can hardly be estimated until the 
 creature be taken in the hand. 
 
 This, however, is a dangerous experiment if the 
 animal is to be kept alive; for it uses all its great 
 power in its efforts to escape ; the strong muscles 
 being plainly felt as they work under the skin, and 
 
THE MOLE. 341 
 
 the creature can hardly be detained without holding it 
 tightly. This, however, is sure to kill the Mole, 
 which is curiously sensitive to a grasp round the waist ; 
 and, although no signs of injury can be detected, 
 the animal is sure to die before many hours have 
 elapsed. It is a strangely delicate animal ; and, in 
 spite of the ferocity, and even the fury of its dispo- 
 sition, seems to have but little hold on life. 
 
 Only a few days before writing this account, a 
 professional mole-catcher brought me a fine specimen. 
 Not having by me a large box or tub in which I could 
 put some earth, I placed the animal in a box which 
 had been filled with specimens of auriferous quartz 
 from Brazil. Some of the dust was still left in the 
 corners, and this appeared to be fatal to the Mole, 
 which ran about with great fussiness, poking its long, 
 mobile muzzle into each corner, and seeming to be 
 quite distressed at the dust. 
 
 Its movements became perceptibly slower; and 
 before an hour had elapsed, the Mole was dead. It 
 would not even touch one of the worms for which I 
 sent the gardener as soon as it arrived ; and, from that 
 unwonted abstinence, I augured bad things ; the Mole 
 generally flying at a worm as if it were mad.' 
 
 By what sense the animal .is able to trace its prey, 
 or how it can manage to find its way through the 
 innumerable tunnels which it drives, at all kinds of 
 levels, are two problems which have hitherto remained 
 unsolved. Anyone who has seen a worm jerk itself 
 into its hole, can appreciate the quickness with which 
 it can pass through its narrow tunnel ; and it certainly 
 is a mystery to me how the Mole can manage to 
 
342 EARTH TRESPASSERS. 
 
 capture the worms. These annelids are slow movers 
 on the surface of the earth ; but in their holes they 
 move like lightning, being aided by the stiff, bristly 
 hairs that project from the many rings of which the 
 body is composed, and which are set against the sides 
 of the tunnel. 
 
 When, for example, the worms come to the surface, 
 they do not leave their holes entirely, but always keep 
 the end of the tail within the hole, stretching the body 
 as far as possible in all directions. If under these 
 circumstances they are alarmed, they spring back with 
 such rapidity, that the eye can scarcely follow the 
 movement. That there is some sort of a pursuing on 
 the part of the Mole, and flight on that of the worm, 
 is, I think, obvious from the fact that whenever the 
 earth is agitated, either by stamping on it, or by 
 driving a spade into the ground and moving it back- 
 wards and forwards, the worms come to the surface, 
 evidently in flight from their enemy the Mole. The 
 reader will see, therefore, how difficult must be the 
 task of the Mole. And this difficulty is increased 
 when we reflect upon the furiously raging appetite of 
 the Mole, and the great number of worms which it 
 devours in the course of a day. 
 
 The next point is its ability of finding its way 
 through the maze of dark tunnels which it constructs. 
 Even if they were not dark, there would be no means 
 of distinguishing one from the other, all being exactly 
 alike. I suppose that the action of gravity tells the 
 Mole the way to the upper earth ; but I have not the 
 least idea how it can find its way to the elaborate 
 subterranean fortress which it constructs under the 
 
CUT 18. MOLE AND SLEPEZ. 
 
THE SLEPEZ. 343 
 
 roots of some tree or bush, and from which its tunnels 
 radiate in all directions. 
 
 A figure of the Mole is given on Cut 18. 
 
 That the title of blind is often applied, though 
 wrongly, to the Mole, is familiarly known. That 
 animal, however, does possess a pair of veritable eyes, 
 very tiny, but still eyes, may be seen by blowing 
 away the fur. 
 
 But in the Slepez, sometimes called the Mole Rat 
 (Spalax typJdus), the external eyes are absolutely 
 wanting, being represented by a couple of little black 
 specks under the skin. The Slepez, like the Mole, 
 passes a subterranean life, and seems never to come to 
 the surface of the earth except to bask in the sun. Even 
 in that case, it imitates the worm in remaining close 
 to its burrow, into which it plunges at the least alarm. 
 
 There is one great distinction between the Mole 
 and the Slepez. The food of the former is wholly of 
 an animal nature ; while that of the latter is, as far as 
 is. known, wholly of a vegetable nature. As the Mole 
 feeds upon the worms which it captures under ground, 
 so does the Slepez feed upon the roots of plants ; both 
 animals procuring their food without showing them- 
 selves above the surface of the ground. Whether or 
 not the Slepez can be reckoned as beautiful, is a 
 mooted point. That the Mole is one of the most 
 useful wild animals in our country is now recognized ; 
 inasmuch as it does not damage the crops j and it; 
 renders inestimable service in admitting air and rain 
 into the earth, as well as bringing fresh soil from 
 below, and placing it on the surface, where it acts as 
 
344 
 
 EARTH TRESPASSERS. 
 
 a "top-dressing." In these latter respects the two 
 animals are tolerably equal; but it may be said 
 against the Slepez, that the good which it does in 
 removing the soil is counterbalanced by the harm 
 which it does in devouring the roots. 
 
 There is a very remarkable animal which was, I 
 believe, discovered by the laie Mr. J. K. Lord in 
 British Columbia, or, at all events, he was the first to 
 notice its habits. It is an insectivorous mammal, 
 about as large as an ordinary shrew-mouse. Like the 
 Slepez, it has no eyes, and apparently possesses but 
 little sense of hearing, all sensation seeming to be 
 comprised in its nose. This again is very much elon- 
 gated, and, according to Mr. Lord, " is terminated in 
 a naked, fleshy kind of a bulb gland, and this gland is 
 pierced by two minute holes, which are the nostrils. 
 Each nostril has a little fold of membrane hanging 
 down over it like a shutter, effectually preventing sand 
 and minute particles of dust from getting into the nose 
 while digging. It belongs to the genus Urotrichus. 
 
 This animal has a central house something like 
 that of the mole, and from that it cuts a number of 
 radiating tunnels, having frequent openings into the air. 
 Mr. Lord is of opinion that these tunnels are simply 
 used as roadways, not as means of obtaining food. 
 
 Mr. Lord's account of the habits of this animal is 
 so graphic that I cannot resist the temptation of trans- 
 ferring a portion of it to these pages, for a better 
 description of the life of an earth trespasser can hardly 
 be found. 
 
 " As he digs out the tunnel with his trowel hands, 
 
THE SLEPEZ. 345 
 
 he throws back the earth towards his hind feet. 
 These, from their peculiar shape, enable him to back 
 this dirt out of the hole, using them like two scrapers, 
 only that he pushes the dirt away instead of pulling 
 it towards himself. Having backed the dirt clear of 
 the mouth of the hole, he throws it out over the edge 
 of the open cutting. After having dug some distance, 
 and finding, I dare say, the labour of backing out 
 rather irksome, he digs up through the ground to the 
 surface, makes another open cutting, and then begins 
 a new hole or tunnel, and disappears into the earth 
 again. When he has gone as far from his dormitory 
 as he deems wise, he again digs through, and clears 
 away the rubbish. This road is now complete, so he 
 goes back again to his central mansion, to begin 
 others at his leisure. 
 
 " He is a night-feeder, and exposed to terrible 
 dangers from the various small carnivova that prowl 
 about like bandits in the dark stoats, weasels, mar- 
 tens, and skunks. So to avoid and escape these 
 enemies, he comes quietly along the subterranean 
 roadways, and cautiously emerging at the open 
 cutting, feels about with his wonderful nose ; and, I 
 doubt not, guided by a sense of smell, pounces upon 
 larvae, slugs, beetles, or any nocturnal creeping thing 
 he can catch ; and so traversing his different hunting 
 trails during the night, manages in that way to fare 
 sumptuously and safe from danger. 
 
 "It is scarcely possible to imagine a more skilfully 
 contrived hunting system, to avoid danger and facili- 
 tate escape, than are these tunnel trails with open 
 cuttings. For the shy little hunter has, on the slightest 
 
346 EAKTH TRESPASSERS. 
 
 alarm, two means of flight at his disposal, one before 
 and another behind him, and the fur, lying as evenly 
 when smoothed from tail to head as it does when 
 turned in the natural direction, enables him to turn 
 astern, and retreat, tail first, into his hole, as easily as 
 he would go head first. 
 
 "When we contemplate this grotesque and 
 strangely formed little creature, and see how wisely 
 and wonderfully it is fashioned and adapted to its 
 destined place, supplying another link in the great 
 chain of Nature, we cannot but feel God's power and 
 omnipresence. 
 
 " Feeding in the dark, and living in the dark, eyes 
 would have been superfluous. Sound, save from 
 vibration in the earth, or when hunting at the open 
 cuttings, would seldom reach the tiny hermits. Hence, 
 the hearing organs have no external appendage for 
 catching sounds, and are but in a rudimentary form. 
 
 " Hands fashioned with marvellous digging tools, 
 and hind feet turned into scrapers, for getting rid of 
 the rubbish dug out with the hands ; nose possessing 
 smell and touch in their most exquisite forces ; these 
 serve him for guides of unerring certainty and unde- 
 viating precision through his darksome wanderings." 
 
 There are many other earth- trespassing animals 
 which I should well like to describe, but must omit, 
 on account of our fast -waning space. I cannot, how- 
 ever, but mention that extraordinary little being, the 
 Pichiciago of Chili (Chlamyphorus truncatus), which is 
 at the same time one of the rarest and the most 
 curious of the mammalia. 
 
THE PICHICIAGO. 347 
 
 It is a little bit of a creature, only a few inches in 
 length, and possessing a suit of shelly armour much 
 like that of the armadillo, except that the hind 
 quarters are also covered with shelly plates. Beneath 
 the shell, if we may so call it, there is a coating of 
 shining yellow hair, looking very much like floss silk. 
 
 There are two points about this remarkable animal 
 which are worthy of notice, the one being the mode 
 in which the hind quarters are protected, and the other 
 the manner in which the shelly covering is affixed to 
 the body. 
 
 As to the first point, there is a curious and very 
 striking analogy between the armour of the Pichiciago 
 and the shell of the testacella slug. This creature feeds 
 on worms, which it follows down their holes, and in 
 order to be protected from any foe that might follow it in 
 the rear, it has a small shell on the end of its tail. This 
 shell prevents the slug from being assailed from behind, 
 and is clearly analogous to the armour of the Pichiciago. 
 
 The next point is the mode of affixing the shelly 
 plates. In most mammals which possess similar 
 armour, such as the armadillo, the manis, etc., the 
 armour is a mere growth from the skin, and can be 
 removed with the skin. But in the Pichiciago, we 
 have the remarkable fact that the framework which 
 supports the horny armour is attached to the skeleton, 
 as may be seen by examining the specimen to be seen 
 in the British Museum. 
 
 As to the partial earth trespassers among the 
 mammalia, they are far too many to be described, or 
 even enumerated. I will therefore merely content 
 
348 EARTH TRESPASSERS. 
 
 myself with mentioning a few which are inhabitants of 
 our country, and which are represented on Plate VI. 
 
 On the upper part of the plate is shown the 
 common Badger, which was once so plentiful in Eng- 
 land, and is now so rare, the progress of agriculture 
 having driven it from so many spots where once it 
 dwelt in safety. 
 
 Next comes the Fox, another of the partial earth 
 trespassers. Like the Badger, the Fox remains in its 
 tunnel, or " earth," as it is popularly called, during 
 the day, and only issues forth at night for the purpose 
 of procuring food. 
 
 Then there are the Eabbits, which, as far as earth 
 trespassing goes, have many of the habits of the 
 badger and the fox, except that their food is of a 
 vegetable and not an animal nature. 
 
 Although they are not so strictly nocturnal as the 
 two preceding animals, they always prefer the very 
 early morning or the evening dusk for issuing from 
 their burrows. I scarcely know a prettier sight than 
 that of the Rabbits somewhere about sunrise on a 
 summer's day. They are not accustomed to be dis- 
 turbed at that time, and, in consequence, play about 
 with a freedom which they scarcely ever assume at any 
 other time of day. 
 
 Lastly, we have the Field Mice, which are by no 
 means nocturnal, like their fellows the house mice, but 
 boldly leave their burrows and search for food in 
 broad day, trusting to the manner in which their hues 
 blend with those of the ground, the resemblance being 
 so perfect that scarcely any eye but that of the kestrel 
 can detect them. 
 
PLATE VI. 
 
 FOX, BADGER, RABBIT, AND FIELD MOUSE. 
 
TERMITES. 349 
 
 I shall end this work with brief descriptions of 
 two remarkable earth trespassers among the insects, 
 both of which are popularly called Ants, though, they 
 are as far apart as are the cat and the rabbit. 
 
 Yet, diverse as they are in the scale of creation, 
 their resemblance to each other, both in appearance 
 and habits, is extraordinarily close. I have now before 
 me a box full of Termites and Travelling Ants, and I 
 am quite sure that no one who was not a practical 
 entomologist could distinguish between the Termites 
 and the Ants. In both there are the remarkable gra- 
 dations of soldier and labourer ; in both there is the 
 dislike to light; and in both there is the habit of 
 constructing for t themselves habitations which shall 
 keep from them the unwelcome rays of the sun. 
 
 We will first take the Termites. 
 
 The illustration on Cut 1 9 represents a portion of 
 the nest laid open, and is drawn from a specimen in 
 the British Museum. 
 
 I have not space to relate the whole of the won- 
 derful life led by the various species of Termite, inas- 
 much as the whole of the present volume would not 
 suffice for such a biography. Suffice it to say that all 
 the Termites have the strongest objection to light, 
 and that they have various ways of protecting them- 
 selves from it. Some of them build galleries for 
 themselves, while some are content to burrow into 
 wood and similar substances, sometimes even boring 
 into trees, and eating out the whole of the interior, 
 and leaving nothing but a thin shell. 
 
 As an example of the manner in which the Ter- 
 
350 
 
 EARTH TKESPA.SSERS. 
 
 mites will burrow into a tree until it is nothing but a 
 shell, I may mention an adventure which befel Mr. E. 
 Sullivan, and which is related by him in his work, 
 " The Bungalow and the Tent." 
 
 He had disturbed an elephant, which charged 
 fiercely, and very nearly caught him. At last he 
 saw a fairly sized tree, from which hung a " bush- 
 
 cur XX. TEAVELLING ANTS. 
 
 rope," one of the creeping plants of which the jungle 
 is so full. He sprung at the rope, ascended about 
 twenty feet, and had the satisfaction of seeing the 
 elephant pass beneath him and lose the track. 
 
 "It was not until I had descended from my retreat 
 that I was aware of the actual danger I had escaped. 
 The tree was entirely hollowed out and consumed by 
 
TRAVELLING ANTS. 351 
 
 the White Ant, and nothing but the shell remained. 
 Had I been a stone or two heavier, it is probable it 
 would not have borne me, and as it was, if the elephant 
 had seen me and pulled at the tree, it would have 
 crumbled down like so much paper/' 
 
 It has often happened that travellers have casually 
 snapped a branch of a tree, and have been very much 
 surprised at being covered with Termites which have 
 issued from it. 
 
 Now as to the Travelling Ants, which are shown 
 in the illustration. These creatures act, when on the 
 march, just as do soldiers when pushing their way 
 towards a battery. They always keep themselves 
 under cover, and in a most extraordinary manner, and 
 with wonderful speed, build covered galleries, under 
 the shelter of which they can proceed unmolested by 
 the unwelcome light. 
 
 Simmons & Botten, Printers, Shoe Lane, Fleet Street, E.C.