UNIVERSI 
 
 RE 
 
 Professor Bird T. Baldwin, Ph. D., Editor 
 
 Frori; the Iowa Child V.elfare Research Station. 
 
 er I 
 
 THE PHYSICS GROWTH OF CHILDREN 
 FROIvl BIRTH :T0 MATURITY 
 
 *y 
 
 Bird T. Baldwin 
 
 Director and Research Professor 
 of Educational Psychology 
 
 
 Published by the University, Iowa Cii 
 
Uc 
 
measur 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 .'HROFOIETRIC UfSTEUMBNTS k 'HODS OF BSEASURlHG 
 
 The international standardization of instruments $4$, methods 'fqr takinr 
 rements on living subjects is of paramount import arid ie 5 itf the 'securing; 
 of comparable data for the science of physical growth . -The^ 26\raKCh*Ld '■ 
 
 ■are Research Station has established through cooperation' and^ collaboration 
 witn other scientific organizations and laboratories, standard instruments' 
 accurate technique and uniformity of anthropometric methods within the fields 
 limited to child development. Since the establishment of the Station there 
 has beer, close cooperation with some of the leading anthropometrists in 
 
 Kj^'/y^W*^ d , ivi3i0n 0f anthropology of the National Research 
 Council and the United Hates National Museum of the Smithsonian Institution 
 Washington D.C. Dr. f. Hrdlicka spent one week at the Station assisting ' 
 in formulating methods of procedure for the anthropometric work. It hasten 
 through his co-operation that the compasses and calipers have been obtained. 
 Rie other instruments have been made in the University shops, under fhe 
 writer's direction. The aim has been to secure: 
 
 (1) Instruments with accurate units of measure in the metric syster. 
 
 (2). Light, convenient, portable instruments of non- expandable 
 material and simple design. 
 
 (3) Uniformity in standards of technique for measur in . 
 
 (4) The acceptance of definite land-marks for determining measurements. 
 
 1. Instruments ' 
 
 if ioa « Jr™^ f aS " r i nS 52*1- This *»*• ° f P lane » "hioh is a mod- 
 ification ortES-piane of Broca, was originally suggested by the Committee 
 on Anthropology of the National Research Council; it has been modified 
 
 of the Z\$1 ? r - nt6 f by a l0 ° al Printer ' The P lane consists of a strip 
 
 of the best type, of inextensible and unshrinkable paper, one meter Ion, and 
 
 el 8 V o%^ a *"? ?«««*•» ^oad, with the metrfo'difi:^ o^the fi^ht 
 edge of the scale in centimeters and millimeters, and the Englieh on the 
 left edge in feet, inches and fifths of an Inckfr and with' a margin on each 
 n»vl ° ? I / and alS ° at the *° P and hott ™- *> a «^Pt w^f made to 
 
 ablndonec :..d S tb e *" ^ "°"? e " ** m ^ * *™^™», ^ this "un^as 
 abandoned, and the printed scale was substituted. Since the slues used 
 
 tbe P linf V^ a UtUe l9S3 than ' 5 ™' in thiclo,... and the width of 
 
 the line introduces a constant error, it was necessary to use strips of thin 
 
 tanc 3 r a Lraterr::Vu h :i t : p8rate slues and *> — -j ^£^-2" 
 
 The paper plane has been used far several months and *here has b BP n „» 
 appreciate shrinkage under usual weather conditions. t! chief advent™™ 
 
 iLul I v 6 / re tHat 1* iS P° rtaWe . ■* ^ sent throurb the mail and V 
 easily tacked or pasted to a wall or a specially prepared board rhTLJ^- 
 can be standardized, which is not possible with a rod" Position 
 
 L. ^ fi 7 6 ailli *<* e r """ has been used in place of the one millimeter 
 the *£ "■"*»«' "°" be00KeS a:le t0 eStinat ' : the »illi»eter S accurately 
 
 tne S: of S :J, atiSU . lnG V° the 6yeS "* there is - a <*ded intere t'i„ 
 the e5.im».ion of each particular case for measurement. ?he paper plane in 
 
 605624 
 
N DEPC 
 
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 is a narrow strip 5mm. thick, in which is cut an opening that serves as a 
 handle. The square which is used for the three measurements just stated 
 above was co structed in the University Shops. 
 
 c. The Bench. The bench, also constructed in the University Shops, 
 is used for height sitting. It is made of thoroughly seasoned walnut. Two 
 sizes have been adoped, one 50 cm. in height by 30 cm. square, the other 
 
 40 cm. in height by 40- cm. s , For adults, it is recommended that a third 
 size, 50 cm. square be used. 
 
 d. large Sliding Calipers. The large sliding caliper is the Erdlicl 
 compass made in Washington Tor the Research station and tester ureau 
 of Standards. This compass has also been made by Collin in P^ris. The 
 caliper consists of a hollow rod, 70 cm. long, 2.2cm. broad and 0.8 cm. thiok, 
 made of well nickeled and welded brass strips; and of aluminum branches, 
 
 26 cm. long (in the free) and 3.5 cm. broad. It is light, very serviceable 
 durable, easy-forking, and accurate. 
 
 e. Small Sliding Calipers . The sliding caliper (co. "issiere) 
 made in Washington and tested by the Bureau of Standards. This is the Collin 
 Compass and is accurately and well designed. 
 
 f . Spreading Calipers. The calipers in use are the Hrdlicka type, made 
 by Dr. Ballauf, Washington, first made by Collin in 1912. The terminal parts 
 are in a straight line at the spread of 10 cm. There is a guard on the 
 lower portion of each branch 8 mm. from the point, to regulate the distance 
 
 of introduction into the meatus. The resulting instrument is but imperceptibly 
 heavier than the older standard compass of Kathieu; it serves with equal 
 facility the same purposes. 
 
 g. Tapes . On account of the delay in receiving linen tapes from Paris, 
 the ordinary millimeter steel tape is used. It has several disadvantages, a 
 linen tape of non-elastic material being preferable. 
 
 h. Scales . The scale in use in the anthropometric laboratory is the 
 Buffalo type with pillar S'S' 1 high, on wheels, beam being triple bar. On 
 one side: 
 
 Top bar is marked 100 (50 kilo graduation) 
 
 die bar is marked 50 (5 kilo graduation) 
 Lc r is marked 5 (1/20 kilo graduation) 
 On other side: 
 
 Top bar is marked 200 (100 pound graduation) 
 
 'die bar is marked 100 (10 pound graduation) 
 Lov/er bar is marked 10 (1/10 pound graduation) 
 
 This scale is accurate, portable from room to room but heavy for trans- 
 portation. 
 
 i. Dynaan meter . So far the Smedley hand dynomometer sold by Stoelting 
 has been used, but the Collin instrument will be substitute' as soon as it is 
 received from abroad. The "Martin Method" which uses the spring balance scales 
 is also being tested out. 
 
 j« 'ffet Spirometer. No spring spirometer has been found to be accurate. 
 The Stoelting model is used. This apparatus is too familiar to warrant 
 description here. 
 
-4- 
 
 k. Measuring Eoard for Infants. The accompanying photograph shows a new 
 measuring scale for determining the reclining length and reclining sitting 
 height of infants. It was designed e writer and made in the manual 
 trainir. of the Univeristy. The scale is one meter in length, with an 
 additional . centimeters at the one end. The width is 20.5 
 
 centimeters, with standardize millimeter scales on either sid . 
 
 The vertical plane for eac rest is 15 centimeters at i atest heigl , 
 and the eliding vertical plane is at - to a brass roc 
 ir. a vrass groove in such a manner that the millimeter re 
 
 from either side. The board is made of i: alnut and buttottwood and the 
 standards on which it rests when in contact with the table, are covered - ith 
 heavy felt. The scale is accurate and portable. 
 
 2. Measurements Taken. 
 
 For purposes of determining the physical development of children from 
 birth to maturity the following list of measurement has been selectee for use 
 in the anthropometric department of the Research Laboratory. 
 
 A. Length 
 
 1 . Standing 
 
 2. Sitting 
 
 3. Span of arms 
 
 4 # Upper arms (shoulder-elbow) 
 
 5. Forearm (elbow-finger tip) 
 
 6. Lower leg 
 
 7. Face 
 
 B. Tfidth 
 
 8. Shoulder 
 
 9. Hips 
 
 10. Face 
 
 C. Diameter. 
 
 11. Head (anterior-posterior) 
 
 12. Head (transverse) 
 
 13. Head (height) 
 
 14. Chest ; (width) 
 
 15. c hest (depth) 
 
 D. Circumference 
 
 16. Head 
 
 17. Chest 
 
 E. Weight 
 
 18. Body weight 
 
 F. Breathing Capacity 
 
 19. Lung capacity minus residual air 
 
 G. Strength 
 
 20. Strength of right forearm 
 
 21. Strength of left forearm 
 
 22. Strength of wrist-right and left 
 
 23. Strength of elbow-right and left 
 H. Indices 
 
 24. Sitting-standing 
 
 25. Cephalic-index 
 26 • Chest-index 
 
 27. v ital 
 
 28. Weight-index 
 I. Cranial capacity 
 
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 3 . Methods 
 A. Length 
 
 (1) Standing Height. This measurement is made "with the Research Station 
 Paper Measuring Scale previously described, and the wooden square. The subject 
 stand straight with heels together, and heels, buttock, upper part of back 
 (and generally the head) against the wall to which the scale is attached. The 
 arms are extended at the side in a natural position and the head is in such a 
 position that the visual and biauricular axes are horizontal. The square may 
 be held in either hand. If held in the left hand the readings are taken from 
 the right margin of the plane and if held in the right hand, from the left 
 margin of the plane. The square is brought down firmly two or three times in 
 succession on the top of the head, with sufficient force to feel the impact 
 
 of the skull, and the reading taken from the last position. 
 
 (2) Sitting Height . For the measurements of the sitting height, the 
 Geneva agreement has been followed which recommends: "The subject sits on a 
 horizontal and resisting seat (bench) about 30 to 40 cm. high (this height being 
 proportionate to the stature of the subject): the knees are flexed; the dorsal 
 aspect of the trunk is to make contact with the vertical plane or with the 
 anthropometric rod or plane at two points viz., at the sacral region and again 
 between or at the shoulder blades. The axis of vision is horizontal. The 
 height of the vertex above the surface of the seat is to be measured. n (406 p. 
 64.) 
 
 (3) Span of Arms . This measurement is the distance from the tip of the 
 middle finger (mea"ius) of the left hand to the tip of the middle finger (medius) 
 of the right hand with maximum extension of the arms when the subject is standing 
 in a normal position, similar to the position required for standing height, 
 against a plane background. The child* s left middle finger touches a vertical 
 wall or moulding and the right extends over the paper plane placed in a horizont- 
 al position at a level with the child's shoulders with the fingers rigid. The 
 two arms are extended and after the right arm (free arm) has been raised in a 
 line with the left the observer applies the square lightly against the free end 
 of the middle finger of left hand and reads the greatest distance recorded, 
 noting that both fingers are simultaneously in contact 7/ith the terminal limits. 
 
 (4) Upper Arms . The large sliding calipers are used. The elbow is 
 flexed and the terminal points are the acromion at the shoulder and the extern- 
 al condyle of the humerus at the elbow. 
 
 (5) Forearms . The large sliding calipers are used to find the distance 
 from the olecranon process of the elbow to the finger tip, with the elbow flexed 
 at right angles in front of the subject and with palmar side up. This measure- 
 ment varies with the two arms and the position of the arm. It is being standard* 
 ized by Mr. Howard R. Mayberry of the Station. 
 
 (6) Lower Leg . This measurement is from the knee to the sole of the 
 foot when the knee is flexed at right angles. The measurement is made with 
 the large sliding calipers . 
 
 (7) Face . The length of the face is taken with the spreading calipers 
 from the nasion (the mid-point of the naso-frontal suture) to the lowest 
 point of the chin. 
 
-6- 
 
 (8) Shoulders . The large sliding calipers are used for finding 
 the distance between the two great prominent tuberosities of the humerus bones 
 below the acromion processes. The arms hang down at the subjects side and 
 the pressure of the clipers is increased until the resistance of the bone is 
 appreciably felt. 
 
 (9) Hips. The width of hips is measured in a similar manner to that 
 of the shoulders with the large sliding calipers , using the widest part over 
 the trochanters for the two terminal points. 
 
 
 (10) Face. The width of the face is taken with the spreading calipers 
 at the greatest bizygomatic distance. 
 
 C. Diameter 
 
 The methods adopted here are those of Hrdlicka (406) 
 
 (11) Head ( anterior-posterior ) 
 
 "The maximum glabello-occipital diameter of the vault." 
 
 Instrument: The spreading compass or calipers (compas d*epaisseur, 
 Broca or Hrdlicka). 
 
 "Landmarks; Anteriorly — the most prominent point of the glabella; 
 posteriorly — the most prominent point of the occiput as shown by the maximum 
 determinable spread of the branches of the compass (Intern. Agr.) 
 
 "Method: According to older methods (see Bertillion, Martin), the end 
 part of each branch of the instrument was held in one hand, as in measuring 
 the face. For measurement of the head this is somewhat clumsy. A better 
 method is to hold the compass so that is butt (or joint) rests on the hypothenar 
 eminence of the hand, the two proximal parts of the branches reposing respective- 
 ly on the ball of the medius and on the second joint of the forefinger, while 
 the thumb holds the instrument to the hand. The observer applies the thumb 
 and middle finger of his left hand, in contact, to just below the glabella, 
 places the free end of the left branch of the compass on these fingers so that 
 the point touches the glabella, and applies the left forefinger over the end. 
 This gives a ball-and-socket arrangement which enables the measurer to hold 
 the point of the left branch of his compass steadily over the glabella without 
 fear of displacement. This btfanch of the instrument needs no further attention. 
 The right hand is now moved around the proximal part of the compass, so that 
 the two branches rest on the ball of the fourth and on the second joint of the 
 middle finger and are held and controlled by the ball of the thumb and the ball 
 of the forefinger. This hold permits not only an easy handling of the instru- 
 ment with perfect control, but affords also a great facility for regulating 
 the pressure. The free end of the right branch is then applied over and some- 
 what to one side of the median line of the most prominent part of the occiput, 
 and is moved up and down in saw-tooth fashion from side to side of the occiput 
 until the maximum length is encountered. The eyes watch only the scale. The 
 ease of manipulating the instrument when handled in this manner is very grat- 
 ifying." 
 
 (12) Head ( transverse ) 
 
 "The greatest transverse diameter in horizontal plane which can be found 
 on the vamlt by the spreading compass (compas d f epaisseur, Broca or Hrdlicka.) 
 
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 "Landmarks: Determined solely by the maximum breadth of the skull above 
 the supra-mastoid and zygomatic crests (intern, Agr.). 
 
 "Method: The instrument is held as in first position for measuring the 
 length, and this position is retained. The left hand is placed lightly on 
 the top of the head of the subjeot, assisting in bringing the latter into the 
 convenient position for taking the measurement; the instrument is applied 
 horizontally somewhat above what appears to be the maximum breadth, and is 
 moved in a zigzag way antero-posteriorly, descending and again ascending by 
 zigzags, until the maximum breadth is found. The eyes watch only the scale. 
 It is necessary to repeat the movements in an ascending and possibly once more 
 in a descending direction, until the observer is positive that the maximum 
 breadth has been ascertained." 
 
 (13) Head (height ) 
 
 "The height from the middle of the line connecting the floor of the aud- 
 itory canals to bregma," 
 
 Instrument: The spreading compass of Hrdlicka. 
 
 The methods adopted here are those of Hrdlicka. 
 
 "Method: The instrument is held by the right hand just below the joint. 
 The head of the subject being steadied by the left hand, one branch of the 
 instrument is gently introduced into the left ear as far as the guard permits, 
 and the same is followed with the right ear, the compass is then slightly raised 
 to assure penetration as far as the guards , allow, is taken hold of a short 
 distance above the scale by the left hand, allowed to sag down by its own weight 
 and held in position. The ulnar side of the hand that holds the compass should 
 for greater steadiness repost on the head of the subject behind the instrument. 
 The scale of the compass is now brought as near as possible over the bregma, 
 The spread of the branches of the compass is noted on the scale, the distance 
 from bregma to lowest part of the scale is carefully ascertained by the rod 
 of the sliding compass, and the operation is completed. All that is now 
 necessary is to read off on a previously prepared scale the total height from 
 the base line of the points of the compass to the lowest part of the scale 
 of the same at the spread observed in the subject at hand, and to deduct from 
 this the distance between the brepia and the scale. Special care must be 
 exercised that neither of the branches, particularly that in the right ear, 
 slips out of the meatus. 
 
 "This method is readily learned and causes the minimum of inconvenience 
 to the subject (particularly if the points of the instruments are warmed in 
 water or by the broath of the observer before introduction), and with due care 
 it gives results which vary within less than 3 mm. The time required is ecarcely 
 more than the average time for ascertaining the head length. The external 
 portions of the floor of the meatus, while not as perfect landmarks as could 
 be desired, give with this method and instrument, in the writer's experience, 
 results that are more satisfactory than those obtained by any other method 
 or instrument so far devised for taking this important measurement of the head. 
 The preference of bregma to the vertex for the superior *point de repere', 
 is in accordance with the Geneva Agreement, which stipulates two heights of 
 the vault and both to the bregma," 
 
 (14) Chest ( width ) 
 
 The methods adopted here are those of Hrdlicka (406) 
 
 "Transverse diameter: Subject stands in natural, easy, erect position. 
 The forearms are flexed at about right angles, and the arms are lifted forward 
 and upward to about 30 degrees from the body. They are directed to be held 
 limp without any tension, and the examiner satisfies himself that there is 
 
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 no tension by lightly taking hold of the forearms and moving the arms slightly 
 up and down. The object of the position is on the one hand to relax all the 
 thoracic muscles, and on the other to permit the application of the instrument. 
 The same position in every respect is preserved for the antero-posterior diam- 
 eter, 
 
 "The large compass is now applied to the chest in such a way that its 
 rod lies directly over the nipples (or corresponding line in women), the 
 fixed branch is pressed against the thorax until it meets with the resistance 
 of the ribs, and the right branch is applied repeatedly to the opposite side 
 of the thorax, with equal pressure, during inspiration and expiration until 
 the medium between the tv/o can be arrived at. It is the medium which is record- 
 ed. The instrument is held so that its plane is at right angles to the vertical 
 plane of axis of the thorax, 
 
 (15) Chest ( depth ) 
 
 The antero-posterior diameter is taken so that the fixed branch of the 
 compass is applied to the nipple line, the rod of the instrument to the ribs 
 on the left side, and the movable branch to the posterior part of the thorax, 
 the instrument being held again at right angle to the vertical axis of the 
 chest. Here also we take repeated measurements until the medium between normal 
 inspiration and expiration is ascertained, and this is recorded." 
 
 D . C ir cumf er enc e 
 
 (16) Head , The circumference of the head is taken at the greatest 
 distance over the frontal and occipital processes, the tension of the tape 
 being regulated by practice or by the observation of the spring indicator on 
 the tape, 
 
 (17) Chest. The circumference of the chest is taken, with or without 
 clothing, at the nipple line for boys and at ^corresponding height for girls, 
 
 E, Weight 
 
 (18) Body Weight . The weight is taken with or without clothing. When 
 clothing is included, the shoes and coats are removed. Clothing for children 
 below 12 years of age weighs on an average ,75 kgs, and for children over 12 
 years of age on an average 1,1 kgs. 
 
 (19) Lung Capacity Minus Residual Air . The measurement has been taken 
 in the usual manner, with conditions standardized as far as possible, using 
 the wet spirometer, which gives the volume of lung capacity minus the residual 
 air. Mr, A. W. L, Bray, who began his work at the Station on January 1st, 1921, 
 as a Research Associate in Child Welfare, will aim to standardize new instru- 
 ments and technique. Waldenburg's pneumatometer is being tested out and various 
 other methods of measuring respiratory capacity, 
 
 G, Strength 
 
 (20-23) Here again the generally used methods for the hand dynamometers 
 have been used. The writer has found the "Martin Method" (Walter Reed General 
 Hospital Monograph I, Washington, D. C, pp. 11 ff.) a promising one, and the 
 
-9- 
 
 Kellogg method used at Battle Creek is also being tried out. 
 
 H. Indices 
 
 (24-29) (For a theoretical discussion of indices of growth, see Chapter 
 VI. The sitting- standing index is determined by dividing the sitting height 
 by the standing height; the cephalic index by finding the ratio of the width 
 of the head to the length; the chesT index b y dividing the depth of the chest 
 by the width; the vital index by dividing the breathing capacity by the height; 
 the weight-height index by dividing the weight in kilograms by the height in 
 centimeters or by the square or cube of the height • 
 
 I. Cranial Capacity 
 
 For the present the Lee and Pearson (468) formula No. 14 is being used. 
 It is 
 
 Male. Brain oc. « .000337 (L-llmm.) (B-llmm.) (H-llmm.) ♦ 406.01. 
 
 Female. Brain cc. s .0004 (L-llmrr.) (B-llmm.) (H-ll mm.) ♦ 206.6 
 
-10- 
 
 10. Conclusions 
 
 This study of 4800 consecutive measurements in weight on 200 white babies 
 and 200 colored babies approximating normal development shows that for this 
 group: 
 
 I. For these infants at birth, the boys and girls weigh approximately the 
 same. The white boys gain in weight more rapidly than the girls and are 
 454 grams to 681 grams heavier from the second month to the thirteenth 
 month. The colored boys are from 284 to 567 grams heavier than the girls 
 between the fourth and ninth months, but lose this advantage by the end of 
 the year. 
 
 II. For this group of infants the colored babies, both boys and girls, 
 weigh on an average 227 grams less than the white babies. This difference 
 becomes greater until at the end of one year the colored babies weigh from 
 
 454 to 907 grams less than the white babies, both boys and girls. 
 
 III. As a rule, the babies that are relatively heavy at birth are heavy at 
 the age of four months, and those that are light at birth remain relatively 
 light. On an average, these boys double their birth weight at the end of 
 the seventh month, and the girls at the end of the eighth month. 
 
 IV. The coefficients of correlation between weight at birth and weight 
 
 in the 14 to 15 weeks period are, for white girls <f .537, for white boys ♦ .263; 
 for colored girls ♦ .649, and for colored boys + .584. This coefficient 
 decreases as we approach the 34 to 35 week periods, until with the end of 
 the year there is no positive correlation for this gropp of children. It 
 is not possible to prophesy with a high degree of assurance that if one of 
 these children is heavy at birth, he or she will be relatively heavy at 
 the end of the first year. 
 
 V. From 60 to 70 per cent of the babies who are above the average weight 
 at the beginning of the first year are still above average at the end of 
 the year and vice versa, with considerable individual variation within 
 these ranges. They vary a great deal as to the amount they are above or 
 below during this period. 
 
 VI. These artificially fed babies as a rule weigh less than the breast fed 
 babies; this is particularly noticeable during the first few months. 
 
 VII. The individual growth curves during the first year show a wide range 
 of individual and racial differences at all weekly periods. 
 
 11. Supplementary Data Based on 
 Group of Infants Studied 
 
 1. The most frequent infant disease recorded for these children 
 
 is diarrhea, but this has no serious noticeable effect on growth if checked 
 soon and no other complications set in. 
 
 2. Bronchitis, constipation, indigestion, otitis media, coughs, and 
 colds, retard growth if allowed to continue for several weeks. 
 
-11- 
 
 3. Pneumonia is a serious disease from the standpoint of growth for 
 these infants. It occurs more frequently with the colored children than 
 with the white. There are seven cases of pneumonia reported for the white 
 babies and 16 for the colored babies. 
 
 4. The white girls show 50 per cent more illness recorded than the 
 white boys. 
 
 5. For this group of children, digestive disturbances are more import* 
 ant in interfering with growth than are respiratory disturbances. 
 
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 CHAPTER V 
 PHYSICAL GROWTH OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 * * * * 
 Conclusions (Set 1 and Set 2) 
 1. Height 
 
 1. For boys and girls from six to 18 years of age there is a slight 
 adolescent acceleration in height, sitting height, weight, breathing 
 capacity and the strength traits which appears earlier for girls than for 
 boys and earlier for tall girls or boys than for those below the norms, 
 
 II • A series of individual growth curves of varying heights approximates 
 in form a series of concentric arcs of varying sizes where a chronological 
 point in the lower arcs is reached later than a corresponding point in the 
 upper arcs, 
 
 III* As a rule tall boys and tall girls reach their periods of maximum 
 adolescent stature earlier than do short ones. 
 
 IV. If the increments of growth in stature before adolesoenoe are 
 relatively uniform (i. e, represented by a straight line on(the charts) this 
 uniformity of increase tends to persist throughout adolescence. If there is 
 retardation before adolescence the tendency is to show a rapid acceleration 
 during adolescence, as a compensating factor, 
 
 V. With boys and girls the stature curves show a railroad appearance with 
 relatively little crossing but a tendency to fan out at adolescence, 
 
 VI. Tall children at any age remain relatively tall under normal conditions. 
 Growth in height is so comparatively uniform for each individual that the 
 growth curve enables one to prophesy with a high degree of accuracy how tall 
 a young child will be at subsequent years. 
 
 VII. Growth in height is affected by the formation and removal of adenoids, 
 
 VIII. Prolonged disease history retards normal growth in stature, 
 
 2, Weight 
 
 I. Growth curves in weight from seven to 17 years of age tend toward concavity; 
 those in height toward convexity, 
 
 II • There is more individual variation in growth in weight than in growth 
 in height. 
 
 III. Pre-adolescent acceleration in growth of weight precedes as a rule the 
 pre-adolescent acceleration in growth in height. 
 
-13- 
 
 IV, The pre-adole scent acceleration in growth in weight is earlier, chronolog- 
 ically, for the tall boys or girls than for the short ones, 
 
 V. Growth in weight is affected by disease history and the growth and removal 
 of adenoids. 
 
 3. Sitting Height 
 
 I, The trend and distribution of individual curves in sitting height are 
 almost identical with the trend and distribution of the standing height curves 
 for boys and for girls, more particularly for boys, 
 
 II, The conclusions outlined on page fZ for individual growth in stature apply 
 in general for individual growth in sitting height, 
 
 III. Growth in sitting height is affected by disease and adenoids, as in 
 the case of standing height. 
 
 IV. Sitting height standards are more satisfactory from an anthropometric 
 point of view than those for standing height, 
 
 4. Chest Girth 
 
 I. Chest girth for girls is relatively less than for boys during the pre- 
 adolescent period. 
 
 II. Cessation in growth of chest girth occurs earlier for girls than for boys. 
 
 III. Development of chest girth does not parallel growth in stature, as do 
 the other traits previously mentioned, 
 
 5. Breathing Capacity 
 
 I. Measurements of growth in breathing capacity involve a mental factor which 
 differentiates this measurement from those of height, weight, sitting height 
 and chest girth. 
 
 II. Individual breathing capacity curves, like those for weight, tend toward 
 concavity, which is more marked in the boys' curves than in the girls' . 
 
 III. There are marked individual variations in the breathing capacity curves. 
 
 IV. Larger and taller children as a rule have greater breathing capacity 
 than smaller ones. 
 
 V. Girls show inferior development in breathing capacity to boys. 
 
 VI. Girls reach their periods of cessation of growth before boys. 
 

 
-14- 
 
 VII • Taller, heavier boys and girls as a rule have their accelerated periods 
 of growth in breathing capacity at an earlier period than do those below the 
 norms in height and weight. 
 
 VII • Retarded development in Btature and weight is paralleled by retarded 
 development in breathing oapacity. 
 
 6. Strength of Arms and Upper Back 
 
 I. Individual strength curves for arms and upper back are similar in 
 irregularity to the breathing capacity curves. 
 
 II. As in the breathing capacity curves, the element of voluntary effort 
 plays an important role in evaluating the development of strength. 
 
 III. Girls are inferior to boys in all strength tests, girls showing, after 
 15 years of age, little increase, and frequently a decrease in strength. 
 
 IV. The right arm as a rule for both boys and girls is stronger than the left, 
 but the difference is not so marked as has usually been assumed. 
 
 V. In the distribution of strength curves, there is more overlapping, with 
 marked fluctuations in increments of improvement or regression in individual 
 strength curves than in the case in curves of height, weight, breathing capacity. 
 Bitting height and chest girth. 
 
 VI. The observed correlation between individual stature and strength curves 
 is not so evident as in the other traits previously outlined. 
 
 VII. Development in strength of right arm, left arm and upper back is mater- 
 ially affected by prolonged disease history. 
 
-15- 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 CORRELATIONS IN PHYSICAL GROWTH OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 * * * * 
 
 3, Conclusions 
 
 I. Of the nineteen relationships between measurements of total growth from 
 the years seven to 17 (in height, weight, and breathing capacity) and the 
 measurements of growth of parts (in sitting height, girth of chest, strength 
 of right arm, left arm and upper back) the correlation coefficients are higher 
 for boys than for girls. The only exception is the correlation between devel- 
 opment in weight and girth of chest, where there is involved a distinct anat- 
 omical factor. 
 
 II. It will also be noted that boys not only grow very differently from 
 girls, but that their development is decidedly more highly ooir elated in its 
 varied aspects. There is a biological difference between the growth of boys 
 and girls during these ages from seven to 17. 
 
 III. All coefficients are positive and tend to be highest during early adol- 
 escence and lowest at 17 years of age. The periods of irregular development 
 for individual boys and girls are from seven to 10 years of age and during 
 later adolescence* There is a wide range of individual differences among the 
 boy 3, but a decidedly less constant and unified development among the girls. 
 The analysis and interpretation of the growth of each series of inter-related 
 physical traits is shown by the tabulated and graphic distribution, and the 
 correlation coefficients give a new insight into the development of the human 
 organism during the plastic period from childhood through adolescence. 
 
 IV. Because boys and girls show a wider range of individual distribution and 
 because boys and girls differ more in growth from each other at the adoles- 
 cent period, it has been concluded that this is a period of irregular individual 
 growth. The consecutive intercorrelations of the various physical traits for 
 both sexes show this to be unfounded. The coefficients of correlation are 
 highest during early adolescence and begin to decrease after 14 years of age. 
 
 V. The correlation coefficients expressing on the average the physical devel- 
 opment relationship for the period from seven to 17 years of age for boys and 
 girls rank in the following order, from highest to lowest: 
 
 Height- sitting height 
 
 Weight- girth, of chest 
 
 Strength of rigjht arm-strength of left arm 
 
 Height -weight 
 
 Weight-sitting height 
 
 Height-breathing capacity 
 
 Breathing capacity- sitting height 
 
 Weight -breathing capacity 
 
 Eoys 
 
 Girls 
 
 Rank 
 
 Rank 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
-16- 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 13 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 17 
 
 15 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 19 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 14 
 
 19 
 
 12 
 
 Breathing capacity- girth of chest 
 
 77eight- strength of right arm 
 
 Height-girth of chest 
 
 "eight- strength of left arm 
 
 Weight-strength of upper back 
 
 Breathing capacity- strength of right arm 
 
 Height-strength of right arm 
 
 Breathing capacity-strength of left arm 
 
 Breathing capacity-strength of upper back 
 
 Height-strength of left arm 
 
 Height- strength of upper back 
 
 VI. College girls who have had the benefit of physical training show an 
 increase in correlated development in height and breathing capacity from the 
 freshman to the senior year. This is due in part probably to the systematic 
 training and athletics in which these girls participated. The coefficients 
 are lower for college girls than for school girls. 
 
 VII. Pearson found "that as far as the correlation between weight and height 
 is concerned, men start with a soaroely sensible advantage over women as 
 infants and conclude as adults with an immensely less correlation than women, 
 among whom it appears to have slightly increased, or at any rate not to have 
 decreased." These results of consecutive measurements for eight years or more 
 give: 
 
 Coefficients for seven year old boys f .872 and girls f .559. 
 Coefficient for 17 year old boys ♦ .680 and girls f .547. 
 
 The specific conclusions derived from the partial correlations are 
 outlined on pages 137 to 139. The general conclusions are: 
 
 VIII. Growth in weight for boys and girls has little effect on growth in 
 height and sitting height, but does materially affect the growth of girth of 
 chest, and also the development of strength, especially for boys. 
 
 IX. Growth in height for boys and girls has little effect on the growth 
 of circumference of chest, but does materially affect growth in weight, 
 sitting height and development of strength, especially for the girls. 
 
 X. Growth in breathing capacity has a decided effect on the growth of the 
 other traits except sitting height. 
 
 4# Practical Applications 
 
 It is not the purpose of this section of the scientific Study to attampt 
 to indicate many practical applications. These will follow in abundance after 
 the fundamental principles of growth have been formulated and studied, but a 
 few obvious educational corrollaries may be cited from the preceding basic 
 conclusions i 
 
 (1) Since girls and boys show inherent sex differences in total and 
 partial growth, and in the relationships of these at all ages from seven to 
 18, girls should have different forms of physical training and different forms 
 of directed play from boys; 
 
-17- 
 
 (2) A careful analytic study of the periods of growth of boys and girls 
 should precede any provisions for their physical education, and the results 
 
 of such study will throw light on their development in general motor coordina- 
 tion, and in the mental traits which accompany, directly and indirectly, 
 rhythmic or .irregular physical development; 
 
 (3) There should be a graduated series of adjustable school desks in 
 accordance with the general laws of physical development and individual 
 differences in boys and girls. 
 
 VARIABILITY IN PHYSICAL GROWTH OF 
 SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 (2) Conclus ions 
 
 I. For height boys have a greater variability than girls at all ages between 
 seven and 17, except at 12 and 17; at 13 they are the same. Boys fluctuate 
 more in variability in height than girls. 
 
 II. For weight boys have greater variability except at the ages of nine to 
 13, inclusive, and at 16 and 17. Girls also fluctuate more in variability 
 in weight than boys. 
 
 III. For breathing capacity the boys are more variable than the girls at 
 all ages except seven, eight and 12. 
 
 IV. The variability for sitting height is greater for boys at all ages except 
 at eight, 12 and 13. 
 
 V. For chest girth, the variability is the same as for weight, the boys 
 being more variable except from nine to 13, inclusive, and at 16 and 17. 
 
 VI. For strength of right arm, the variation for boys is greater for all 
 ages except seven, 10 and 11, and the more variable ages for girls for the 
 left arm are 11 and 12, 
 
 VII • The variability in strength of upper back for boys is greater than for 
 girls, except at the ages of seven and nine. 
 
 Vlll. These results show boys to be more variable in heightjand weight than 
 Pearson (576) found and also Bowditch (113), who, in turn, found them more % 
 variable than did Boas and Wissler (100). 
 
 G. Group II. 
 
 (1) Data . In order to find the coefficient of variability for the 
 same children for consecutive years, a group of 115 boys and girls whose 
 measurements were taken at six years of age and consecutively for six years 
 later, was used, and another group of 138 boys and girls of nine or 10 years 
 
-13- 
 
 of age, with consecutive measurements for six years. The results in Table 
 XXVTI show the following: 
 
 (2) Conclusions 
 
 I. Boys are more variable than girls at six years of age and six years 
 later, also at nine or 10 and six years later, 
 
 II. For weight the girls are more variable at six years of age and six years 
 later; at nine or 10, the variability is approximately the same, and six years 
 later boys are more variable, 
 
 III. For breathing capacity boys are more variable at six years of age and 
 six years later, and also at nine or 10 and six years later. 
 
 IV. For strength of right arm boys are more variable at six years of age 
 and six years later, and also at nine or 10 and six years later. 
 
 V. Pearson also states that "both sexes lose not only variability, but cor- 
 relations as they grow older." This statement is too general. 
 
 VI. Many of the coefficients of correlations increase with age, practically 
 all increasing from nine or 10 to 14 years of age, the same holding true for 
 the coefficients of variability for height, weight, and breathing capacity 
 at 13 or 14 for boys and for girls. In the strength tests, the variations 
 decrease in general with age, with a rise at 15 years of age, 
 
 VII. For the ages from nine or 10 and six years later, there is a decrease 
 in the coefficient of variation for height and weight for boys and girls. 
 
 VIII. In breathing capacity there is an increase in variability for both 
 boys and girls for these ages. 
 
 IX. In strength of right arm there is an increase invariability for boys 
 and a decrease for girls for these ages, 
 
 C, Group III. 
 
 (1) Data. For the group of 80 college girls whose measurements 
 were followed throughout the four years of college, the results show: 
 
 (2) Conclusions 
 
 I. The results for the eighty college girls from 17 to 21 years of age show 
 a lower coefficient of variation than for girls from seven to 17 years of 
 age, with a slight drop from the freshman year to the senior year. 
 
 II, The coefficient of variation for college girls for weight is lov.er than 
 for the ages nine to 14 years, but higher than for 15, 16 and 17 years of 
 age. 
 
-19- 
 
 III. In breathing capacity there is a gradual decrease in the coefficient 
 
 of variation for the college girls from the freshnan to the senior year, and 
 a lower coefficient than for any of the other ages previous to 17 years. 
 
 IV. For strength of right arm, the college girls show in general a coefficient 
 of variability similar to the previous group after 15 years of age, the 
 sophomore college girls being almost as high as the seven year old girls of 
 the previous group. 
 
 8. Growth Norms for Group Used for Correlations 
 
 a. Data. In order to compare the group of Horace Mann boys and girls 
 whose correlations have been expressed in Tables XVI and XVII with larger 
 groups and with those from other schools, the averages of the individual for 
 the eight traits used in the 19 series of correlations from seven to 18 years 
 of age are expressed in Table XXIX. 
 
 The yearly records include 10,560 yearly measurements based on semi- 
 annual examinations for eight years or more on the same individuals, or approx- 
 imately 60,000 measurements. 
 
 Standard Weight-Height-Age and Height -Breathing Capacity-Age Tables for 
 all of the normal standard children included in this Study have been worked 
 out and will be published in the form of a separate Table and Practical Score 
 Card. 
 
 b« Conclusions 
 
 These results are typical for height, weight and breathing capacity and 
 almost identical v/hen compared with the previous norms for larger groups in 
 the 1914 Bulletin and the new ones on page 152. The means for the other five 
 traits are also very similar to the norms in the Supplement. It will be 
 noted that : 
 
 I. Girls are taller than the boys from 10 to 14 years of age. 
 
 II. Girls are heavier than boys from nine to 16 years of age. 
 
 III. Girls are inferior to boys in breathing capacity for all ages. 
 
 IV. Girls are superior to boys in sitting height from 10 to 16 years of age. 
 
 V. Girls are superior to boys in chest girth from 12 to 15 years of age. 
 
 VI. Girls are inferior to boys in strength of right and left arms and upper 
 back at all ages. 
 
 VII. For normal children between seven and 17 years of age, these results 
 may be considered as normal average standards. 
 
,^n 
 
 c. Applications. As normal standards these averages, their deviations, 
 the yearly increments, the indices and the annual percents of gain may be used 
 for evaluating the growth of groups of American children within these age 
 limits. The norms, which are among the highest in the world, show what school 
 medical inspection, physical training and directed play can do for children; 
 for many of these boys and girls were sickly or under-nourished when small 
 and several are Hebrews, who are racially of small stature and small features. 
 
 9. Mean Deviations in Growth of Correlation 
 Groups 
 
 a. Data. In studying the comparative growth of a number of individuals 
 for consecutive chronological ages, the mean d evi at ions are important on 
 account of showing the distribution of individuals within the groups. The 
 mean deviations are shown in Table XXX. 
 
 b. Conclusions. 
 
 I. The girls show higher mean variations than the boys at 12 and 13 years of 
 age in height, lower at thelother ages between seven and 18. 
 
 II. The mean variations for girls in weight and sitting height are higher 
 for all ages from eight to 18 years. 
 
 III. Girls also have a higher mean variation in chest girth from nine to 17 
 years of age. 
 
 IV. Girls have a lower mean variation for a^.1 ages in breathing capacity. 
 
 V. Girls have lower mean variations in strength of right arm, left arm 
 and upper back for all ages from seven to 18 years. 
 
 VI. In every trait except in weight and chest girth the boys show a wider 
 range of distribution for these ages. 
 
 VII. The greatest mean variations for both boys and girls are during the charac- 
 teristic adolescent ages for each; the smallest are during the earlier periods 
 from seven years to nine years of age. 
 
 10 • Yearly Increments of Growth of Group 
 
 a. Data . The actual annual increments of yearly growth are significant 
 for this group as shown in Table XXXI. "A study of the individual measure- 
 ments in height reveals different correlations in growth for boys and girls 
 above the median from those below. That is, the rhythms of fluctuations of 
 growth for tall children differ materially from those for short children. This 
 is demonstrated by the norms found, which serve in this connection as a tem- 
 porary expedient for estimating the relative heights of the children and as 
 a means for dividing them into two general groups, those lying on and above 
 the median and those lying below the median. There are some who cross the 
 median, and others whose curves fluctuate toward or from the median. Those 
 lying above the median height begin and end their periods of acceleration and 
 arrest earlier than those below the median." For increment data see former 
 
-21- 
 
 monograph (27), pages 30 to 31. For new norms for tall and short girls see 
 table XXXVI pages 165 and 166. 
 
 u As will be noted, the results give the greatest absolute increment and 
 the greatest average deviations during the adolescent period, beginning at 12 
 years of age for boys above the median height and beginning at loj- years for 
 girls above the median. This marked acceleration continues until 15>>~ for 
 boys and until 13 for girls. For those below the median height the greatest 
 average acceleration begins at 14 years for boys, and at llj years for girls, 
 and continues, for the boys, until 17g and for the girls until 15-2. 
 
 "The rhythms and fluctuations of growth in height for the children above 
 the median show that these boys and girls mature in physiological growth 
 earlier than those below the median, since their periods of acceleration and 
 arrest begin earlier and end earlier. There are individual measurements 
 lying on either side of these medians, arranged in all probability in a normal 
 distribution from the tallest to the shortest for each chronological age. 
 If this is the case, as the individual curves will show, we are justified in 
 making averages or medians only when the average or norm is based on the phy- 
 siological age instead of the chronological age. A new and very important 
 educational problem is evoked here: How may we formulate a measuring scale 
 for determining the physiological age of the child? A careful study of 
 individual growth curves, based on consecutive measurements, it is hoped, 
 will help to answer this question." (27). 
 
 b. Conclusions. 
 
 I. In yearly increments of growth there are not only sex differences, but a 
 wide range of differences for each trait at various ages. 
 
 II. The increments are higher in the case of girls than of boys as follows: 
 from nine to 13 years of age for weight; from 11 to 13 years of age for breath- 
 ing capacity; from eight to 13 years of age for sitting height; from eight to 
 13 years of age for chest girth; from eight to 13 years of age for strength 
 
 of left arm. They are inferior at all other ages for all traits and for these 
 ages (eight to 13) for strength of right arm and upper back. 
 
 11. Yearly Per Cent of Gain from Seven to 14 
 Years of Age 
 
 This table is significant in that it shows the annual increase in 
 increment in growth for the eight physical traits under consideration. 
 The yearly gains in per cent can be best gleaned from Table XXXII. It should 
 be noted that 
 
 I, For growth in height the yearly increment of per cent is very uniform for 
 boys from seven to 16, with a short rise from 13 to 13 years of age; for girls 
 from seven to 13 the yearly increment of per cent is very uniform, with the 
 rise from 12 to 13 and a cessation after this age. 
 
 II. For growth in weight there is a higher percentage increment for all ages 
 up to 13 years for boys, with more irregularity than for the previous traits 
 outlined, and with the peak of increase between 12 and 13. 
 
III. For breathing capacity the percentage increase is a little higher and 
 more irregular than for height. The girls are higher than the boys until 13 
 years with no definite peak period. 
 
 IV. The lowest annual increase in per cent is in sitting height for boys and 
 girls, and the highest in strength of upper back. This is also shown graph- 
 ically in the profile charts, pages 111, 112, 113 and 114. For sitting height 
 the annual per cent of gain is lower for the boys than for girls until 12 
 years of age. 
 
 V. Growth in chest girth, which is also lower for boys until 14 years of 
 age, is also small and more variable than for sitting height. 
 
 VI. and VII. For strength of the arms the annual increase is a little higher 
 than for the previous traits, with variations for the two arms and for boys 
 and girls, the boys increasing more on the average than the girls. 
 
 VIII. For upper back there is a greater annual increase than for other traits, 
 but there is so much variation that no definite age stands out prominently, 
 the boys growing more on the average than the girls. 
 
 12. Indices of Growth of Group in Table XXIX. 
 
 a. Data. As previously emphasized, the relationship between the growth 
 of two physical traits which may be expressed as an index, is more significant 
 than is the growth of either. The importance of the index or coefficient of 
 robustness (the weight-height coefficient) is outlined in Part IV and this 
 index should form the normal standard of growth in place of either height or 
 weight. Table XXXIII gives the average indices of all ages and for each sex. 
 There is little or no apparent difference, as a rule, between the tall boys 
 and the short boys, except that the tall individuals have high indices early. 
 This clearly substantiates the important conclusions previously stated that 
 the development of any normal physiological change in the traits measured 
 occurs earlier for tall children. For data see Figs. 1 to 29 and pages 30 
 
 to 71 in the earlier monograph (27). 
 
 That the weight -height indices vary with different nationalities can 
 be demonstrated by selecting weight and height tables from Part V. Take for 
 example Erismann, Baldwin, Pagliani, Bobbitt and Misawa, From eight to 15 
 years of age the indices for the Russians increase for the boys from .201 
 to .361; for the Americans from .196 to .306; for the Italians from ,175 
 to .275; for the Filipinos from .174 to .268; and for the Japaneses from .168 
 to .265. That is, the Russians and Americans are heavier for their stature 
 than are the other nationalities represented. 
 
 b. Conclusions 
 
 (l) Weight -Height Index 
 
 I. The weight-height index is the most practical criterion of normal growth 
 in robustness, and, other conditions being normal, in general nutrition. 
 
-23- 
 
 II • The weight-height indices increase from six to 18 years of age on the 
 average 100 per cent, which shows that weight increases more proportionately 
 than height. 
 
 III« A we 11 -developed tall or short child approaches within 15 per cent of the 
 weight-height index for the chronological age to which the child* s height 
 corresponds • 
 
 IV. For tall boys and tall girls the coefficient for the weight-height is 
 in advance chronologically of that for the mean or average and the reverse 
 holds true for short children. The tall heavy children are older physically, 
 
 V. In interpreting and evaluating the seven series of indices for each age 
 for each sex, it should be noted that the weight-height indices for girls 
 are higher at all ages, which means the girls are proportionally heavier for 
 their height than boys. 
 
 (2) Vital-Height Index 
 
 I, The vital -height index is a good criterion of the respiratory height re- 
 lationship. 
 
 II • The vital -height index more than doubles for boys during the ages from 
 six to 18 years and nearly doubles for girls, which shows that in growth in 
 breathing capacity boys increase proportionately more than in growth in 
 height, 
 
 III. The vital -height index is higher for the boys than for the girls at all 
 ages, which shows that boys have greater breathing capacity for their heights 
 than girls, 
 
 IV. A well developed tall or short child should approach within 15 per cent 
 of the vital -height index for the chronological age to which the child's 
 height corresponds. 
 
 V. For tall boys and tall girls the coefficient for the vital-height is in 
 advance chronologically of that for the mean or average and the reverse holds 
 true for short children. 
 
 fo) Pl.'r l - i "£* TT|J ^'' T'" 1 " ^ 
 
 (3) Sitting Height-Height Index 
 
 I. The sitting height indices for boys and girls show on the average a slight 
 decrease from six to 16 years of age, and for boys from six to 13 years of 
 age, which shows that standing height is increasing more proportionately at 
 these ages than height-sitting. 
 
 II, Girls maintain a relatively higher sitting height-height relationship 
 than boys. 
 
 (4) Chest Girth-Height Index 
 
 I. Chest girth-height indices change little from seven to 13 years of age, 
 with a slight drop for ages from 11 to 15. 
 
-24- 
 
 II. Girls have a slightly higher index than boys. After 13 the index is 
 considerably higher for girls. 
 
 (5) Strength of Right Arm-Height Index 
 
 I. The strength of right arm-height indices increase on the average steadily 
 from six to 18 years to more than 100 per cent for boys and approximately 
 
 100 per cent for girls, which shows that the strength of the right arm increases 
 more proportionately than the stature. 
 
 II. In the strength-height relationships for right arm the boys are invariably 
 superior. 
 
 (6) Strength of Left Arm-Height Index 
 
 I. The strength of left arm-height indices increase on the average steadily 
 from six to 18 years to more than 100 per cent for boys and approximately 100 
 per cent for girls, which shows that the strength of the left arm increases 
 more proportionately than the stature. 
 
 II. The indices for the left arm are uniformly lower with this group of 
 children than those for the right. 
 
 III. In the strength-height relationships for left arm the boys are invariably 
 superior. 
 
 (7) Strength of Upper Back-Height Index 
 
 I. The indices for growth of strength in upper back increase more from six 
 
 to 18 than any of the other indices. For the boys this increase is nearly 300 
 per cent, for the girls about 250 per cent. 
 
 II. Eoys increase most during the ages from 14 to 18 and girls increase least 
 after 15 years of age. 
 
 III. In the strength-height relationships for upper back the boys are invar- 
 iably superior. 
 
 13. Per Cent of Inorease Between Seven, 12, and 
 17 Years of Age 
 
 a. Data . What per cent of a boy* s or girl's growth at 17 years of age 
 has he or she reached at seven years of age, and at 12 years of age? Do 
 boys and girls grow more between seven and 12 years of age or between 12 and 
 17 years of age? These are very important questions from many standpoints 
 for individuals and the problems are analyzed further by a study of individual 
 growth curves. The averages as given in Table XXXIV and XXXV will answer 
 
 the question in a general way and will show the group tendencies. 
 
 b. Conclusions 
 
 I. Girls have completed at seven years of age on the average in each of the 
 eight physical traits: height, weight, breathing capacity, sitting height, 
 girth of chest, strength of right arm, strength of left arm, and strength 
 of upper back, a higher per cent of their final development (at 17) than have 
 
 boys. 
 
-25- 
 
 
 
 Table XXXIV 
 
 
 
 
 PER CENT OF INCREASE BETWEEN SEVEN, 12 AND 17 YEARS 
 
 OF AGE 
 
 
 Traits 
 
 
 At 12 
 
 At 17 
 
 Bet. 
 
 Bet. 
 
 
 yrs. 
 121 
 
 yrs. 
 i"£2^ ~" " 
 
 135 
 
 7 & 12 
 
 T^ ~ - 
 
 21 
 
 12 & 17 
 
 EeigKt 
 
 Boys 
 Girls 
 
 14 
 
 ,v eight 
 
 Boys 
 Girls 
 
 155 
 167 
 
 259 
 245 
 
 55 
 67 
 
 104 
 78 
 
 Breathing Capacity 
 
 Boys 
 Girls 
 
 168 
 174 
 
 214 
 254 
 
 68 
 74 
 
 146 
 80 
 
 Sitting Height 
 
 Boys 
 Girls 
 
 113 
 115 
 
 134 
 130 
 
 13 
 15 
 
 21 
 15 
 
 Girth of Chest 
 
 Boys 
 Girls 
 
 116 
 121 
 
 146 
 141 
 
 16 
 
 21 
 
 30 
 20 
 
 Strength of Right Arm Boys 
 
 Girls 
 
 189 
 196 
 
 360 
 287 
 
 89 
 96 
 
 171 
 91 
 
 Strength of Left Arm Boys 
 
 Girls 
 
 182 
 207 
 
 339 
 297 
 
 82 
 107 
 
 157 
 90 
 
 Strength of Upper Back Boys 
 
 Girls 
 
 236 
 231 
 
 502 
 354 
 
 136 
 131 
 
 266 
 123 
 
-26- 
 
 Table XXXV 
 
 PER CENT OF FINAL GROWTH AT 17 YEARS OF AGE THAT HAS BEEN 
 ATTAINED AT SEVEN AND 12 YEARS OF AGE 
 
 Traits 
 
 
 At 1 7 
 
 At 12 
 
 Bet. 
 
 Bet. 
 
 
 
 yrs. 
 
 yrs. 
 
 7 & 12 
 
 12 & 17 
 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 yrs. yrs. 
 
 
 1 
 
 - — 
 
 
 
 
 Height 
 
 Boys 
 
 70. Z% 
 
 83. 8# 
 
 13.5JC 
 
 16. 2$ 
 
 
 Girls 
 
 74.2 
 
 90. 
 
 15.8 
 
 10. 
 
 Weight 
 
 Boys 
 
 38.7 
 
 60.1 
 
 21.4 
 
 39.9 
 
 
 Girls 
 
 40.9 
 
 68.2 
 
 27.3 
 
 31.8 
 
 Breathing Capacity 
 
 Boys 
 
 31.9 
 
 53.7 
 
 21.8 
 
 46.3 
 
 
 Girls 
 
 39.3 
 
 68.3 
 
 29. 
 
 31.7 
 
 Sitting Height 
 Girth of Chest 
 
 Boys 
 Girls 
 
 Boys 
 Girls 
 
 Strength of Right Arm Boys 
 
 Girls 
 
 Strength of Left Arm 
 
 Boys 
 Girls 
 
 Strength of Uppers Back Boys 
 
 Girls 
 
 74.5 
 77. 
 
 68.6 
 70.8 
 
 27.8 
 34.9 
 
 29.5 
 33.7 
 
 19.9 
 28.3 
 
 84.5 
 88.6 
 
 79.7 
 
 85.5 
 
 52.5 
 68.4 
 
 53.7 
 69.9 
 
 47.1 
 65.3 
 
 10. 
 11.6 
 
 11.1 
 14.7 
 
 27.4 
 33.5 
 
 24.2 
 36.2 
 
 27.2 
 37. 
 
 15.5 
 11.4 
 
 20.3 
 14.5 
 
 47.5 
 31.6. 
 
 46.3 
 30.1 
 
 52.9 
 34.7 
 
 "7 
 
 r 
 
 Sitting Height 
 
 to 
 Standing Height 
 
 Boys 
 Girls 
 
 7 yrs. 
 54.3^ 
 54.7 
 
 12 yrs 
 
 51. 6% 
 51.9 
 
 17 yrs. 
 51.2% 
 52.8 
 
-27- 
 
 II. Girls gain between seven and 12 years of age a greater percent of their 
 final growth (at 17) than do boys, in all of the eight traits: height, weight, 
 breathing capacity, sitting height, girth of chest, strength of right arm, 
 strength of left ami, and strength of upper back. 
 
 III. From 12 to 17 years of age, girls gain a higher per cent than boys in 
 sitting height, chest girth, strength of right arm, left arm and upper back. 
 
 IV. Boys and girls both gain a higher per cent from 12 to 17 years of age 
 in the other traits of weight and breathing capacity. 
 
 V. The girls at seven years of age have reached a stage of development 
 considerably in advance of that of boys, and girls continue this lead in 
 all phases of growth, so that a 12 year old girl is as far advanced toward 
 her final growth at 17 as a 14 year old boy. 
 
 VI. The direct per cent of sitting height to standing height at seven, 12, 
 and 17 is almost identical for boys and girls. The ratio is approximately 
 1-2 being slightly below this at seven years of age. 
 
 VII. Girls grow more proportionally than boys from seven to 12 years of 
 age in height, weight, breathing capacity, sitting height, girth of chest, 
 strength of right arm, strength of left arm. Boys gain slightly more in 
 strength of upper back. 
 
 VIII. Boys grow more proportionally than girls from 12 to 17 years of age 
 in height, weight, breathing capacity, sitting height, girth of chest, 
 strength of right arm, strength of left arm and strength of upper back. 
 
 14. Norms for Tall and Short Girls 
 
 These norms for girls above or below median height show that on an 
 average the tall girls surpass the short girls in all of the eight physical 
 traits outlined. They also show that tall girls grow differently than 
 short girls. These norms supplement those on page 152 but include more 
 oases. 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 ANATOMICAL AGE 
 
 1. The Anatomical Development of Boys and Girls 
 
 Two closely related ages which characterize a child* s development (juite 
 as much as its chronological age in years, months and days, but are less 
 understood, less commonly used, and therefore less familiar to parents and 
 teachers, are the anatomical and physiological age. These denote the physical, 
 or anatomical, growth and the accompanying stages of physical maturation of 
 the individual as indicated by growth of bones, eruption of teeth, color 
 of eyes, metabolism, marked functional changes in sex organs, changes of voice 
 and many other phases of physiological development not so apparent to the 
 casual observer. 
 
-28- 
 
 Children of the sane chronological age may vary greatly in their anatom- 
 ical and physiological development. Since physical growth in the larger 
 sense conditions all other aspects of development, it is essential that these 
 ages be discussed in detail. Few scientists have attempted to differentiate 
 between these two ages, but this is essential if a careful study is to be 
 made of the development of childhood. An analysis of the anatomical growth 
 dt the carpal bones (the wrist) will be made, a diagnosis of the physiolog- 
 ical age at adolescence will be outlined empirically, and some specific 
 correlations between the two ages with applications will follow. 
 
 a. Roentgenograms as C riteria of Anatomical Age. In order to throw 
 more light on the previous"~aata on physical growth, the writer made a com- 
 parative study of the carpal bones of a group of boys between the ages of 11 
 and 13 and a group of girls between the ages of 10 and 13, the growth being 
 followed for three years. These children from the seventh school grade of 
 the University of Iowa Junior High School, are as nearly as could be deter- 
 mined in a preliminary way, normal children from good, representative homes, 
 with normal school progress, as indicated by school grades, school marks, 
 and a series of mental examinations for the three consecutive years. The 
 analyses give a good insight into the physical status of these young adoles- 
 cents, since the ossification of the bones of the wrist is representative 
 of the skeletal development in general. 
 
 The roentgenographs included in this investigation were taken in the 
 Department of Roentgenology of the University College of Medicine by Dr. 
 Bundy Allen. One series was taken in 1918 just before the writer was called 
 into the U. S. Army, and another series on the same individuals after his 
 return, and a third series in October, 1920. The roentgenograms were of the 
 exact natural size and the two hands were placed in a uniform position a s 
 far as possible. The individual differences in the forms and positions of 
 the carpal bones and the difficulty of differentiating between various stages 
 as the cartilaginous tissue develops into osseous substance present distinct 
 problems in determining the topographical area of the bones. 
 
 b. Method of Finding the Area of the Bones of the Ifrist . At first 
 attempts were made to measure the perimeter of the individual" bones by means 
 of a map tracer and protractors. This method was soon discarded and a method 
 of tracing the outlines on millimeter cross section paper through an illum- 
 inated frosted gladd plate was tried and also discarded. The tables in this 
 section of the Study give the measurements as found by means of the planimeter 
 with which the area of surfaces of irregular outline can be determined with 
 accuracy. The accompanying photograph (12) shows the development at the 
 beginning and at the end of the two year intervalfof one boy, No. 8376 (John). 
 In 1918 the total exposed area of the seven bones was 1110 sq. rams, and just 
 two years later, 1920, the total area was 1832 sq. rams. In this case there 
 was marked growth in the area of each borte and in the total area also because 
 of the appearance of the pisiform (116 sq. mms.) after the two year period. 
 
 All original X-ray photographs have been reduced in these exits from 
 natural size by means of a uniform scale which makes the photographs of 
 this Study comparable. 
 
-29- 
 
 Further examples of the differences in the development of the wrist 
 bones at various ages are contained in a series of comparative observations 
 on No. 8370 and No. 8376 for the year 1918 showing that in physical growth 
 No, 8376 (John) is advanced, being both taller and heavier; in the anatom- 
 ical development of the seven observable bones of the wrist No. 8376 has 
 a larger projected surface area for bones separately and for all of the bones 
 collectively. The same differences are observable in the photographs for 
 1920; in physiological development No. 8376 (John) was post-pubescent in 
 1918 and No. 8370 (Eldon) pre-pubescent; in chronological age No. 8376 
 (John) is six months younger than No. 8370 (Eldon). These data demonstrate 
 that No. 8376 (John) is the older boy anatomically, although chronologic- 
 ally six months the younger. 
 
 c. Conclusions. 
 
 I. The size and number of the carpal bones increase with age during 
 childhood. 
 
 II. The development of the two wrists varies with individuals, but 
 on the average there is no difference. 
 
 III. Girls at a given chronological age have a larger exposed surface 
 area of the carpal bones of the wrist than have boys. 
 
 IV. Another evidence of the accelerated anatomical development of 
 girls over boys is shown in the presence and development of the 
 pisiform bone, which appears earlier during the pre-adolescent 
 age .with girls than with boys. 
 
 V. There is a high coefficient of correlation between height and 
 area of the carpal bones (Boys f .879, Girls | #729) and also 
 between weight and area of the carpal bones (Boys + .755, Girls 
 * .766.) 
 
 VI. Boys have a higher correlation than girls for height and area of 
 carpal bones and about the same as girls for weight and area of 
 the carpal bones. 
 
 VII. The coefficient of variation of the carpal bones is higher for 
 boys than for girls (Boys 29.94, Girls 12.695). 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL AGE 
 
 1* The Age Distribution of Pubescence of Boys and 
 Physiological Maturation of Girls 
 
 The subjects of physiological and anatomical ages have been con- 
 fused in the literature, because neither has been investigated empirically 
 beyond a limited degree, although both are full of fertile problems of 
 great significance in the study of individual development. The direct 
 applications of the meaning of these ages to physical, mental, pedagogical, 
 social and moral development have been recognized to a very limited extent. 
 
 There is a wide range to be found in the physiological differences 
 between boys and girls of the same chronological age, as will be demonstrated 
 by the data following. Some boys reach pubescence at 11 years of age, others 
 not until 16 years of age; some girls reach this period of maturity at 10 
 
-30- 
 
 year s of age or earlier, others not until 16 or 17. Boys and girls who 
 mature early in these functions may be considered physically older than 
 those of later maturation, 
 
 a. Data for Boys * In order to determine the wide range of chrono- 
 logical ages that characterize the stages of physiological growth which 
 
 are entered into at adolescence, the writer and one of his advanced students 
 at Johns Hopkins University, Charles F. Pennington, checked very carefully 
 some material that was gathered under the direction of $r. William Burdick 
 and Dr. Brown on the ages of pre-pubescence, pubescence, and post-pubescence 
 in boys. (28) In Baltimore 3600 boys of a "motor" type of development, 
 that is, those taking part in athletics, were examined. These data were 
 supplemented by those from a group of 1317 boys from 14 counties of Mary- 
 land, making a total of 4917 boys. With these particular children the 
 criterion was that of pubescent growth and pigmentation of fine hair, 
 which characterizes a very brief period of time marking the change from 
 asexual to sexual life, when the ability to procreate is established. 
 
 It is found that the pre-pubescent boys range from eight and one- 
 half to 16 years of age in the group of country boys, and from nine and one- 
 half to 17^ for the city boys. The post-pubescent ages range from llj- to 
 24 for the country boys and 12-| to 24 for the city boys. For the pubescent 
 stages the country boys range from nine and one-half to 15-J-, with the mode 
 at 13|, and the city boys from 10 to 18, with the mode at 14.. The country 
 boys reach this period earlier than the city boys. At no age are more than 
 53 per cent of the age group of the city boys pubescent or more than 40 
 per cent of the country boys. 
 
 A method is now being formulated and carried out by the writer 
 with the University of I ona Junior High School boys, which indicates that 
 pubescence is but a rough and inadequate criterion of the secretion of the 
 sperm cell. 
 
 b. Data for Girls. For the girls the criteria were the first 
 menstrual flow, enlargement of the breasts, the appearance of sub-cutaneous 
 fat, and axillary hair, as noted by the physician or nurse. Chart LV shows 
 the age distribution in terms of per cent of 47 girls from the University 
 of Iowa Elementary and High School who had their first period of menstrua- 
 tion between the ages of 10 and 17 years; and a similar distribution for 
 151 Horace iwann school girls, 56 University of Chicago Elementary and High 
 School girls and 134 Baltimore County girls from the Baltimore Athletic 
 League. These data are accurate and represent typical groups of normal 
 girls from the middle and upper class homes. 
 
 These data furnish satisfactory criteria for specific purposes, but 
 other types of criteria are being worked out at the present time by the 
 writer. 
 
 c. Conclusions 
 
 I. 
 
 These data show that among children who are best developed from a 
 physical point of view, there is no fixed age for physiological 
 development as evidenced by the advent of pubescence or first 
 menstruation. Adolescence does not begin at the sane chronological 
 age for all normal boys or for all normal girls, physiologically 
 
-31- 
 
 TABLE XLI 
 
 PERCEIITAGE DISTRIBUTION OF PHYSIOLGSECAL MATURATION — GIRLS 
 
 1. University of Iowa Elementary and High School Girls 
 
 Ages Cases 
 
 
 
 Per Cent 
 
 Median 
 
 11 4 
 
 
 
 8.51 
 
 13 years 
 
 12 9 
 
 
 
 19.14 
 
 7 months 
 
 13 18 
 
 
 
 38.29 
 
 
 14 10 
 
 
 
 21.27 
 
 
 15' 6 
 
 
 
 12.76 
 
 
 47 
 
 99.97 
 
 
 2. Horace Aiann Elementary and 
 
 High School Girls 
 
 
 Ages Cases 
 
 
 
 Per Cent 
 
 Median 
 
 11 7 
 
 
 
 4.63 
 
 13 years 
 
 12 25 
 
 
 
 16.55 
 
 9 months 
 
 13 56 
 
 
 
 37.08 
 
 
 14 42 
 
 
 
 27.81 
 
 
 15 17 
 
 
 
 11.25 
 
 
 16 4 
 
 
 
 2.64 
 
 
 151 
 
 99.96 
 
 
 3. University of Chicago Elementary 
 
 and High School 
 
 Girls 
 
 Ages Cases 
 
 
 
 Per Cent 
 
 Lledian 
 
 11 3 
 
 
 
 5.35 
 
 13 years 
 
 12 9 
 
 
 
 16.06 
 
 9 months 
 
 13 22 
 
 
 
 39.28 
 
 
 14 14 
 
 
 
 25.00 
 
 
 15 6 
 
 
 
 10.71 
 
 
 16 2 
 
 
 
 3.57 
 
 
 56 
 
 99.97 
 
 
 4, Baltimore County Girls, 
 
 Maryland 
 
 
 
 Ages Cases 
 
 
 
 Per Cent 
 
 Median 
 
 10 3 
 
 
 
 2.23 
 
 13 years 
 
 11 10 
 
 
 
 7.46 
 
 8 months 
 
 12 27 
 
 
 
 20.14 
 
 
 13 40 
 
 
 
 29.84 
 
 
 14 36 
 
 
 
 26.85 
 
 
 15 13 
 
 
 
 9.70 
 
 
 16 5 
 
 
 
 3.72 
 
 
 134 
 
 99.94 
 
 

 
 
-32- 
 
 speaking. Children, boys or girls, may be of the same chronological age 
 between 10^ and l&g and differ in physiological age from one to four or five 
 years and still be normal in physical development. The norm for pubescence 
 is is a distribution range, not an average chronological age. 
 
 II. At no age do as many as 40 per cent of the groups mature. 
 
 III. There is a range in ages from 10 to 17 years for the age of first 
 menstruation for normal girls. 
 
 IV. The girls from the country and from the smaller city (11,000 population) 
 mature earlier than those from Chicago and New York, the median ages being 
 respectively 13 years eight months, 13 years seven months, 13 years nine 
 months. This conclusion substantiates the similar condition found for boys 
 28 p. 15). 
 
 * 
 2. Relation of Establishment of Itiaturity to Height 
 
 of Girls 
 
 a. Data. In order to find the correlation from another angle 
 between physical grov/th and the date of maturity (first menstruation) 
 of girls, 151 Horace iv^nn girls and 53 University of Chicago high school 
 .girls between 11 and 17 years of age were taken, with the heights recorded 
 at the time of the appearance of this physiological function. 
 
 It was found for the Horace Mann School, Columbia, that the seven 
 girls who matured at 11 years of age had an average height of 148.2 cm., 
 with the average or norm for the school at 140.39 cm.; the 25 girls who 
 matured at 12 years of age had an average height of 152.1 cm., with the 
 average jor norm for the school at 146.22 cm.; the 56 girls maturing at 13 
 years of age had an average height of 155.3 cm. and the norm was 152.74 
 cm.; the 42 girls maturing at 14 years of age had an average height of 159.6 
 cm. and the norm was 156.97 cm.; the 17 girls maturing at 15 years of age 
 were 158.5 cm. in height and the norm was 159.35 cm.; and the four girls 
 maturing at 16 or a comparatively late age were 163.2 cm., while the aver- 
 age for the group was 161.59 cm. 
 
 It was found that in working with the data for the 53 girls from 
 the University of Chicago, those who matured at 11 years of age had an 
 average height of 146.9 cm., while the average or norm was 141. The nine 
 who matured at 12 years of age had an average height of 151.4 cm., with 
 the average or norm for the school of 146 cm. The 22 girls who matured at 
 14 years of age had an average height of 154.7 and the norm was 153 cm. 
 The 14 girls maturing at 14 years of age had an average height of 158.7 cm. 
 and the norm was 157 cm. The six girls who matured at 16 years of age 
 were 159.6 cm. in height and the norm was 159 cm.; and the two girls 
 maturing at 16 or a comparatively late age were 161 cm., with the average 
 for the group 160 cm. 
 
 k # Conclusions 
 
 I. These results s how t hat girls who mature early are on 
 the average close to the norm or fljelo^ it. This is contrary to the current 
 belief that early maturation is/asign of poor health. 
 
• 
 
-33- 
 
 3« Individual Growth Curves 
 
 a. Data . As soon as the wide range of pubescent development in 
 terms of chronological ages is appreciated, the question arises, what 
 underlying principle governs this period of physiological ripening and 
 causes such differences in the phases of physical maturation. This may be 
 made very clear by the following charts taken from a previous investigation 
 (28), where the individual growth curves are given and the establishment 
 
 of the period of first menstruation is indicated by heavy black dots. It 
 must be recognized that a limited number of type cases are given, but they 
 are all approximately normal. Since these are individual pictures, their 
 validity is established and their worth of permanent value for future anal- 
 yses. An application of scientific procedure will find several other con- 
 ditions, such as heredity, social environment, climate, exercise and 
 nationality as important determining factors. The problem here, as in the 
 other sections of this Study , consists in finding the basic facts for further 
 study of the normal child. 
 
 In the collected results (Chart LVT) it may be noted that tall 
 girls as a rule mature earlier than short ones. This was shown in the 
 writer's original study (27) by means of individual growth curves. 
 
 The individual growth curves in height shown in Chart LVI give some 
 exceptions to this rule, but they demonstrate the law that early maturity 
 means that growth is nearing completion in height as well as sex develop- 
 ment. Individuals 4, 5 and 6 should normally mature late, but they matured 
 relatively early and soon after this period there was a diminution in 
 growth. This is very striking in the case of No. 6. Nos. 1, 2, and 3 
 matured approximately at normal age for their height, since none are tall 
 girls. The tall girls, la and lb, show a striking contrast. The six girls 
 are not only relatively small, but all have had serious illnesses. No. 1 
 had scarlet fever just before 13 years of age. No. 2 was anaemic through- 
 out her school life, with lumbar curvature, intestinal disturbances and 
 rapid and irregular heart. No. 3, a sister of No. 1, had scarlet fever 
 at the same time, with poor posture during high school period. No. 4, in 
 addition to having had many children's diseases, was very nervous. No. 5 
 had poor posture, and also had hernia and enlarged tonsils. No. 6 had 
 enlarged glands of the neck and hip disease from a fall. No. la and lb were 
 healthy Chicago girls. 
 
 b. Conclusions 
 
 I. Tall girls of a fairly homogeneous group, as a general 
 rule mature earlier than short ones. 
 
 4. Relation of idaturation to Growth 
 
 a. Data . The relation between the cessation of growth and the 
 advent of sex maturity may be shown by a study of the average annual in- 
 crements of growth between nine and 18 years of age. For the girls who 
 matured at 11 years the increment of growth increased rapidly from nine 
 to 11 and dropped rapidly almost to the one centimeter point at 14. For 
 those girls who matured at 12 years of age, there was an increase in the 
 
-34- 
 
 average increment until 11, then a slight drop and after 12 a rapid cessation 
 until 15, when it was below the one centimeter increment. For those who 
 matured at 13 there was a slight drop at 10 and an increase until IE, then 
 a drop to less than one centimeter at 16. For those who matured at 14 
 there was a slight drop until 17, at which age the average is less than one 
 centimeter. For the 15 year old girls there was a relatively high incre- 
 ment until 14 years, when there was a rpid decrease to less than one cen- 
 timeter at 17. For 16 year old girls the rapid drop also began at 14 years 
 and reached the minimum at 18 years of age. (Data from Horace Mann, Univer- 
 sity of Chicago and F. W. Parker Schools) 
 
 b. Conclusions. 
 
 I. Early maturity is followed, as a rule, by a rapid cessation 
 of growth in stature. For girls who mature at 11, a rapid decrease in 
 annual increment follows until 14, where there is less than a centimeter 
 
 of growth. For those who nature at 12 a rapid decrease in increment follows 
 until 15, when there is less than a centimeter of growth. 
 
 II. For girls who nature at 13 or later, the decrease in 
 increment begins in the year previous to maturation, and reaches one centi- 
 meter or less three years later. 
 
 III. The decrease in yearly increment is more prolonged for 
 girls who mature late. 
 
 IV. There is a positive correlation between physiological 
 stages of maturation and anatomical age, as evidenced by height, weight, 
 and the development of the area of the carpal bones. 
 
 5. Applications of the Concept of Physiological 
 
 Age 
 
 Six distinct applications of the concept of physiological age in 
 child development may be cited here: 
 
 a. To Physical Training . Physiological age has a direct bearing 
 on physical training and directed play. Not only do children naturally 
 play with boys and girls of their same physsiological age, but the types 
 of games in which they participate are dependent upon the stage of phys- 
 iological maturity. It would be justifiable to arrange physical training 
 schedules in schools on the basis of physiological age, giving boys or 
 girls of the same physiological age similar types of exercise. On the av- 
 erage, girls are older physiologically than boys. 
 
 b. To Stages of Liental Saturation. Physiological age is, the 
 writer believes, directly correlated with stages of mental maturation. The 
 physiologically more mature child has different attitudes, different types 
 of emotions, different interests, than the child who is physically younger 
 though of the same chronological age. While a child may be precocious 
 intellectually, and have a high intelligence quotient and pass beyond its 
 chronological age in the development of certain mental traits, other types 
 of traits indicative of mental maturity may be undeveloped. 
 
-35- 
 
 Another experimental study just completed shows that the mental 
 age of the individual bears a direct relationship to the physiological 
 age as indicated by height and weight. The results show that at each 
 chronological age the physiologically accelerated boys and girls have a 
 higher mental age than those of the average or below the average physiolog- 
 ical age. The girls, when classified on this basis, show a higher mental 
 age for a given chronological age than do the boys. G irls are on the 
 average mentally older than boys. 
 
 c. To_ School Progress and Promotion . Physiological age has a 
 direct bearing on pedagogical age, as many of our schools are beginning to 
 recognize. The larger and physiologically more mature child may be able 
 to do certain types of school work better, although of inferior ability 
 
 in specific traits which have been greatly emphasized by school curricula. 
 No child should be promoted or demoted without taking into consideration 
 his or her physiological age. Girls may be expected to progress more rapid- 
 ly than boys. 
 
 d. To Industrial Work . There should be a direct relationship 
 between physiological age and the age at which boys and girls enter indus- 
 trial work-. Child labor legislation should take into consideration the 
 physiological development of the boy or girl as well as his or her chron- 
 ological age and school standing. Some children are sufficiently mature 
 .physically to meet the requirements of an age limit of 14 or 16, while 
 others are immature and in a stage of physiological growth where more school 
 training, more physical training and more opportunity for physical develop- 
 ment are essential, 
 
 e. To S 00 ial Adjustment . That there is a direct relationship be- 
 tween social age and physiological maturity needs only to be mentioned 
 
 to be evident. Some girls at a given chronological age are sufficiently 
 mature to meet the social conditions which may arise, while others are not. 
 It is apparent that in dealing with children, especially delinquents, be- 
 tween 10 and 18 years of age, there is a tremendous problem involved which 
 rests directly on the physiological age of the individual. Girls face 
 this problem earlier on the average than do boys. In a particular case 
 it may mean a social misfit for life with another child involved, or the 
 individual may be subject to remedial social training and development. 
 
 f. To Moral and Religious Awakenings . The commonly observed 
 periods of moral and religious awakening in children, particularly at 12 
 
 to 16 years of age, show that there is a close relationship between physio- 
 logical age and religious development, with girls preceding boys. 
 

 
-36- 
 
 PART IV 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 HISTORICAL ORIENTATION 
 1 . INTRODUCTION 
 
 a. General Summaries of Literature on Growth. During the past 
 two centuries there have been~~many valuable~~scientific investigations 
 in physical grovrth, but only a few sustained efforts have been made to 
 make a comprehensive survey of the field, aside from reviews from parti- 
 cular angles, A portion of the literature on growth is summarized in 
 Roberts' (663) Manual of Anthropometry , 1878; Sack's (681) dissertation, 
 1892; Topinard's (822) Anthropology , 1895; Burk's (136) Growth of 
 Children in H eight and //eight , 1898; Kacdonald's (490) Experimental 
 Study oT ChTiT^ren , 1897; Daffner's (193) Das Wachstuia des } enschen, 
 1902; Ernst and Neumann's (241) Das Schulkind in seinerTfrrperlichen 
 und geirben Ent- ic klung , 1906; Vierordt's (ft46~}~~Anatomische und geisten 
 physikal ische I) at en und Tabellen , 1 906 ; Wei s s enberg's (R65) Das Wachstum 
 des Tense hen , 1911; Balcy-in's (27) Physical Growth and SchooTTrogress, 
 T5T4: rartin's (505) Anthropology , 1914; and Hrdlick"aTs (405) Physical 
 Anthropology, 1919. — — 
 
 b. International Scope of Contributions . The present status of 
 the scientific literature on physical growth shows many countries contri- 
 buting, among vrhich are America, England, Scotland, Ireland, Canada, 
 Australia, France, Norway, Denmark, Sweden, Spain, Holland, Belgium, 
 Switzerland, Italy, Germany, Austria, Russia, Poland, Finland, China, 
 Japan, and the Philippine Islands. 
 
 The largest amount of scientific material and probably the best, 
 has been gathered or formulated in the United States, England, Germany, 
 France, Russia and the Scandinavian countries, with little from South 
 America and from China directly. Repeated attempts have been made to 
 secure available material through correspondence and conferences. In 
 England the investigations have usually included large numbers of indivi- 
 duals, principalis adults, and have been undertaken for practical ethno- 
 logical, sociological, military and hygienic purposes. In Germany, where 
 more detailed analytical work has been done with children and adults, tfoe 
 point of view is that of the physiological development of the individual. 
 In Russia the physiological and pedagogical points of view have also pre- 
 dominated; in Italy the criminal and pedagogical; in China and Japan the 
 pedagogical; while in Norway, Sweden and the Netherlands the anthropologi- 
 cal and pedagogical motivations have been the determining factor. In 
 America, where large numbers of children have been measured and compared 
 in different parts of the country, the work has been done primarily by 
 physicians, anthropologists, anthropometrists, psychologists and educators. 
 
-37- 
 
 2. EARLY HISTORY OF GROWTH STUDIES 
 
 a. General Fields Included . In making an historical survey of the 
 scope, methods and purposes of investigations of physical growth, it may be 
 noted that the scope includes the study of infants, both prenatal and post- 
 natal, children, adults, and occasional comparisons between animals and human 
 beings. The group method has predominated, where different groups of indivi- 
 duals have been measured for different ages and the averages obtained have 
 been supposed to represent consecutive growth periods in the same individual. 
 The literature shows very few studies on a considerable number of cases by 
 the individualizing method. The earliest of these v/as published by Vahl (832) 
 1884, followed by that of Landsberger (456), 1888, who measured 37* children 
 for a period of seven years. Then followed Wiener (879), 1890, who measured 
 his four sons consecutively from birth through childhood. In 1910 King (437) 
 presented measurements of his two boys, in one case for six years and in the 
 other for three years. There have been other studies of individual children 
 by rrs. r. S. Hall, (342), by Major, by Karnitzky (422), Wissler (883), Moon 
 (534 and 535), Boas and "Tissler (100), and by Camerer (144-148). Godin (299), 
 1910, presented the results of four annual measurements on 100 boys. Matthias 
 (507), 1916, investigated the effect of physical exercise on 737 Swiss athletes, 
 each measured three times a year from the age of 16 to 22. Porter (618) in 
 1920 had obtained weight data on a large number of Boston public school children 
 who had been weighed from 1909 to 1919. The investigations of Baldwin (27 and 
 this StudyO follow the individual grov/th curves for a number of physical traits 
 on several hundred children from various sections of the United States for 
 periods of 10 to 12 years. 
 
 h. The Influence of Sculpture and Painting on the Study of Growth. 
 Scientific anthropometry arose mainly ft cm the desire^tcTTind theTest pro- 
 porticns for the beautiful forms that artists wished to represent. Although 
 no specific references have been found in Greek and Roman literature to actual 
 anthropometric work among these peoples it is evident that the sculptors must 
 have measured the human body in order to make the exact copies of the victors 
 in the athletic games whose statues were customarily placed in temples and 
 public squares and served as examples or norms of perfect physical development. 
 It is known that artists were in the habit of frequenting the gymnasia in order 
 to study the physique of the youths and maidens who v.ere exercising there. 
 Phidias is said to have used twenty models in order that the most beautiful 
 parts of eacfh, might be assembled into one figure. 
 
 The artistic tradition was carried on by Durer ' s (226) folio published 
 in rluremberg, 1528, which contained much material on human proportions. In 
 1654 Elsholt (232) published at Padua his Anthropometria , the first modern work 
 on anthropometry, in which were included pictures of the perfect body and il- 
 lustrations of anthropometric instruments. Audran (21 published a study at 
 Paris, 1683, which gave the diagrams and measurements of . twenty-five famous 
 statues. Bergnuller (55 ) 1728 wrote one of the early treatises on anthropometry 
 David (201) 1798, also published material about the famous statues of antiquity". 
 
 The historical association of the artistic movement with the interest 
 in anthropometry generally is shown by the fact that in 1770 Sir Joshua 
 Reynolds called attention in an address delivered before the Royal Academy of 
 
-38- 
 
 Fine Arts to the differences in the measurements of the human form from 
 c'ildhood to adult life. Camper's (157) 1803, works may serve as an example 
 of the earlier modern anatomical treatises. It is to Quetelet, v;ho coined 
 the word anthropometry, that credit should be given for the first scientific 
 study of physical growth. In 1830 were published the results of these first 
 investigations in whieh the artistic procedure T/as joined to the new scientific 
 method of empirical measure ent and induction. The artistic tradition was con- 
 tinued in such work as that of Fock (256) 1850, who posited Apollo Belvedere 
 as the model for human proportions, and of Story (786) 1866, who gave a detail- 
 ed study of parts of the body with many allusions to the work of classical 
 scientists, T-hile Schadow's (696) Polyclet, 1834, carried the study of human 
 proportions a step further in that it took account of sex and age and gave 
 actxial life sizes. 
 
 3. METHODS AND TECHNIQUE 
 
 A. LACK OF UNIFORMITY IN KETHODS 
 
 Since these early studies a vast amount of work has been done in the 
 field of experimental measurements and physical tests. Unfortunately there 
 has been a great lack of uniformity in methods of measuring, standardization 
 of instruments, units of measurement, parts to be measured, topographic points 
 to be accepted, methods of recording data, methods of estimating ages, time of 
 day for measuring, and intervals for repetition of measurement. The English 
 authorities and many Americans have used the inch divided into tenths as a 
 unit measure, although many investigators have used the eighth of an inch. In 
 practically all other countries, the metric, or French system, has been used, 
 • ith obvious advantages, since the system is the scientific standard used in 
 most countries and in all other departments of science; it is a decimal system 
 and is easily translated into the English system. 
 
 There has also been great confusion in the selection of the parts to 
 be measured, since this should be dependent upon the purpose for which the 
 measurements are being taken — that is, the value to the individual examined, 
 the value to anthropology, the value for the science of physical measurements, 
 the value for an educational program, or the value for correlations with psy- 
 chological traits. 7/hat is needed at present is a standardization of all these 
 factors and a definite statement of the purpose for which each investigation 
 has been made. 
 
 B. THEORETICAL DISCUSSIONS AND GENERAL TREATISES ON GROVvTK ' 
 
 Many contributions to the theory of anthropometry and numerous con- 
 siderations of technical questions are to be found in extensive investigations 
 which are listed in later sections of this historical orientation. The sum- 
 maries of the literature on growth listed in Part VI also contain much material 
 of this kind. The first important special contribution to theory was Galton's 
 (282) short account of an anthropometric laboratory and his (283 and 284) dis- 
 cussion of anthropometric percentiles, 1884 and 1885. Boas (83) in 1^94 con- 
 tributed to the theory of measurements and in 1904 published his discussion 
 of variable quantities (92). In 1894 Pearson (575) v/rote on Galton's per- 
 centile method. Boas and "^issler (100) 1904, issued their study on statistics 
 of growth which v;as a continuation of Boas' (91) 1902 statistical study of 
 anthrometry. "/feissenberg 1 s ( Q 60) anthropometric principles and methods appear- 
 ed in 1904. As early as 1893 Titchener (821) made a noteworthy distinction 
 between anthropometry and experimental psychology. The latest contribution 
 
- 39 - 
 
 to this field in Hrdlicka's (406) articles on the anthropometry of the 
 living in 1919. The recent works of Schifltz (707), 1919, in Norway and 
 of Orum (569), 1919, in Denmark, make special contributions to statistical 
 method.. 
 
 Among the writers of general treatises bearing directly on growth, 
 those that are most significant are Thoma (812 and 813), 1882, Frolick (275)' 
 1896, Ellis (231), 1896, Donaldson (213), 1896, Chamberlain (165) 1900, 
 Thorndike (817) 1901, Buschan (139) 1909, Griffith (321) 1909, Boas (96-98) 
 1912, Kirkpatrick (440) 1917. 
 
 C . MANUALS 
 
 A description of the methods of making physical measurement with 
 tables of norms and an account of the general grov/th process has been publish- 
 ed in manual form by Gulick (328), 1892, Megret (516) 1895, Hitchcock, Seeley 
 and Phillips (390) 1900, Hastings (356) 1902, and by Seaver (743) 1909. Books 
 on statistical methods which are applicable to anthropometric work are Daven- 
 port's (197) Statistical Methods , 1899, and Thorndike's (818) Mental and 
 Social Measurements. 
 
 D. GROWTH FORMULAE 
 
 Probably the greatest development in anthropometric methods of 
 recent years has consisted in the extended use of mathematical expressions 
 for various growth phenomena. Beginning with Quetelet in 1836, investigators 
 who have had at their disposal a collection of various measurements of the 
 body on different individuals for an extended series of years, permitting 
 them to calculate the yearly increments, have attempted to express their 
 growth curve by means of a mathematical equation. Since this pioneer work 
 the derivation of 'formulae has aided materially in the development of a 
 science of human growth and also in coordinating and correlating the work 
 of the various investigators, especially in reference to tdal and partial 
 growth of the body. It should be noted that all of the formulae are only 
 approximations, for growth varies in total and partial bodily proportions 
 at different chronological ages, in different sexes, in different races, at 
 different stages of physiological maturation, at different times of the year, 
 and under various environmental and nutritional conditions. 
 
 (1) Rate of Growth. One class of these formulae has been design- 
 ed to express the normal""rate of growth throughout life; that is, to give the 
 shape of the curve for relationships of particular measurements such as 
 hieght or weight. Such formulae rest on the assumption that the normal in- 
 dividual has a certain growth capacity or growth energy at birth. Consequent- 
 ly the value of any measurement at any time of life can be obtained by solv- 
 ing an equation in which certain other values are known. For example, in- 
 stead of comparing the actual weight of an infant with the norm for its age, 
 the weight it should have at that age may be calculated by filling in the 
 formula. Some writers have constructed tables of norms by making a few 
 determinations and interpolating values that seem to conform to the growth 
 curve as they find it. Accurate formulae, including relationships for more 
 than a few years, have been impossible, particularly previous to this Study 
 since individual grovrth curves for childhood have not been available. ' 
 

 
-40- 
 
 Quetelet (626-634) used both Glasses of formulae, concluding 
 that the weight of the "body of the various years of life is proportional 
 to the fifth power of height. The formula is: 
 
 1. For Y/eight. g = G-T/jT 
 
 where 
 
 g » weight to be found; G « birth weight; 1 «• height; 
 L « birth height. 
 
 The increase in weight has also been worked out theoretically bv 
 Pinkelstein. * 
 
 2. For height increase Quetelet used the formula: 
 
 y - a x - t + x where 
 
 y - 1000 ( T - y) 1 + 4/3x 
 x = age in years; y » height corresponding to this; 
 t ■ height of new-born; T = height of adult; 
 a ■ yearly increase between ages 4*16. 
 
 An elaborate but somewhat fantastic and inaccurate scheme was devised 
 by Liharzik (474), 1858. The result seemed to indicate that all measure- 
 ments show that growth takes place in epochs and that in each period of a 
 single epoch the same increase takes place; i.e. if L is the height at birth, 
 this increases in the first month by A in the second and third months together 
 by \ ; m the fourth, fifth and sixth months by X . The second epoch begins 
 from the twenty-second to the twenty-eighth month, from the twenty-ninth to 
 the thirty-sixth month, and so on, to 171 months, the increase in each case 
 being still X. The third epoch has a similar increase. Liharzik's division 
 into epochs and periods with the corresponding months of life was : 
 
 1. Epoch 6-5/6 cm. increase 
 
 Period 12 3 4 5 6 
 Months 1 3 6 10 15 21 
 
 II. Epoch 6 cm. increase 
 
 Period 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 
 Months 28 36 45 55 66 78 91 105 120 136 153 171 
 
 III. Epoch 2 cm. increase. 
 
 Period 19 20 21 ZZ 23 24 
 Months 190 210 231 253 276 300 
 
 ioqo v L J ha ^ zi3c did not work out his formula mathematically but Raudnitz (648), 
 1892, had Liharzik's measurements worked over by a mathematician who devised 
 formulae. 
 
 Zeising (906), 1858, believed that growth in height took place in such 
 a way that the parts of the body were related to each other in the ratio of 
 the golden section. 2he formula is: 
 
 x : y : : y : (x + y). 
 
 Another early mathematical derivation of a growth formula, but without 
 observational material, was made by Kaiser (420), 1875. Attempts have been 
 made to give mathematical expression to the general bio-chemical law of growth. 
 Robertson, (664) 1897, published a growth formula derived from the results 
 
-41- 
 
 of Quetelet and of the British Anthropometric Committee. It was found 
 that any particular cycle of growth obeys the formula: 
 
 log x = K ( t - t i) 
 
 A - x 
 
 where x - amount (in weight or volume) of growth which has been attained 
 during the cycle; K is a constant; and t - time at which the growth due to 
 the cycle is half completed. The author shows that the formula holds true 
 for plants and their elements as well and thinks that growth is an auto- 
 catalyzed process in both inorganic and organic life. 
 
 The belief in the parabolic character of the growth curve has led 
 to a considerable amount of discussion. Wiener, 1890, (879) reported con- 
 tinuous measurements on his four sons. Inspection of these measurements led 
 Wiener to the belief that between the ages two and 12 the growth curve is 
 part of a parabola which can be analyzed to give the general formula: 
 
 y* = a (x + b). 
 
 According to this formula, the axis of the parabola is parallel to 
 the abcissa and its vertex is located to the left of the middle of the system 
 at a distance represented by b.» the values of the constants a and Jb varying 
 somewhat with different individuals. Hall (341), 1895, in a study of the 
 principles of growth by rhythms concludes, "When the vertical dimensions 
 of the human body are undergoing acceleration of their rate of growth, the 
 horizontal dimensions undergo a retardation of their rate of growth, and 
 conversely. ■ 
 
 In 1903 von Lange (460) corroborated Wiener's findings in regard to 
 the parabolic characteristics of the curve from two years to the beginning of 
 puberty, but tried to draw an analogy between the laws governing growth and 
 the general laws of motion. 
 
 Reinus (651) 1915, in a dissertation under Pfaundler' s direction, 
 made an attempt, with different sets of measurements drawn from the literature 
 on growth in height, to find a parabola that would fit the observed facts. 
 Pfaundler (590) 1916-17, working over the data of Friedenthal on the average 
 growth curve of the typical male, found a formula which would express growth 
 in height from birth to the end of puberty. This is: 
 
 x\s n y 3 
 
 where x » the age in years dating from the time of conception; y • the height 
 in meters; and n ■ a constant about 4.75 in value. This formula means that 
 age is proportional to the third power of height. By mathematical procedure, 
 Pfaundler also found that when height and density remain constant, weight during 
 the growing period is also proportional to age. 
 
 Another type of formula has been developed by Workers on the caloric 
 requirements of infants, since the amount of milk to be given at each feed- 
 ing is to be computed on the basis of the "theoretical weight" for any 
 particular age. Daniels and Byfield (195) 1919, for example, find the 
 
-42- 
 
 theoretical weight by using the following adaptation of Finkels tein's rule: 
 birth weight - (600 X age in months) = 300 - weight for first six months, 
 ^irth weight - (500 X age in months) » weight for second six months. 
 
 (2) Relationships in Growth. A second class of formulae expresses 
 !he relationship between jtwo Physical traits. The. use of these formulae 
 
 °Vf< ttel V fi ? diCeS " iS based on the assumption that there is a constant' 
 relationship between the growth of the body in the two traits concerned 
 as for example, in height and in weight. A few investigators have constructed 
 curves showing the value of these indices for each year of life and the 
 curves have been used for diagnostic purposes. 
 
 Boulton (108) 1876, though offering no formula, stressed the 
 constant relationship between weight and height and foreshadowed the modern 
 point of view that weight alone is no criterion of normal development. It 
 Ui7f e iQQA ati ? n ° f ^ e ! W ° ex V* esai *Z robustness that is important. Porter 
 I , /?;?? fio° em ? hasised t^e importance of the height-weight ratio. 
 Bamce (644) 1894-1900, used the following formulae: 
 
 Weight-height index » _W; Vital-height index r V 
 
 •H 
 
 H 
 
 Leg-height index ^_L; Head-height index = h 
 
 H 
 
 II 
 
 i*l v. i ,. Enebuske < 235 > 1892 " 94 assembled or devised formulae for the follow- 
 ing relations: 
 
 Total strength-weight index - T^; Power index — 
 
 ¥~ ~" 
 
 If 
 
 TS ^; Vital strength-weight index - f£ x f£ 
 
 w WW. 
 
 Oeder (555-557) 1909 and 1910 combined height and weight into an 
 
 user;inl e ^h e f er f. (665) 1911 ' C ° mpared ^^^en measurements lith height and 
 used nine other indices expressing the relations of various parts of thf body 
 no eacn other. ^*^ 
 
 of hM*ht ^ ertn - r J 278) 1912 ' devel °P ed a f °™la to express the relationship 
 of height and weight, computing thereby a table for the normal weight of adult 
 men and women (for each 1 centimeter increase in height). 
 
 Tuxford (826) 1917, has used a formula in which the variable factors 
 
 are: 
 
 For Bovs- Weight , in ^rams 58JL_^_ag e in m onths 
 * ' Height in cms. A 54 
 
 For Girls: Ifti^LAn grams x _3 84 - ag e in month s 
 Height in cms. 48 
 
 The results are empirical and fall within childhood ages. This 
 writer states that the average for normal children should fall within 990 and 1010, 
 
-43- 
 
 Matusiewie* (508) 1914, also -wrote on the height-weight coefficient. 
 
 An index relating height and arm span was discussed by Knoop (444) 
 1918. Feri (252) 1893, developed a relationship between length of trunk and 
 weight. 
 
 (3) Total and Partial Growth in Volume. A recent trend has been the 
 development of formulae 7hich Thould notTrepresent merely linear relationship 
 but should take into account the fact that the body is a three dimensional 
 object. As early as 1879 Meeh (514) began a study of regions or parts of the 
 body to be measured and of the body and total volume, and in 1895 (515) a re- 
 lationship was shown between the volume of a single part of the body and total 
 volume in infant and adult life. 
 
 Among formulae designed to introduce the factor of the third dimen- 
 sion is the "index ponderalis" of Livi (482) 1899. This is: 
 
 100 "$T" 
 
 r~~ 
 
 where P s weight and L s height. 
 
 Another formula takes into consideration chest circumference as well 
 as height and weight. This was introduced by Pignet (598 and 599) in 1900 and 
 1901 as the "coefficient du robusticitie." It has been widely used in the 
 German and Frenoh armies. The formula is: 
 
 N - H - (B f K) 
 
 where N ■ the numerical index; H z height in centimeters; B s chest circumfer- 
 ence in centimeters; K s weight in kilograms. When the weight and chext cir- 
 cumference are especially large compared with the height of the individual, the 
 size of the index is small. On the basis of this fact, Pignet divided indivi- 
 duals into seven classes, ranging from the group containing the best developed 
 with a coefficient of 1 to 10, to the group including physical weaklings with 
 a coefficient of abone 35. Rarely there occured cases of over development 
 where the coefficient was zero or negative. Mayet (511 and 512) 1906 and 1912, 
 applied Pignet 1 s formula to children. A report (10) on its use with Chinese 
 and Indian subjects was made in 1916. 
 
 Rohrer (671) 1908, emphasized the significance of the quotient obtain- 
 ed by dividing the weight in grams x 100 by the cube of the height in centimeters 
 This was called the "index der Korperffllle." Bardeen (32) 1918, used a modi- 
 fication of Rohrer' s formula, computing an "index of build" by dividing the 
 weight in pounds by the cube of the stature in inches and multiplying the quo- 
 tient by 1000. This formula was applied to the data of B^Jwin (29), using as 
 a general presupposition the assumption that a pound of the body equals a three 
 inch cube. As is well known in physics, the volume of""~objects of the same"™ 
 shape~b"ut of different sizes varies as the cube of their diameters. Bardeen 
 says: "We reach the same result by dividing the weight in pounds by the cube 
 of a tenth of the height or by the thousandth part of the cube of the height 
 in inches. Therefore, as a height-weight index in the study of stature, weight, 
 and body-form, we have adopted the weight of the body in pounds divided bv 
 the thousandth part of the cube of the height in inches." Rohrer 1 s formula 
 
 has also been employed by Berliner (56) 1920. Davenport (199a) recommends 
 
-44- 
 
 dividing the weight by the square of the height. He unfortunately based his 
 results on Quetelet's inaccurate data of ten cases of each age and the untenable 
 presupposition that short children are on the average stockier. The formula 
 is a very promising one. 
 
 In accordance with the same conception of the cubical character of the 
 body, von Pirquet (600) 1913, stressed the height-weight index as a criterion 
 of the individual's nutritional condition. Another formula introduced in 1916 
 by von Pirquet (601) used the relationship of weight and sitting height thus: 
 
 where G s weight and S r sitting height. 
 
 Although a full consideration of formulae for volume, specific gravity, 
 density and cubical content of the body is undesirable in this survey, mention 
 should be made of the v/ork of Braune and Fischer (117) 1889, Kies (525) 1899, 
 "fengler (869) 1906, Kastner (423) 1911-12, Pfaundler (589) 1911-12, (590) 1916- 
 17. 
 
 (4) Growth in Surface Area. It is beyond the scope of this investi- 
 gation to enter into a~"full account of the subject of the surface area of the 
 body of normal growing children; but reference should be made to a few of the 
 most significant studies, since there is a direct relationship between cutaneous 
 surface and volume and a direct relationship between volume and linear growth 
 and also weight. The surface varies with shape and volume. A student of Vier- 
 ordt, Heeh (514) 1879, assuming that individuals are similar in shape, and dis- 
 regarding the differences between infants and adults, proposed the formula: 
 
 S s K W 2/5 
 
 where S s area; If - weight; and K ■ a constant based upon the experimenter 1 s 
 data. Seaver (743) 1909, found that a determination of the superficial area 
 of a person which may be of vaue for special purposes may be found in square 
 centimeters : 
 
 Sq. ems. s 11 x~y weight ~2 (in grams). 
 
 A general survey of work on the determination of body surface was given 
 by Lissauer (480) 1903. Other significant studies are those of von Hfisslin 
 (398) 1888, Miwa and Stoeltzner (529) 1898, Sichoff (753) 1902, Maurel (510) 
 1904, and Lassabliere (465) 1910, Moleschott, Vierordt and Lissauer calculated 
 areas topographically on geometrical principles or used coverings of millimeter 
 paper or tinfoil and measured the amount of covering used, or covered the body 
 vfith color and transferred the color to absorbant paper and calculated the amount 
 of paper covered. Pfaundler (590) 1916-17, used plaster strips in a similar 
 manner. He (589) also gives a good historical resume. Howland and Dana (400) 
 1913, have used for infants the formula: 
 
 Y * 0.483X f 730 
 
 where Y s body surface in square centimeters; X s weight in grams. Du Bois and 
 Du Bois (220 and 221) 1915 and 1916, and Sawyer, Stone and DuBois (694), disre- 
 garding weight and volume, have made the most extensive, empirical studies, 
 

 
 - 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
-45- 
 
 surnniarizing the literature of the field. They allowed for the spherical nature 
 of the head, the cylindrical form of the neck, legs and arms, and the cylindrical 
 or spherical tendencies of the trunk at different ages, Benedict (50) 1916, 
 used the silhouette photographs similar to the method worked out by others. 
 Bardeen (32) 1918, using linear measurement, weight and volume, assumed the 
 specific gravity of the body to be 1.000 when dealing with centimeter-gram 
 units and compared the body with a square cross section block. The formula is: 
 
 w 
 S.K(2!M4) 
 
 where S a surface-area, 77 is v.- eight in grams, H height in centimeters, and K 
 is a constant. In the formula, ^ gives the surface area of each end of the 
 
 block, H ^ the surface-area of one side of the block. K has to be determined 
 from the observed surface-area of the individuals, of given height and weight* 
 If inch-pound untis are used, one must substitute W x 27.68 for 7/ in the for- 
 ula given above if the same specific gravity is assumed as in this formula, 
 or W x 27 if one assumes the same specific gravity assumed in dealing with vol- 
 ume. K varies with age, sex and nutritional condition of individuals. For 
 example, for a six months infant, K a 1.53. Bardeen also gives the regional 
 distrib ution of surface areas. 
 
 (5) Graphic Representations of Growth* Closely associated with the 
 introduction of formulae expressive of~total or partial growth has been the 
 development of graphic diagrams and charts designed to show on a comparative 
 basis with standards, the physical condition of the person or group of persons. 
 Graphic anthropometry probably originated prior to Quetelet, who showed in 
 graphic form the binomial distribution curve with the mean for specific measure- 
 ments. Amonr, the investigators who have developed "charting" of physiological 
 traits are: Galton (283 and 284) 1884, 1P85, who first showed the significance 
 of percentiles; Stieda (781) 1^82-83, whose work was largely theoretical; Sergi 
 (748) 1886, who developed an anthropological cabinet: Bertillon (59 and 60) 1889 
 and 1896, and Muller (542) 1887, who were particularly interested in the identi- 
 fication of criminals. Jeanneret and Messerli (418) 1917, developed a photo- 
 ant hropometric method. 
 
 In America the early pioneer work in graphic anthropometry through 
 charts and synoptic tables was developed and fostered by Sargent (680 and 692) 
 1886 and 1893, and Hitchcock (378-388), whose contributions appeared from 1887 
 on, Gulick (328-330) 1892 and 1893, Hartwell (350-352) 1893, Jackson (415 and 
 416) 1892 and 1893, Eastings (354 and 356) 1898 and 1902, and Seaver (743) 1909. 
 
 In France, Topinard's (822) L f anthropologic, with its excellent chapters 
 on craniology, appeared in 1895. In Germany there was Friedenthal* s (273) 
 Uber Wachstum, 1912 and 1913, and two articles by v. Lange (459 and 460) 1896 
 and lWZ~. ^~~ 
 
 Among others 7/ho have developed graphic charts designed for score cards 
 or norms of physical measurements are V/ood (888-893) 1890-1918, Hanna (345) 1893, 
 Kellogg (425) 1893, v. Pirquet (600) 1913, Baldwin (29) 1919, Children's Bureau 
 (168) 1918, and Bardeen (33 and 34) 1920. 
 
a si 
 
 
 
-47- 
 
 Drontschilow (218 and 219) 1914 and 1915, anthropological studies on Bulgarians; 
 Spitzer (770) 1915, Krakau; Bartucz (37) 1916, Magyars. 
 
 (3) American . The Americans have recently been less interested in 
 racial differences than in pedagogical anthropometry. The first significant 
 study in America was that of Dickson (207) 1857, continued in 1858 (208), who 
 made detailed statistical observations on the height and weight of the southern 
 men. In 1866 (209) a report showed that the new American race growing out of 
 an almost unlimited mixture of other races compared favorably with all the 
 races of the Old World in every point of physical development, and showed no 
 deterioration. Other studies v/ere made by Bowditch (112) 1890, Massachusetts 
 •women; Boas (80, 81 and 85) 1891 and 1895, physical characteristics of the 
 Indians, 1905 (93) anthropometry of central California, 1911 (^95) descendants of 
 immigrants, 1920 (102) anthropometry of Porto Rico; Hrdlicka (401 and 403) 1898 
 and 1899, comparison of white and colored children and 1908 (404) observations 
 on Indians; Bobbitt (103) 1909, Filipinos Bean (42 and 43) 1914-15, American, 
 German-American and Philippine children; Nicholas (550) 1919, a history of 
 physical anthropology in Mexico. 
 
 (4) French . In France the interest in racial differences has been a 
 recent development. Convy's 176) 1907, study was followed by Verneau's (843) 
 1916 work on Africa; koudenko (678) published in Paris 1914, a study of different 
 portions of Siberia. In 1915 Pittard published three studies (604-606) on the 
 Jews and Turks, on the Jews of Dobrodja and on the races of the Balkan peninsula. 
 
 (5) Norwegian . The principal Norwegian investigators of this subject 
 are A. Daae (187) 1906, and H. Daae (187-189) 1909. 
 
 (6) Italian . In Italy studies from the anthropological point of view 
 have been made by Bresciani-Turroni (120) 1913, on different regions in Italy; 
 Guiffrida-Ruggeri (296) 1915, Oriental Africa. 
 
 (7) Russian. Among the important kussian studies are those of Blagovi- 
 doff (76) 1886, on the Mongolian Asiatic races; and Szepessi (798) 1897, on the 
 1/kgyars. So many Russian dissertations within this field are inaccessible that 
 no direct comparison can be made here. 
 
 (8) Japanese . Almost the only Japanese investigations undertaken pri- 
 marily from the anthropological point of view are those by Kubo (452-454) 1912- 
 1918, on the Chinese and on the Koreans. 
 
 (9) Dutch . In the Netherlands contributions have been made by Nieuwenhui 
 (551) 1903 and Witt (884) Netherlands. 
 
 (10) South American . The beginning of anthropometric work in South 
 America is represented by a study of Cassenilli (162) 1917-18, on Argentina. 
 
 B. (HjLCWTH OF ANIMALS AND LAN 
 
 Few studies have been made on the relationship between the growth of 
 animals and human beings, but those that have been made are significant, and full 
 of scientific data. An early contribution was published by Menard (517) 1885, 
 Donaldson (214) 1906, made a comparison between the white rat and man v/ith 
 respect to the growth of the entire body, and further studies are in progress; 
 
-46- 
 
 4. ANTHROPOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS 
 
 A. NATIONAL CONTRIBUTIONS ON RACIAL DIFFERENCES 
 
 No attempt will be made in this section of the historical sunrary to 
 give an exhaustive account of the anthropological studies on the physique of 
 different races, but note will be made of the most significant investigations 
 classified according to their place of piablication, and the tables in Part V 
 will give the data for comparative studies in racial development for the reader 
 who is concerned with this phase of human development. 
 
 (1) English. Numerous important contributions have been published in 
 England. Brent (118) 1844, made before the British Association for the Advance- 
 ment of Science a comparison of men at different epochs in different countries. 
 In the following year tables were presented (119) showing the height, weight 
 
 and strength of man. Quetelet (629 and 630) 1846 and 1847, presented a study 
 of some Ojib-be-was Indians, in 1848 (631) a discussion on the Egyptians, 
 Romans and Indians and in 1854 (632) a study of the proportions of the black 
 race. 
 
 Thomson (816) in 1853 published some observations on New Zealand ers. 
 In 1861 Beddoe (44) discussed the physical characteristics of Jews before the 
 Ethnological Society of London, in 1870 (45) reported on the stature and bulk 
 of men in the British Isles, and 1897-98 made a study with Moore (537). 
 
 Other important articles are by: Shortt (751) 1863, a comparative 
 study of Europeans rind some natives of India; Brigham (124) 1866, a study of 
 Chinese. Farr (245} 1880, and Galton (284) 1884-85, data on the English race; 
 Forbes (257) 1884-85, on the Rubers of Sumatra, Garson (290) 1890, further data 
 of the anthropometric committee on which Farr and Galton worked; Haddon (337) 
 1897, comparative study on the inhabitants of Barley, Hertz; Gregor (318) 1897, 
 comparative study of Galloway folk in vVightshire and Kirkenbright shire; Grfln- 
 baum (326) 1897, on the physical characteristics of the inhabitants of Baring- 
 ton and Foxton in Cambridgeshire; Taylor (803) 1897, on the inhabitants of 
 Check-heaton, Yorkshire; Browii (127) 1897, inhabitants of Clara Island, Ireland; 
 Meyers (545-547) 1905-08, on Egyptians; Rasmussen (647) 1908-09, Eskimos; 
 Orensteen (566) 1915-17, detailed individual studies of Egyptian prisoners 
 from Cairo; Craig 1 s 080) earlier use of this same Egyptian material in 1911; 
 Talbot (799) 1916, some central Sudan tribes; Seligman (747) 1917, physical 
 characters of the Arabs. 
 
 (2) German . In Germany there have been fewer anthropological studies 
 made primarily for " the purpose of finding racial difft?rences. l.'any anthropo- 
 metrical observations have been made by members of e peditions for other scien- 
 tific purposes. As examples, may be mentioned the work of Schwarz (735) 1862, 
 And mill erst or f-Urbair (896) 1857-59. Other studies have been made by Schultz 
 (728) 1845, on Rus ian Jews and Negroes; Scherzer and Schwarz (699) 1859, 
 Vienna; Ecker (227) 1876, Baden; Kirchhoff (438)1892-93, comparative studies 
 
 of the Germans; Stratz (787) 1898, Java; Hagen (338) 1901, Chinese; Ranke (642) 
 1906, Brazil; Lipiec (478 and 479) 1912, Jews; Schiff (701) 1914, Jews from 
 Jerusalem; Weissenberg (859, 863, 866) 1895, 1909, and 1914, Armenians and Jews; 
 Radlauer (638) 1914-15, the Somali; Schlaginhaufen (711) 1914, New Guinea; 
 
-48- 
 
 Friedenthal (267-272) 1909 and 1911, published curves on the growth of man and 
 other animals, indicating great similarity between man and the anthropoid ape, 
 and in 1914 summarized much work in his large volume (274), Haustein, 1916, 
 (359) discussed devices for representing the growth of man and animals by 
 measurements and drawings. 
 
 C. MILITARY STUDIES 
 
 The measurement of recruits of the army and navy has always held a 
 prominent place in the development of physical anthropometry, and several millicn 
 individuals have been measured in various countries, 
 
 France . Considering first the army, it is found that the first modern 
 study was that of Villerme (847) in 1829, who made a careful study of the height 
 of conscripts in the French service. In 1863 Boudin (107) published a compara- 
 tive ethnological study, later followed by Chervin (167) 1896, Kerz (520) 1901, 
 and Kirkoff (439) 1906. 
 
 England. Aitken (2) 1862, published studies on the growth of the 
 young British soldier; the British Army Medical Department (125) reports for 
 1894, 1895, and 1901, contain important material. Jtyers* (546) measurements 
 of Egyptian recruits appeared in 1906. A Physical Census in England its Lesson 
 (11) which appeared anonymously in 1918, analysed the data on drafted men in 
 the recent war. 
 
 America. One of the earliest military studies in America was Elliott's 
 (230) analysis in 1863, of the physical measurements of soldiers in the American 
 army of the Potomac. The most exhaustive studies in America were those of 
 Gould (311) 1869, Baxter (39) 1875, Sternberg (779) 1893, and Beyer (64) 1896. 
 French (265) 1885, and Dun (225) 1887, made a special study of the police standard 
 In 1918 Hoffman (391) presented a study on men rejected for military service. 
 In 1919 Ireland, Love and Davenport (412) showed the results of the physical 
 examination of men sent to mobilization comps, and in 1920 Davenport and Love 
 (200) discussed defects found in drafted men in the recent world war. 
 
 Germany . German military authropometry is represented by a number of 
 investigations from the time of Ranke (643) in 1881. He was followed by Ammon 
 (7 and 8) 1890 and 1894, Hultkrantz (407) 1896, Brandt (116) 1898, von Schierning 
 (710) 1910, Kulka (455) 1912, and Drontschilow (218) 1914. Special interest 
 has been shown in the possibility of using indices as means for the physical 
 examination of recruits. Schwiening (738-740) 1908, 1909, and 1914, advocated 
 the use of Pignet f s formula, and Oeder (558) 1914, discussed his work. Eulen- 
 b erg (242) 1910, found Pignet f s formula unsuitable for individual cases. Ott 
 (571) 1911, and Simon (760) 1912, used the formula, while Seyffarth (749) 1911, 
 considered it useful for rapid surveys. 
 
 Russia , Italy , Norway , Denmark . Forssberg (259) 1897, Starkow (774) 
 1897, Yatsuta (899) 1914, made important Russian investigations. Livi's (48l) 
 Italian article appeared in 1894. In Norway there is Koren's study (447) 1901; 
 and in Denmark Ma ckeprang's (494) investigation, 1907-11. 
 
 Naval cadets . j\mong the important studies of naval cadets are those 
 of Morskoi (540) 1871. Gihon (293) 1880, Cordeiro (177) 1887, Beyer (61-64) 
 1893-1896, 7,illiams (881) 1902, and Solhaug (766) 1920. 
 
-49- 
 
 5. GROWTH OF INFANTS 
 
 The first studies in anthropometric measurements of infants 
 were those of Roederer (670) in 1753, Clarke (172) 1786, and Pfannkueh 
 (58%) 1874. 
 
 A, TREND OF GROWTH CURVES 
 
 Quetelet's (628) comprehensive survey of human development in 
 1836 included the growth of babies. Just as this investigator failed to 
 discover the sex differences in the growth of older children, owing perhaps 
 to having determined too few points on the growth curve, so also there was 
 no recognition of the exceedingly steep rise in the early part of the curve 
 during infancy, Quetelet seems to have been under the impression that this 
 curve was a straight line connecting three points for which measurements 
 had been taken; birth, twelve months and twenty-four months. This belief 
 in regard to the first year, at least, is expressed as follows in Recherches 
 sur le poids de l'hom.-e aux differents ages , 1833, where it states "Pendant 
 Ta - premiere annee son poids s'accroit regulierement, de telle sorte, qu'en 
 un son poids a triple." 
 
 B. POSTNATAL LOSS IN WEIGHT 
 
 After Quetelet 1 s reports, the problem of determining the general 
 trend of the growth curves was neglected for a number of years while investi- 
 gators occupied themselves with the explanation of the so-called "physiologi- 
 cal loss of weight" in the first few days of life, Chaussier is credited 
 by many authors with having been the first to discover that infants lose 
 weight for a few days after birth. These observations must have been made 
 between 1815 and 1830, but nowhere in the literature is an exact reference 
 given. One of the earliest accessible studies is by Hofmann (393) in 1849, 
 In 1860 both Breslau (121) and v. Siebold (754) wrote on the subject. Im- 
 portant investigators who followed, giving particular attention to this 
 problem, generally from a medical point of view, are: Haake (335) 1862; 
 "inckel (8*2) 1862; Gregory (319) 1871; Kezmarsky (434) 1873; Altherr (6) 
 1R74, Kruger (451) Ingersley (411) and also Cnopf (173) 1875, gave an his- 
 torical resume; Stol] (784) 1876; Wolff (886) 1883, and also Biedert (67) 
 1883, added to a mere record of the phenomenon some consideration of the 
 factors that influence the change in weight, Wagner (852) 1884, and Townsend 
 9824) 1887, continued the discussion of the cause of the loss. Schaeffer 
 (697) 1896, presented a statistical analysis of causes, and Fourmann (262) 
 1901, a discussion of causation. They were followed in 1903 by Schulz (729); 
 Fuhrmann (277) 1907; Heidemann (363), Hirsch (377) Rott (677), Pies (597) 
 1910; and Orum (568) 1914. Benestad (51 and 52 1913 and 1914, published aa 
 excellent review of the literature and a classification of factors of causa- 
 tion under the head of insufficiency of metabolism. Robertson (665 and 666) 
 1914 and 1915, attributed the loss to mechanical shock. His work was fol- 
 lowed by that of Bergmann (54) 1916, Schick (700) 1917 and Hammett (344) 1918, 
 the last of whom found the loss to be a function of birth weight. Other 
 recent writers are Kirstein (441 and 442) 1917 and 1918, Huverschmidt (36D) 
 1917, and Ramsey and Alley (641) 1918. 
 
-50- 
 
 Many of these writers noted simply the phenomenon of loss by 
 daily weighing of infants. Others attempted to account for the loss by 
 an analysis of the physical and mechanical factors influencing weight, 
 and the development of a better technique of weighing with reference to 
 time of day, consumption of food, loss of organic products, etc. As a 
 lengthy discussion of these factors is beyond the province of this work 
 reference should be made to the thorough treatment of Benestad (52) 
 
 C. GENERAL VS. INDIVIDUAL METHODS FOR STUDYING //EIGHT AND HEIGHT 
 
 After the early interest in the problems of fluctuations in 
 weight, the attention of scientific writers was turned to the determination 
 of the general curve of growth for infants. Probably the first systematic 
 attempt to find average weights for every month in the first year of life 
 was made by Bouchaud (106) in 1864. This line of work was continued by 
 Fleischmanr. (254) 1877, whose article is of interest historically as an 
 early example of the "individualizing method" with its insistence upon 
 following the same individuals throughout the period observed, instead of 
 making a few determinations and interpolating values according to some 
 formula in the runner that diverted Quetelet from the main problem. The 
 individualizing method occurs only very rearely in the literature. Most 
 of the workers on this problem of the total growth curve have used the 
 method of averages ; many have combined males and females, and practically 
 none give average deviations • 
 
 Early writers had noted as a characteristic change in the rate 
 of growth a general slowing down, shown by a rapid fall in the curve of 
 increments after the first year, and had emphasized the importance of sex 
 differences. An early study by the individualizing method was made by 
 Woronichin (894) 1880-81, In the study of the general growth curve, the 
 technique of the individualizing method was developed to a relatively high 
 degree by Camerer, senior. In 1880 Camerer (144) published a short study 
 of infant weight; in 1882 he (145) extended Vierodt's collection of cases 
 from the literature and added data from his own practice; in 1893 he (146) 
 reviewed the results and in 1899 his son (150) presented a summary of 283 
 cases. In 1901 Camerer senior (148) published the original tables for 119 
 of these cases. Karnitzky (422) 1908 and King (437) 1910, also reported 
 measurements by the individualizing method on particular children. 
 
 Other much less extensive studies by the generalizing method 
 -ere published as follows: Odier (554) 1863; Uffelmann (830) 1881; Pfeiffer 
 (591) 1884; Horse (539) 1886-87; Chaille (164) 1886-87; Peterson (588) 1887- 
 Lorey (486) 1888; Voute (851) 1895-96; ten Siethoff (757) and Graanboom (312) 
 1899; Perret and Planehon (587) 1904; Ausset (22) 1904; Fleischner (255) 
 1906; Lascoux (464) 1908; Eeubner (375) 1911 (general summary); Friedenthal 
 (270) 1911; Ifayet (512) 1912; Pooler (609)1913; Robertson (669) 1916- 
 Broudic (126) 1919; and Faber (244) 1920. A recent undated collection of 
 measurements by Crum (185) contains fairly reliable assembled average stand- 
 ards beginning at six months. 
 
 The early literature contained very few studies on the height 
 of infants. In 1860 von Siebold (754) gave the birth length, together 
 with the weight, but it was not until 1881 that a table by Hess (374) includ- 
 ed a few determinations of height in the continuous series of measurements 
 
-51- 
 
 of a child from birth to two years. Schenk (726) 1880 gave the birth length 
 of 300 cases, and Mrs. Hall (342) 1896-97, gave height measurements for ore 
 case throughout one year. Camerer almost always reported height as well as 
 weight in his studies. Fleischner (255) 1906, related weight to height and 
 other measurements. Lascoux (464) 1908, Marat (512) and Crum (185) gave 
 height measurements. Breslau (122) 1862, was interested in sex differences 
 in head circuii-f erence. Of special studies concerning the interrelationship 
 of various measurements during growth, that of Zeltner (909) 1911, is an ex- 
 ample. In 1914 Llontague and Hollingworth (530) made a comparative study of 
 the variability of the sexes at birth and found no inherent sex differences. 
 
 D. INFLUENCE OF NUTRITION ON GROWTH 
 
 In addition to these general investigations of growth in weight 
 and height, a number of significant studies were made on the effect of spec- 
 ial conditions, among which diet early received scientific consideration. 
 The first work upon this phase of the subject seems to have been done by 
 Coudreau (178) 1869. He was followed by Faye (247) 1874, and by Ahlfeldt 
 (1) 1878. The individualizing method was used in this field by Camerer and 
 Hartmann (153) 1878. Their work furnished determinations actually made 
 (and in a few cases calculated) for every day of the first year of an indivi- 
 dual infant's life. This new point of view is exemplified also in the study 
 of Hahner, (339) 1880, who vreighed an infant before and after each feeding 
 to determine the exact amount of food taken, with the resulting effect on 
 gro\vth during the first year. 
 
 The problem of the relative advantages of breast and artificial 
 feeding come to the foreground in such work as that of Russow (680) 1881 
 and Sakuragi (6B5) 1908. Philippson (596) 1913, gave weight curves for 
 artificially fed infants, and Sieveking (758) 1914-15, published tables for 
 both the breast and artificially fed. Contrary to Russow 1 s findings in re- 
 gard to the superior development of breast fed infants, Hillenberg (376) 
 1912-13, and Variot and Fliniaux (840) 1914, reported only a small differ- 
 ence between the breast fed and the artificially fed. 
 
 For the numerous articles on the caloric requirements of infants, 
 Oppenheimer 1 s (565) 1901, may serve as an example. Other 'works on the rela- 
 tion between nutrition and growth have been published by Rubner (679), 
 Muhlmann (541) 1910, Langstein (462), Meyer (522) and Schloss (717) — all 
 1912; Bamberg (31), Brady (115), Herman (367), Jaschke (417) 1913; Opitz 
 (562) 1914, Schute (731) 1915. Within the last few years a fertile field 
 of investigation has been opened by the discovery of the special growth- 
 stimulating properties of certain diets. Hammett and McNeile (343) 1917, 
 observed the effect of the mother's ingestion of dessicated placenta in 
 hastening the infant's recovery from the postnatal decline in weight. 
 
 The work of Daniels and Byfield (195 and 141) 1919-20, showed the 
 effect of the anti-neuritic vitamin in stimulating growth. Among general 
 treatises on the relation between nutrition and growth processes, both nor- 
 mal and pathological, might be mentioned those of v.d. Bergh (53) 1893, 
 Marfan (501) 1899, Judson and Gittings (419) 1902, Schloss (715-717) 1910, 
 1911, and 1912, and Langstein and I.'eyer (463) 1914. The handbooks of Holt 
 (396) and of Griffith (321 and 323) have gone through numerous editions with- 
 in the last decade. 
 
-52- 
 
 E. PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS AFFECTING GROWTH 
 
 Studies of the effect of pathological conditions on height made 
 by Variot (835-857) 1907 and 1908, showed that a "dissociation of growth" 
 might take place with a continuous increase in height, although weight was 
 seriously affected; Freund (266) 1909, corroborated this; Birk (75) 1911, 
 found, however, that with very young children height was unfavorably affect- 
 ed. Stolte (785) 1913, and Aron (16) 1914, also found height to be somewhat 
 affected, though less so than weight, 
 
 Hess (373) 1915-17 showed the effect of antiscorbutic diets on 
 weight in infantile scurvy. Eddy and Roper (228) 1917, stimulated growth 
 in cases of marasmus by the use of pancreatic vitamin. The work of Daniels 
 and Byfield (195 and 141) 1919-20, has already been mentioned. At the present 
 time it seems probably that a significant advance in knowledge concerning 
 growth is hortly to be made in this field. 
 
 F. INFLUENCE OF SFECIAL CONDITIONS ON GROWTH 
 
 Among other special conditions whose relation to growth has been 
 studied, are dentition— Vforonichin (894) 1880-81; military fitness of father— 
 Schmid-Mcnnard (718 J 1892; institution vs. family life— Freeman (2 6TJ 1914; 
 season— Bleyer (77) 1917; war conditions— Brflning TT29) 1918, Pollak (608) 
 1918, and Hoffman (392) 1T5T8". 
 
 A number of writers have reported birth measurements in relation 
 to special problems: Among these are: the age of the mother -- Hecker (361) 
 1865; Faye and Vogt (249) 1866; Stockton-HougTi ( Y8"3TT885-86 ; Lange-Nielsen 
 (461) 1918; nationality — Okamato (560) 1894; Robertson (667) 1915; order 
 of birth — Siesel (756) 1905; occupation and social class of parents — 
 letourneur (472) 1897; Issmer (413) 1899; "Fuclis (276) 1899;""Weissenberg (861) 
 1908; Goldfeld (307) 1912; Feller (584) 1913; length of pregnancy — Asteng> 
 (19) 1905; Christofferson (170) 1905; Lutz (4897 1912; Kjolseth (443) 1913; 
 correlations of measurements — Pearson (576) 1900; Poller (585) 1917; and 
 Taylor (805) TSl"^ 
 
 Birth measurements have also been reported bjr Scanzoni (695) 
 1*49, Veit (842) 1855, Hecker (362) 1866, Martin (503) 1867, Cnopf (173) 1871, 
 .'itzinger (8*5) 1876, Schtitz (732) 1881, Spiegelberg (767) 1882, Kezmarsky 
 (434) and 435) 1873-1884, Kflrber (446) 1884, Schroder (727) 1886, Mies (524) 
 1891, Miller (527) 1893, Sfameni (750) 1901, Warren (857) 1917. 
 
 G. FOETAL. GROWTH 
 
 Considerable work has been done on foetal growth, but this problem 
 is beyond the province of our present discussion and the reader is referred 
 to Jackson (414) 1909, and Scamr/ion* s unpublished work. 
 
 6. NATIONAL CONTRIBUTIONS ON PHENOMENA OF TOTAL GROWTH OR PARTIAL GROWTH 
 
 Studies on the general phenomena of physical growth as surveyed 
 from the early work of Bird (74) 1823, may be differentiated into innumerable 
 problems and sub-problems. In the main the object has been to determine how 
 
-54- 
 
 on the growth .of the body and its parts, a point of view which has been 
 consistently emphasized and which characterizes the most modern books of 
 Daffner (193) 1902, Ranke (644) 1894-1900, Weissenberg (865( 1911, and of 
 Hoesch-Ernst and Meumann (241) 1906, Kotelmann's (449) first investigations 
 bearing on hygiene were published in 1879; Hensen (365) 1881, discussed the 
 subject from a physiological point of view; Daffner »s work began to appear 
 in 1884 (190 and 191) and was continued by a publication of 1892-93 (192). 
 Two studies on the growth of boys by Landsberger (456 and 457) appeared in 
 1888, ;?eitzel*8 (867) measurements of girls were published 1890-91 at the 
 same time as Wiener 1 s (879) individual study. 
 
 Other important studies have been made by Carstadt (160) 1888; 
 Hasse (353) 1891; Schmidt (724) 1892; Camerer (146) 1893; Weissenberg (859) 
 1895; Hergel (366) 1897; Monti (532) 1898; Salomon (686) 1898; Schmid-Monnard 
 (722 and 723) 1900 and 1901; Rietz (657) 1903; Reuter (653) 1903. Ranke (645 
 and 646) 1905; Stratz (788-794) 1908, 1911, 1912, 1914 and 1915; 'schwerz (736 
 and 737) 1911 and 1912; Wagner (853) 1911; Ascher (18) 1912; Peiper (582 and 
 583) 1911 and 1912; Cohn (174) 1912; Riedel (656) 1913; Munch (544) 1914- 
 Skibinski (763) 1914; Matusiewiez (508) 1914; Guttmann (334) 1915; and Sch- 
 lesinger (713 and 714) 1917. 
 
 An important collection of tables from various sources was published 
 by Vierordt (846) in 1906. Bachauer and Lamport (23) 1919, proposed a compre- 
 hensive program for a system of measurements on children. 
 
 (5) Russia . In Russia much valuable anthropometric work has been 
 done, but as previously stated, only a limited number of investigations have 
 been accessible, and no doubt during the last few years a large number of these 
 may have been destroyed. Many valuable studies are in the form of Doctor's 
 dissertations which are filed in the archives of various libraries and have been 
 referred to principally through the work of Sack and Wiazemsky, who seldom give 
 the exact title, number of papge3, date or place of publication. 
 
 Vassiliev (841) published an early study on girls, 1881. In 1882 
 Dudrewiez (223) made anthropometrical measurements of children in .Varsaw; Diek 
 (210) 1883, made a more comprehensive study and in 1886 Belaiew (47) studied 
 the children of Simbirsk. Other studies are as follows: in 1887 Suligowski 
 (796) pupils ii Radom; in 1890 Sograf (765) in Jaroslav, Kostroma and Vladimir 
 provinces; in 1890 Milailow (526) Moscow; in 1892 Grinevski (324) Odessa- in 
 1892 and 1893 Sack (681-684) Moscow; in 1894 Vinogradorsk-Lukersk (849) general 
 study of high school pupils; in 1895 Matveyeva (509) St. Petersburg; in 1896 
 Tezyakoff (809) in Yelisavetgr ad County; in 1900 Rostovtsev (674) in Dmitrovak; 
 in 1902 Bondyrew (105); in 1903 Karnikki (421); in 1905 Pismennry (602) Ser- 
 pukhor County. Gundobin's (331) book on the characteristics of childhood, was 
 published in 1905, Wlaiemsky'a (878) Paris dissertation on physical growth 6f 
 Russian children appeared in 1907, Berlinerblau' s (57) study of an orphanage, 
 Moscow, 1908, Gruzdeff's (327) 1912, and Gorokhoff's (310), 1916. AnutschL's 
 
 14 j general study of the male population of Russia and Her eshoff sky's (518) 
 on the development of children, appeared prior to Sack's dissertation, 1892, 
 where they are cited without dates. ' 
 
 (6) Italy , in Italy an early investigation from the sociological 
 ?£ I** A m\*" T m ^ 6 ^ Pa S liani < 573 ™* 574) 1875-76 and 1879. The Bertillon 
 • 1 f? ? } . s p tem of cr iminal measurement was described in French in 1889 and 
 msnglish in 1896. The chief pedagogical studies have been made by Santori 
 
-55- 
 (688) 1907, and Montessori (531) 1913. 
 
 (7) China and Japan * An anthropometric study of Chinese 
 students was made by Merrins (519) 1910, With a view to developing 
 norms for the Chinese race, the Medical Missionary Association has 
 initiated anthropometric investigations, the first results of which 
 were reported by Whfrte (875-876) 1917 and 1918. Pyle (625) published 
 in America, 1918 , a comparison between American and Chinese children. 
 In Japan three very important studies have been made by Miwa (529) 
 1893, of individuals from three to 80 years; Misawa (528) 1909, made 
 a study of 869,014 children; and Hatta (358) recently made a report 
 on 786 Japanese boys. A comparative study of Japanese and Chinese 
 children appeared in 1903, by Wood (887). At the American University 
 at Fekin, Cowdry is beginning work under the direction of the Smith- 
 sonian Institution at Washington. 
 
 (8) Spain . Little work has been done in Spain, but reference 
 should be made to the work of Arthaud (17) in 1895. 
 
 ( 9 ) Norway Sweden and Denmark . Studies of the growth of 
 the Scandinavian people have been made in Norway by Faye (248) 1914 
 Schiotz (704-709) 1917, and Zeiner-Hendriksen (903 and 904) 1918 and 
 1920; in Sweden by Tfietlind (880) 1878; Tornell (823) 1909 and by 
 Sundell (797) 1917. In Denmark the years 1907-11 saw a number of 
 investigations by Hansen (347), Rambusch (640)and Hertz (371). 
 
 (10) Netherlands . In the Netherlands a study of the height 
 of males was made in 1910 by Bolk (104); a more general study of the 
 male population in 1916 by Benders (49); and an investigation of the 
 weight of children by Van der Loo (485), 1919. 
 
 (11) K^land. In Finland an important study by Oker-Blom 
 (561) appeared in 1912. 
 
 (12) America , (a) School Children. The interest in peda- 
 gogical anthropometry which has had such an influence on school 
 administration probably began in America with Bowditch's (109 and 
 110) reports to the Massachusetts Board of Health, 1875 and 1879 in 
 which were analysed the statistics on thousands of school children to 
 
 ?or\he e e ^vT °f n f^ nalit y «* sooia l 'lass. Equally fundamental 
 for the establishment of the new concept of the growth process were 
 reports on the physique of women (112) 1890, and 'on the growth of 
 children studied by Galton's percentile grades (113) 1891. Later worV 
 was that of Peckham (580 and 581) 1881 an^ 1882 whose re^ortf to The 
 
 Tn S lR°R7^ T d ° f ? eal t h inClUd6d many Valuable ^atistics on growth, 
 in ^ 8 ^ Ste P he " son < 777 ) Polished a brief account of the rate of growth 
 in children. Greenwood's Kansas City studies (317) 1890 to 1892, gave 
 the height and weight of a large number of children. Boas' (82) 
 Worcester study, 1892, discovered some important differences in the 
 
 5£) in l^ubf b° ld \ r ',T d °5 tal1 ^ Sh ° rt ° hildren - '"*•» 
 «tlfil I I Polished table* of the measurements of Easthampton 
 
 n S * Barnes s (35) California study, 1892-93 showed that Oakland 
 children surpassed in physical development children from other locali- 
 ties studied up to this time. Moon (533-535) presented brief studies 
 of Maryland boys, 1892 and 1896. Porter's (611-615) St. Louis studies 
 appreared 1892 to 1894. 
 
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-57- 
 
 on the forms of the head and Boas (87) 1897, with a discussion of 
 Ripley's article, Roshdestwensky (673) 1897, Binet (69) 1901, on the 
 growth of head and face, Teumin (808) 1902, Manouvrier (500) 1902, 
 Pfitsner (595) 1903, Seggel (744 and 745) 1903, Wissler (883) 1903, 
 Rose (672) 1905, Laumonier (466) 1909, Weissenberg (862 and 864) 1909 and 
 1910. 
 
 Among recent correlation studies are those by Alfeyeff (4) 
 1912, weight, height and chest measurements; Weisse (858) 1912, chest 
 «nd abdominal measurements in relation to build; Downes (217)1913-14, 
 trunk measurements and stature; Levy, Magnan and Sellet (473) 1914, 
 height and check circumference; V/alker (854) 1915, relation of weight 
 to body length. Baldwin has presented in this Study, pages 117 to 148 
 numerous coefficients of correlation for physical measurements. 
 
 C. PERIODS OF GROWTH. 
 
 Attempts have been made from time to time by various investi- 
 gators to divide the growth process into periods or stages odf develop- 
 ment. Bryan (132) 1900, has given a review of such attempts and dis- 
 cussed the significance of such stages in growth. It is, however, very 
 undesirable to try to divide the years of average growth in any such 
 manner as was attempted by Vierordt, Liharzik, Zeising or Key, since 
 growth is a continuous process with no abrupt step from stage to stage, 
 Individual and sex differences and variations in growth due to physiolog- 
 ical maturity, heredity and racial , social and individual type still 
 further complicate the problem. It is still an open question whether it 
 will be possible with adequate data consisting of repeated measurements 
 on a sufficient number of children for a considerable period of time to 
 outline such periods in the growth of normal children. 
 
 7. CONDITIONS AFFECTING GROWTH 
 A. CLIMATE AND 32AS0N. 
 
 Few definite scientific data are available concerning the 
 influence of season and climate on physical growth, since the problem 
 is a difficult one to solve without consecutive measurements on the 
 same group of in ividuals. In 1875 Baxter (39) made an important study 
 for the Provost General's Bureau, which showed that the size of adult 
 Americans is different in different parts of the United States, this 
 being attributed to the influence of climate on growth. The best work 
 was started by Malling-Hansen (497) 1883, in which an exhaustive and 
 careful treatment v;as made of periodicity in the weight of children who 
 were measured daily. This article was followed by an address before an 
 international medical congress at Copenhagen on the effects of change 
 of diet on growth at different times of the year (498). In 1886 Malling- 
 Hansen (499) published a somewhat fantastic treatise on variations in 
 weight coincident with variations in the heat of the sun's rays, in 
 which it was found that for weight the greatest growth was from August 
 to the middle of September and the least during May, June and July, 
 v/hile for height the reverse was true. Voit (850) 1886 and Zacharias 
 (901) 1889, discussed these results. Vahl (832) 1884, discovered, for 
 
 children in a girls' school weighted semi-annually from 1874 to 1883, that 
 

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 there was a greater increase in weight in summer than in winter. 
 Schraid-Monnard (719 and 720) 1895 and 1896, found Mall ing-Hans en's 
 "periods" characteristic of German children. Gray (315) 1910, published 
 his Diurnal Variations in Weight as a Bachelor's thesis; Makower (496) 
 1914, substantiated theHSchmid-Monnard thesis by a study of 400 Jewish 
 children; Orum (568) found seasonal variations in weight, 1914; Lentz 
 (470) 1917, showed that for German children April, May and September 
 were best for general health, while November and December were worst. 
 
 Hall (340) auot es Zak (Sack?) as finding height decreasing 
 during the day and weight increasing, and Vierordt (845) found weekly 
 or half weekly periods repeating themselves. Pittard (603) 1906, also 
 discussed the influence of geographical milieu upon height. Porter's 
 (618) investigation in 1920 shows that for American children the increase 
 in weight is greater from June to December than from December to June. 
 
 B. EFFECTS OF WAR 
 
 In Germany, where the food shortage was especially acute, 
 school physicians and health authorities have undertaken numerous 
 investigations to discover whether the growth and nutrition of children 
 were suffering. Some of these reports are documents of a political and 
 controversial nature, but a certain number are deserving of scientific 
 attention. The studies made in 1916 by Haberlin (336), Schlesinger 
 (712), Lommel (483 and 484), Gohde (306) and Thiele (811) showed that 
 no harmful effects of the food shortage had yet become apparent. 
 Herzog (372) 1916, and Engelhorn (236) in the same year, even claimed 
 was children to be in somewhat better condition, proably because of the 
 war time emphasis on hygiene and the more sensible diet. These results 
 were confirmed for 1917 by Oschraann (570) and Lubsen (487) and for 
 1919 by SiegmundSchultze (755) and Poetter (607). Other investigators 
 showed, however, that especially during the later years of the war, bad 
 conditions were beginning to have their effect. Kettner (429) found 
 that as early as 1915 a decrease in the growth of children was 
 apparent and Engelhorn (237) 1916-17, discovered that city children 
 were in somewhat poorer condition than during the second year of the 
 war. Davidsohn (202) 1920, found a decrease in growth antf Pfaundler as 
 reported in an anonymous editorial (12) in 1919 showed that boys and 
 girls grew less during the war and that the average decrease in gain 
 was more conspicuous in children of professional classes. 
 
 Among French investigations a research made by Bleyer (78) 
 for the American Red Cross Children's Bureau showed that the children 
 of Vienne, a manufacturing town of France, we»e in good condition in 
 1919. DuBois (222) 1919, published some data on the children of Liege. 
 In England Howard (399) 1919, discussed war bread and the growth of 
 children. 
 
 C. SOCIAL STATUS 
 
 Whether the good development of children from the favored 
 classes is due to environmental influences including diet and medical 
 

 -59- 
 
 inspection or to superior heredity is a question that cannot be settled 
 with the data at hand. The superiority in development is the common 
 report of investigators. As early as 1329 Villerme (847$ 848) showed 
 that good homes and good nutrition contribute materially to physical 
 growth. Bowditch (110) 1879, showed that the "favored classes" with 
 good nutrition are superior to general classes, especially in height. 
 This vie?/ was also held by Roberts (663) 1878, by the Anthropometric 
 Committee of England under the chairmanship of Galton (281) 1885, by 
 the Danish Commission under Hertel (368 and 370) 1882 A by Geissler and 
 Uhlitzsch (291)1888, and by Geissler (292) 1892, by E ismann (239 and 
 240) in Russia 188=*, and by Key (430) in Sweden, 1885." Stanway (773) 
 1833, published the results of investigations into the comparative 
 health and condition of factory and non-factory children of Manchester 
 and Stockport.- Mailing-Hans en 1 s (497) study of food values in Copenhagen 
 gave in genera} negative results. Pagliani's (574) Italian study appeared 
 in 1879. Landsberger 1 s (457) study of boys appeared in 1888. Kozmowski's 
 (448) intensive work on the weight and growth of children of the poorer 
 classes of Warsaw is dated 1894. From 1899 to 1902 Pfitzner (592-594) 
 published a series of "Social Anthropologische Studien". Niceforo (549) 
 1903, began a study of over 3,000 children in the chools of Lausanne, 
 classified according to social status. Koch-Hesse (445) 1905, compiled 
 nuch statistical material from various investigators. Allaria (5) 1912, 
 investigated the growth of children of the poorer classes. Young (900) 
 1913, found the children of the rich to be better developed than children 
 who attended public schools. Elderton (229) 1914, classified the meas- 
 urements of over 63,000 Glasgow school children in four social groups. 
 Dikanski's (211) 1914, arrangement of Hoesch-Ernst' s material showed 
 better physical development with rising social class. Brezezinski and 
 Peltyn (123) measured children of factory xvorkmen, 1914. Frankel and 
 Dublin (263) 1916, analyzed the measurements of 10,000 children who 
 received employment certificates in New York City during the previous 
 year. Schlesinger (713 and 714) 1917, again proved the superior devel- 
 opment of the children from well-to-do families. The measurements by 
 Baldwin (27) 1914 and this Study, on children of the well-to-do class 
 are on the whole extremely high. 
 
 D. CITY VS. COUNTRY LIFE 
 
 Although many studies of school children in and around certain 
 cities would probably permit of comparisons of the physical development 
 of city and country children, if the original data were at hand, there 
 have been few studies undertaken directly for this purpose. The question 
 of stature in the city and country population was discussed by Quetelet 
 (626) in 1830. Galton (279) 1873-74, and Feiper (583) 1912, found 
 country boys to be both tal"er and he vier than city boys. Baldwin 
 (28) 1916, obtained results that ere in agreement with this, inasmuch 
 as it was found that country boys mature earlier than city boys. Pyle 
 and Collings (624) 1918, found that there was a slight difference in 
 favor of city children. Urick (831) 1918, presented statistics on 
 city and country children in Iowa. 
 
 Doubtless the Var Departments of various countries are in 
 possession of much material on this point, but little has been published. 
 The statistics of men drafted in the United Sta es during the 7forld <iVar, 
 
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 Trtiich were analyzed by Davenport and Love (200), showed that 61,74$ 
 of urban men were accepted without defect, rural 66.74$, and that 
 33.49$ of urban men were accepted with defect, rural 28,30$. 
 
 E. HYGIENE AND EXERCISE 
 
 A great deal of work on physical growth has been approached 
 from the point of view of hygiene. Measurements of children have often 
 been undertaken in order that school desks might be better adjusted to 
 the physique of the children. Other studies, especially in Germany and 
 Su da, have been made with the purpose of ascertaining the effect of 
 school conditions on the physical development of children. A third 
 •-roup deals with the effect of exercise, physical training and college 
 athletics. Other investigations are concerned with general health, 
 diseases and physical defects. 
 
 Many of the references on physical h; giene are classified under 
 other specific subjects, since the field*£*U*A}Srehensive and indefinite, 
 but those of particular import limited to the influ nee of hygienic 
 conditions are: Hutchinson's (4C9) 1846, and Pagliani's study (573) 1875, 
 ■ ■ ith particular reference to breathing capacity; Roberts 1 (662) factory 
 report, 1876, and his memorandum on medical inspection (660); Kotelmann's 
 (449) 1879, study on the influence of physical taaining; Bruun's (131) 
 study in hygiene, 1887; Geissler and Uhlitzsch's (291) study on fitting 
 school desks, 1888; Kellogr»s (426) strength studies, 1896; Porter 1 s 
 (616 and 617) 1896, measurement* in schools; Taylor's discussion of the 
 influence of exercise upon length of life (804) 1897; Burk's (138) 
 Influence of Exercise , 1899; Burgenstein' s (135) Schulhygiene , 1902; 
 Hastings' [557) Health and Growth of School Child ren, 1905; ike tche s 
 of English school children by Thomas (815) 1905; ZaKor's (902) Prague 
 study, 1907; Tyler* s general articles (828 and 829) 1907 and 19C8; 
 Harrington's (348) Health and Educ ation, 1910; ^right's (895) Post- 
 Adolesce nt Girls, 1910; Baldwin' 's' '('g5q) Notes on School Observ ation, 1911; 
 Py 1 e ' s f£2<r ancf 623) manuals of 1913 and 1920; Ternan's (807) Hygiene 
 of th e School Child , 1914; the comprehensive investigations by Tuxford and 
 (ilegg (827) 1911, including 583,640 English children between three and 
 14 years of age; Mumford's (543) 1912, Manchester grammar school investi- 
 gation; with the additional English studies of Greenwood (316) 1915, and 
 Tuxford (826) 1917; Perm (586) 1917; and Kerr (427-428) 1918 and 1919, 
 In Germany appeared Meumann's (521), Experimentelle Padagogik , 1911; 
 Heller's (364) studies on Salzburg children, 1913-14; Steinhaus' (776) 
 1913; Spitzy's (771) Die kbrperliche Erziehung des Kjndes, 1914; and 
 Matthias' (507) 1916, work on the effect of physical exercise on Swiss 
 athletes. Laurent's (467) investigation of physical education in France; 
 and the important Russian studies cited by Sack, i.e., Leshaft (471) 
 1879-80, Nagorsky (548) 1881, Michailoff (523) 1887, Belyaieff (48) 1888, 
 and Zhbankoff (910) 1889. 
 
 F. SPECIAL CONDITIONS 
 
 A number of isolated investigations deal with the relation between 
 growth and other special conditions not previously listed in this resume. 
 

 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 ' o semi 
 
 
-61- 
 
 Among these is an investigation of loss of weight and gain in height 
 during sleep, by Curtiss (186) 1898. Burk (137) in 1899 discussed the 
 influence of sex on growth. Cailli (142) 1903, noted the effect of 
 country living. Boas (94) 1909, published an article on civilization 
 and stature. The v/ork of Davenport reported in his Heredity in Relation 
 
 to Eugenics (198) 1911, and his Inheritance of Stature (159) 1917, 
 
 continued a line of investigation begun by Galton. Carmon (159) 1912, 
 published a discussion of rapid changes in weight. Boas (99) 1913, 
 traced the effect of heredity and environment on growth. Reports on 
 growth and dentition were made by Bean (42) 1914, and Spier (769) 1918. 
 Stiles and Wheeler (782) 1915, analyzed physical measurements of American 
 children from homes of good and poor sanitary condition. Camescasse 
 (155 and 156) 1918, reported the results of an experiment in which for 
 the sake of economy bread was replaced by rice and vegetables, with 
 good results. In 1919 Dick (206) published in England his book on the 
 effect of defective housing on growth. Powys(62l) 1902, and Harris 
 (349) 1920, have noted the decrease in stature in later adult life. 
 Retan (652) and Emerson (234) have been particularly interested in the 
 relation between nutrition and physical development. 
 
 8. SPECIAL AND ABNORMAL FHASES OF GROWTH 
 A. PATHOLOGICAL 
 
 A limited number of good scientific studies has been made on the 
 relationship between growth and disease. In 1881 Bowditch (111) asserted 
 that the "normal rate of growth would not only throw light on the diseases 
 to which childhood is subject, but would also guide us in the application 
 of therapeutic measures." One of the earliest treatises was by Regnier 
 (650) 1860. Then came Auboyer's (20) work in 1881. Hertel (368) 1882, 
 published the report of the Danish Commission including measurements of 
 17,695 boys and 11,646 girls. In 1885 appeared his Overpres sure in the 
 
 High Schools of Denmark (369), and in 1888 a comparison between the 
 
 findings of the Danish and Swedish Commissions (370). Key's (430) 
 important Stockholm study appeared in 1885 and the German edition in 
 1889; Michailoff's (523) Russian study, 1887; Springer's (772) 1890- 
 Carlier's (158) 1892; Bezy's (66) 1894; Combe's (175) investigation'in 
 Lausanne, 1896; Warner's (856) comprehensive English study, 1897; 
 Schmid-Monnard's (721) German study in 1897; Ranke's (646)'German study, 
 1905; Camer er's (151) investigation of malnutrition, 1905; GunSobin's * 
 (331 and 332) Russian investigation of Basedow's disease on stature, 
 1909-10. Other important contributions are Camer er's (152) general* 
 account of growth in relation to disease, translated 1908; Baldwin's 
 ( 25 ) Notes on School Observation , 1914; Chose' s (169) 1914 work on 
 rachitis and growth; Thiele's (810) 1915 on tuberculosis; Schiotz's 
 (702 and 703) articles on growth and disease, 1915 and 1916; and Strong's 
 (795) study of the effect of hookworm, 1916. Many general texts on 
 children's diseases contain chapters on growth. Among those not 
 previously mentioned is that by Feer (250) 1911. Kotz (450) 1918-19 
 discussed the phenomena of unequal growth of the two sides of the body 
 and Thoma (814) 1918, the conditions that interfere with the growth of* 
 the head. 
 
1 
 
 ■ 
 
 
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 B. MENTAL ABNORMAL ITT 
 
 Prom the standpoint of developing standards for the physical 
 growth of normal boys and girls, valuable facts have been obtained through 
 comparison with the growth of feeble-minded children. The first study 
 dealing with the physical growth of idiots and imbeciles (mentally defieiert 
 children) was published by Roberts (663)in the manual on Anthropometry, 
 in 1878, The investigation, which was probably made in 1*871, included the 
 height and -weight of 829 children and adults between the ages of three and 
 15 years, from the asylums in England, without differentiating between the 
 sexes. In 1877 Shuttleworth (752) published in America a very good paper 
 on the growth and mentality of feebleminded children. Tarbell's (801 
 and 802) studies appeared in England, 1876-86 and 1888-89. Wylie (897 and 
 898) 1899 to 1903, made careful studies of 400 boys and girls from 
 Minnesota and concluded that feeble-minded children were subnormal in 
 physical development, while Macdonald (490) 1897-98, also found children 
 with abnormalities inferior in growth to children in general. Binet's 
 (68-71) significant studies appeared in France in 1900 to 1910. A later 
 book with Simon (72) was translated, 1914. Simon's (761 and 762) studies 
 appeared 1899 and 1900; Vaney's (833 and 834) 1906-1909, and Martin's 
 (504) in 1912. Norsworthy (553) 1906, could find no distinguishable 
 differences between the physical development of feebleminded and normal 
 children compared with the Boas and Bowditch standards. Guttmann (333) 
 reported comparative measurements of normal and abnormal children in 1906. 
 Goddard (297) 1912, has made the most valuable and painstaking study within 
 this fiel£, having recorded measurements on 10,000 children at the Vineland 
 Training School in New Jersey ?nd at eighteen other institutions in America, 
 Doll (212) 1916, used the psycho-physical measurements of right and left 
 grip and lung capacity as diagnostic criteria of feeblemindedness, and 
 Porteus (619) 1919-20, has been making careful studies in cephalometry of 
 the feeble-minded children at Vineland. 
 
 Among the special studies of physical development of the insane, 
 should be mentioned Boyd»s (114) 1861, studies on 2614 post-mortem examin- 
 ations. Goodall (308 and 309) 1898 and 1901, compared the development of 
 the insane and the abnormal. Tfce physical development of delinquents has 
 not received much attention, though several medical studies have been made. 
 The best work in the anthropometric field is that by Marty (506) 1898, and 
 by Tallant (800) 1912. 
 
 9. PHYSIOLOGICAL AGE 
 A. ADOLESCENT GROWTH 
 
 One of the most important present-day problems in physical growth 
 from the standpoint of the educational, social, religious ard psychological 
 development of the child centers around the question of physiological age, 
 with particular reference to the development during adolescence. In his 
 early work, 1890, Key (432) raised the problem of "Die Pubertatsentwicklung 
 and das Verhaltnis derselben zu den Krankheitsercheinungen der Schuljugend." 
 In 1891 Key (433) made another contribution to the subject, as did Miwa 
 (529) 1993. Morey-Errant (538) 1898, published a general discussion 
 bearing primarily on puberty; Lincoln (477) 1896, published a practical 
 paper with some good observations on sexual maturity; Moon (536) 1899, 
 

 
 
 
 
 
-63- 
 
 nrinted a short paper with a discussion of the question of growth and 
 puberty, claiming that the latter had no effect on growth; Godin (298, 
 301, 302) in 1902, 1911 and 1912, published brief papers on the adolescent 
 type, based on his 1903 study (299), with 36,000 measurements on the same 
 one hundred subjects followed from 13 to 18 years of age. In 1902 and 
 1907 Wiazemsky (877 and 878) published important studies on modifications 
 of the organism during the period of puberty. Kimpflin (436) 1914, reported 
 measurements of 200 adolescents. Riebesell (655) 1916, proposed that weight 
 as a function of time should be used as an index of physiological age. 
 
 B. PHYSIOLOGICAL AGE AND SCHOOL PROGRESS 
 
 The educational and sociological significance of the problem of 
 physiological age has been championed by Bryan (132) 1900 ; Crampton 
 (181-134) 1908; Weissenberg (865) 1911; Foster (261) 1910-11; Boas (98) 
 1912; Beik (46) 1913, and Baldwin (27 and 28) 1914 and 1916, Bean (42) 
 1914, reported on the relation between dentition and maturity, while 
 Rotch (675 and 676)1910, initiated the problem of the graduations of 
 carpal and epiphyseal development. The question of adolescence in its 
 psychological, sociological and educational bearings, together with com- 
 parative data from various investigations on physical development, has 
 been treated by Hall (340) in his Adolescence, 1904. 
 
 10. PHYSICAL GROWTH AND CENTAL DEVELOPMENT 
 
 A most significant trend of investigations on physical growth, from 
 the writer's point of view, lies in the large number of studies dealing 
 with the relationship between physical and mental development. Modern 
 genetic, functional and behavioristic psychology all begin with the phen- 
 omena of physical growth. Warner's (855) 1890, very comprehensive but 
 inaccurate study, served £o initiate the problem in England. Other studies 
 which contain material bearing on this problem, but usually not analyzed 
 to show the exact relation between physical and mental development, have 
 been made by Martiegka (502) 1898; Thome (819) 1904; Berry (58) 1904; 
 Quirsfeld (635-637) 1904-1907; Samosch (687) 1904; Eyerbibh and Lowenfeld 
 (243) 1905; Popper (610$ 1907; Arkle (15) 1908; Vaney (833-834) 1906 to 
 1909; and Albert and Arvizu (3) 1917. Burk (136) 1898, Oppenheim (563) 
 1898, Hall (340) 1904, Thorndike (817) 1901, Whipple (874) 1915, and 
 Kirkpatrick (440) 1917, analyzed and summarized the general problem more 
 or less extensively without original data. 
 
 A. ABSENCE OF CORRELATION 
 
 A number of investigations have shown no discernible relationship 
 between mental and physical development. So, for example, Galton (287) 
 1891, in university tests found no correlation between literary ability 
 and physical measurements. Gilbert (294 and 295) 1895 and 1897, and 
 Cattail and Farrand (163) 1896, found no definite correlation between 
 physical and mental tests. Radosavijevich (639) 1913, also could trace 
 but little correlation between physical development and school brightness. 
 The work of Pearson (577-579) 1901-02, and 1906, and of Lee, Lewenz and 
 Pearson (469) 1903-04, showed very small and unreliable correlations 
 between intelligence and physical characters. 
 
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 B. NEGATIVE CORRELATIONS 
 
 Only one investigator definitely states a negative correlation. 
 This is Sargent (693) 1908, who found that the "stipend scholarship 
 men" at Harvard were among the shortest and lightest. 
 
 C. POSITIVE CORRELATIONS 
 
 The most significant pioneer study showing positive correlation 
 was made by Porter (611-618) 1892-93, 1894 and 1896, who found that 
 "precocious children are heavier and dull children are lighter than 
 the mean children of the same age." Holmes (394) discussed this work 
 in 1894 and Boas (86) in 1895* Positive findings have been confirmed or 
 supplemented as follows: in Russia by Gratsianoff (313) 1889, and Sack 
 (681) 1892, — in America by Hartwell (351) 1894-95; West (873) 1896; 
 Macdonald (490-492) 1897-98 and 1910; Hastings (355) 1899J Christopher 
 (171) 1900; Smedley (764) 1900; Beyer (65) 1900; Zirkle (911) 1902; 
 Debusk (203) 1913; Mead (513) 1914; Grover (325) 1915; Donaldson (215) 
 1915; Stewart (780) 1916; Busk (140) 1917; Courtis (179) 1917; and 
 Baldwin (25, 27 and 30) 1911, 1914 and 1920, — in Germany by Schmidt 
 and Lessenich (725) 903; Graupner (314) 1904; Bayerthal (40) 1905-1910; 
 Reitz (658) 1906; and Spielrein (768) 1916. 
 
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